Radar System

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

RADAR is acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging. Today, the technology is so common
that the word has become Standard English noun. The development of RADAR accelerated
and spread in middle and late 1930s with first successful demonstration in 1936. It uses
electromagnetic waves in microwave region to detect location, height, intensity and
movements of targets. It operates by radiating energy into space and detecting the echo
signals reflected from an object, or target. The reflected energy that is reflected to radar not
only indicates the presence of target, but by comparing the received echo signals with the
signals that were transmitted its location can be determined along with the other target
related information.
Radar is an active device. It utilizes its own radio energy to detect and track the target. It
does not depend on energy radiated by the target itself. The ability to detect a target at great
distances and to locate its position with high accuracy are two of the chief attributes of radar.
Earlier radar development was driven by military necessities. But, radar now it enjoys wide
range of application. One of the most common is the police traffic radar used for enforcing
speed limits. Another is weather radar. Other most famous application is air traffic control
system.
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CHAPTER 2
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

Neither a single nation nor a single person

is able to say, that he (or it) is the inventor
of the radar method.
One must look at the “Radar” than an
accumulation of many developments and
improvements earlier, which scientists of
several nations parallel made share. There
are nevertheless some milestones with
the discovery of important basic
knowledge and important inventions:

The World War II RADAR, ’Wurzberg

1865 Rise’

The English physicist James Clerk

Maxwell developed his electro- magnetic
light theory (Description of the electro-
magnetic waves and her propagation)

1886 The German physicist Heinrich Rudolf

Hertz discovers the electro- magnetic
waves and proves the theory of Maxwell
with that.

1904 The German high frequency

engineer Christian Hülsmeyer invents
the “Telemobiloskop” to the traffic
supervision on the water. He measures the
running time of electro-magnetic waves
to a metal object (ship) and back. A
calculation of the distance is thus
possible. This is the first practical radar
test.
Hülsmeyer registers his invention to
the patent in Germany and in the United
Kingdom.
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1917 The French engineer Lucien Lévy

invents the super-heterodyne receiver.
He uses as first the denomination
“Intermediate Frequency”, and alludes
the possibility of double heterodyning.

1921 The invention of the Magnetron as an

efficient transmitting tube by the US-
American physicist Albert Wallace Hull

1922 The American electrical engineers

Albert H. Taylor and Leo C. Young of
the Naval Research Laboratory (USA)
locate a wooden ship for the first time.

1930 Lawrence A. Hyland (also of the Naval

Research Laboratory), locates an aircraft
for the first time.

1931 A ship is equipped with radar. As

antennae are used parabolic dishes with
horn radiators.
1936 The development of the Klystron by the
technicians George F. Metcalf and
William C. Hahn, both from General
Electric. This will be an important
component in radar units as an amplifier
or an oscillator tube.

1940 Different radar equipments are

developed in the USA, Russia,
Germany, France and Japan.
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CHAPTER 3
RADAR BASIC PRINCIPLE

The electronic principle on which radar

operates is very similar to the principle of
sound-wave reflection. If you shout in the
direction of a sound- reflecting object (like
a rocky canyon or cave), you will hear an
echo. If you know the speed of sound in air,
you can then estimate the distance and
general direction of the object.
The time required for an echo to return can
be roughly converted to distance if the
speed of sound is
known.

Fig RADAR PRINCIPAL

Radar uses electromagnetic energy pulses. The radio-frequency (RF) energy is transmitted
to and reflected from the reflecting object. A small portion of the reflected energy returns to
the radar set. This returned energy is called an ECHO, just as it is in sound terminology.
Radar sets use the echo to determine the direction and distance of the reflecting object. The
word radar is a contraction of radio detecting and ranging.

As implied by this contraction, radars are used to detect the presence of an aim (as object of
detection) and to determine its location. The contraction implies that the quantity measured
is range. While this is correct, modern radars are also used to measure range and angle. The
following figure shows the operating principle of primary radar. The radar antenna
illuminates the target with a microwave signal, which is then reflected and picked up by a
receiving device. The electrical signal picked up by the receiving antenna is called echo or
return. The radar signal is generated by a powerful transmitter and received by a highly
sensitive receiver.
Radar System

3.1 Distance-determination

The radar transmits a short radio

pulse with very high pulse power.
This pulse is focused in one
direction only by the directivity of
the antenna, and propagates in this
given direction with the speed of
light.

If in this direction is an obstacle,

for example an
airplane, Runtime measurement by radar

Fig3.2: Run time measurement by radar

part of the energy of the pulse is scattered in all directions. A very small portion is also
reflected back to the radar. The radar antenna receives this energy and the radar evaluates
the contained information.

The distance we can measure with a simple oscilloscope. On the oscilloscope moves
synchronously with the transmitted pulse a luminous point and leaves a trail. The
deflection starts with the transmitter pulse. The luminescent spot moves to scale on the
oscilloscope with the radio wave. At this moment, in which the antenna receives the echo
pulse, this pulse is also shown on the oscilloscope. The distance between the two shown
pulses on the oscilloscope is a measure of the distance of the aircraft.

Since the propagation of radio waves happens at constant speed (the speed of light c0) this
distance is determined from the runtime of the high-frequency transmitted signal. The actual
range of a target from the radar is known as slant range. Slant range is the line of sight
distance between the radar and the object illuminated. While ground range is the horizontal
distance between the emitter and its target and its calculation requires knowledge of the
target's elevation.
Since the waves travel to a target and back, the round trip time is dividing by two in order to
obtain the time the wave took to reach the target. Therefore the following formula arises for
the slant range:

c0 = speed of light = 3·108 m/s

R = c0· t where: t = measured running time [s]
2 R = slant range antenna

The distances are expressed in kilometre or nautical miles (1 NM = 1.852 km).

Radar System

Derivation of the equation

Range is the distance from the radar site to the target measured along the line of sight.

S
v=
t
2·R
c0 =
t

The factor of two in the equation comes from the observation that the radar pulse must
travel to the target and back before detection, or twice the range.

c0·t
R= in meters
2

Where c0= 3·108 m/s, is the speed of light at which all electromagnetic waves
propagate.

If the respective running time t is known, then the distance R between a target and the radar
set can be calculated by using this equation.

3.2 Direction-determination

The angular determination of the target is determined by the directivity of the antenna.
Directivity, sometimes known
as the directive gain, is the ability of the antenna
to concentrate the transmitted energy in a
particular direction. An antenna with high
directivity is also called a directive antenna. By
measuring the direction in which the antenna is
pointing when the echo is received, both the
azimuth and elevation angles from the radar to
the object or target can be
determined.

Fig Direction-determination (bearing)

Radar System

The accuracy of angular measurement is determined by the directivity, which is a function

of the size of the antenna.

Radar units usually work with very high frequencies. Reasons for this are:

 Quasi-optically propagation of these waves.

 High resolution (the smaller the wavelength, the smaller the objects the radar is
able to detect).
 Higher the frequency, smaller the antenna size at the same gain.

The True Bearing (referenced to true north) of a radar target is the angle between true north
and a line pointed directly at the target. This angle is measured in the horizontal plane and in
a clockwise direction from true north.

Variation of echo signal strength

The antennas of most radar systems are designed to radiate energy in a one- directional
lobe or beam that can be moved in bearing simply by moving the antenna. As you can
see, the shape of the beam is such that the echo signal strength varies in amplitude as the
antenna beam moves across the target. In actual practice, search radar antennas move
continuously; the point of maximum echo, determined by the detection circuitry or
visually by the operator, is when the beam points direct at the target. Weapons-control
and guidance radar systems are positioned to the point of maximum signal return and
maintained at that position either manually or by automatic tracking circuits.

In order to have an exact determination of the bearing angle, a survey of the north direction
is necessary. Therefore, older radar sets must expensively be surveyed either with a compass
or with help of known trigonometrically points. More modern radar sets take on this task and
with help of the GPS satellites determine the north direction independently.
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3.3.Maximum Unambiguous Range

Second-sweep echo in a distance of 400 km

It becomes obvious that we cannot send out another pulse until a time window has passed,
in which we expect to see a return echo. The maximum measuring distance Rmax of a radar
unit isn't orientated only at the value determined in the radar equation but also on the
duration of the receiving time.

The radar timing system must be reset to zero each time a pulse is radiated. This is to ensure
that the range detected is measured from time zero each time. Echo signals arriving after the
reception time are placed either into the

 Following transmit time where they remain unconsidered since the radar equipment
isn't ready to receive during this time, or
 Into the following reception time where they lead to measuring failures
(ambiguous returns).

The maximum range at which a target can be located so as to guarantee that the leading edge
of the received backscatter from that target is received before transmission begins for the
next pulse. This range is called maximum
unambiguous range or the first range ambiguity. The pulse-repetition frequency (PRF)
determines this maximum unambiguous range of given radar before ambiguities start to
occur. This range can be determined by using the following equations:

c0 · ( PRT - PW )
Rmax =
2

Where c0 is the speed of light with 3·108 m/s. The pulse width (PW) in these equations
indicates that the complete echo impulse must be received. The pulse
Radar System

repetition time (PRT) of the radar is important when determining the maximum range
because target return-times that exceed the PRT of the radar system appear at incorrect
locations (ranges) on the radar screen. Returns that appear at these incorrect ranges are
referred as ambiguous returns or second-sweep echoes.

3.4 Minimal Measuring Range

figThe Radars “blind range”

Monostatic pulse radar sets use the same antenna for transmitting and receiving. During the
transmitting time the radar cannot receive: the radar receiver is switched off using an
electronic switch, called duplexer. The minimal measuring range Rmin (“blind range”) is the
minimum distance which the target must have to be detected. Therein, it is necessary that
the transmitting pulse leaves the antenna completely and the radar unit must switch on the
receiver.
The transmitting time τ and the recovery time trecovery should are as short as possible, if
targets shall be detected in the local area.

c0·(τ + trecovery)
Rmin =
2
Radar System

Chapter 4
RADAR FREQUENCY BANDS

4.1 Waves and Frequency Ranges

The spectrum of the electric magnetic waves shows frequencies up to 10 24 Hz. This very
large complete range is subdivided because of different physical qualities in different
subranges.

The division of the frequencies to the different ranges was competed on criteria formerly,
which arose historically and a new division of the wavebands which is used internationally is
out-dated and arose so in the meantime. The traditional waveband name is partly still used in
the literature,

Fig Spectrum of EM waves

Since without that the correct frequency is known, a transformation isn't always possible into
the new wavebands. Often in the manufacturers documents are published the traditional
wavebands. Some radars and its frequency band Radar systems work in a wide band of
transmitted frequencies. The higher the frequency of a radar system, the more it is affected
Radar System

by weather conditions such as rain or clouds. But the higher the transmitted
frequency, the better is the accuracy of the radar system.

The figure shows, how the frequency bands are used .

Figsome radars and its frequency band

Radar System

Chapter 5
CLASSIFICATION OF RADAR SYSTEMS
Depending on the desired information, radar sets must have different qualities and
technologies. One reason for these different qualities and techniques radar sets are
classified in

Fig Classification of radar sets

Imaging Radar / Non-Imaging Radar

An Imaging Radar forms a picture of the observed object or area. Imaging radars have been
used to map the Earth, other planets, asteroids, other celestial objects and to categorize
targets for military systems.

Typically implementations of a Non-Imaging Radar system are speed gauges and radar
altimeters. These are also called scatterometers since they measure the scattering properties
of the object or region being observed. Non-Imaging Secondary Radar applications are
immobilizer systems in some recent private cars.

Primary Radar

A Primary Radar transmits high-frequency signals which are reflected at targets. The arisen
echoes are received and evaluated. This means, unlike secondary radar sets a primary radar
set receive its own emitted signals as an echo again.

Secondary Radar

At these radar sets the airplane must have a transponder (transmitting responder) on
board and this transponder responds to interrogation by
Radar System

transmitting a coded reply signal. This response can contain much more information,
than a primary radar set is able to acquire (E.g. an altitude, an identification code or also
any technical problems on board such as a radio contact loss).

Pulsed Radars

Pulse radar sets transmit a high-frequency impulse signal of high power. After this impulse
signal, a longer break follows in which the echoes can be received, before a new transmitted
signal is sent out. Direction, distance and sometimes if necessary the height or altitude of
the target can be determined from the measured antenna position and propagation time of
the pulse-signal.

Continuous- Wave Radar

CW radar sets transmit a high-frequency signal continuously. The echo signal is received
and processed. The receiver need not to be mounted at the same place as the transmitter.
Every firm civil radio transmitter can work as a radar transmitter at the same time, if a
remote receiver compares the propagation times of the direct signal with the reflected one.
Tests are known that the correct location of an airplane can be calculated from the evaluation
of the signals by three different television stations.

Unmodulated CW- Radar

The transmitted signal of these equipments is constant in amplitude and frequency. These
equipment is specialized in speed measuring. Distances cannot be measured. E.g. they are
used as speed gauges for police. Newest equipments work in the laser frequency range and
measure not only the speed.

Modulated CW- Radar

The transmitted signal is constant in the amplitude but modulated in the frequency. This one
gets possible after the principle of the propagation time measurement with that again. It is
an advantage of this equipment that an evaluation is carried out without reception break and
the measurement result is therefore continuously available. These radar sets are used where
the measuring distance isn't too large and it's necessary a continuous measuring (e.g. an
altitude measuring in airplanes or as weather radar).

A similar principle is also used by radar sets whose transmitting impulse is too long to get a
well distance resolution. Often this equipment modulate its transmitting pulse to obtain a
distance resolution within the transmitting pulse with the help of the pulse compression.
Radar System

5.1 Classification Depending Upon Technology

 Primary Radar

The following figure shows the operating principle of a primary radar set. The
radar antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal, which is then
reflected and picked up by a receiving device. The electrical signal picked up
by the receiving antenna is called echo or return. The radar signal is generated
by a powerful transmitter and received by a highly sensitive receiver.

Block diagram of a primary radar

All targets produce a diffuse reflection i.e. it is reflected in a wide number of

directions. The reflected signal is also called scattering. Backscatter is the term
given to reflections in the opposite direction to the incident rays.

Radar signals can be displayed on the traditional plan position indicator (PPI)
or other more advanced radar display systems. A PPI has a rotating vector with
the radar at the origin, which indicates the pointing direction of the antenna and
hence the bearing of targets.
Radar System

 Secondary Radar

Classical Radar (now called Primary Radar) by

definition is a non co- operative technology i.e. it
needs no co- operation from the “Target” being
detected. Why do we need a different system
then? As well as seeing “hostile” aircraft it soon
became apparent that Radar was a good tool to
see friendly aircraft and hence control and direct
them. Large Vertical Aperture Antenna

As well as seeing “hostile” aircraft it soon became apparent that Radar was a good tool to
see friendly aircraft and hence control and direct them. If the “friendly” aircraft is fitted
with a transponder (transmitting responder), then it sends a strong signal back as an
“echo”. An active also encoded response signal which is returned to the radar set then is
generated in the transponder.
This proved very useful for the military in seeing their own aircraft clearly. In this response
can be contained much more information, as a primary radar unit is able to acquire.

 CONTINUOUS WAVE RADAR:

Continuous wave radars continuously transmit a high-frequency signal and the reflected
energy is also received and processed continuously. These radars have to ensure that the
transmitted energy doesn’t leak into the receiver (feedback connection). CW radars measures
radial velocity of the target using Doppler Effect. If there is relative motion between the
radar and the target, the shift in carrier frequency (Doppler shift) of the reflected wave
becomes a measure of targets relative velocity. The block diagram of continuous wave radar
is shown

figBlock diagram of continuous wave radar

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The transmitter generates a continuous oscillations of frequency fo which is radiated by radar

antenna. A portion of this radiated energy is intercepted by target and reradiated energy is
collected by the receiver antenna. If the target is moving with the velocity Vr relative to the
radar, the received signal will be shifted in frequency from the transmitted frequency fo by the
amount fd. The plus sign for an approaching target and minus sign for a receding target. The
received echo signal (fo±fd) enters the radar via the antenna and is mixed in a detector mixer
with a portion of a transmitter signal fo to produce the Doppler frequency fd. The purpose of
using a beat frequency amplifier is to eliminate echo from stationary targets and to amplify
the Doppler echo signal to a level where it can operate an indicating device such as frequency
meter.

ADVANTAGES:
1) It uses low transmitting power, low power consumption.
2) It has simple circuitry and it is small in size.
3) Unlike pulse radar CW radar is able to detect an aircraft inspite of fixed objects.

DISADVANTAGES:
1) Practical application of CW radar is limited by the fact that several targets at a given
bearing tend to cause confusion.
2) Range discrimination can be achieved only by introducing very costly complex
circuitry.

3) It is not capable of indicating the range of target and can show only its velocity.

 CW RADARS TYPES

Unmodulated
An example of unmodulated CW radar is speed gauges used by the police. The transmitted
signal of these equipments is constant in amplitude and frequency. CW radar transmitting
unmodulated power can measure the speed only by using the Doppler-effect. It cannot
measure a range and it cannot differ between two reflecting objects.

Modulated
Unmodulated CW radars have the disadvantage that they cannot measure range, because run
time measurements is not possible (and necessary) in unmodulated CW-radars. This is
achieved in modulated CW radars using the frequency shifting method. In this method, a
signal that constantly changes in frequency
Radar System

around a fixed reference is used to detect stationary objects. Frequency is swept repeatedly
between two frequencies. On examining the received reflected frequencies (and with the
knowledge of the transmitted frequency), range calculation can be done.

 Pulse Radar

Pulse radar sets transmit a high-frequency Impulse signal of high power. After this impulse
signal, a longer break follows in which the echoes can be received, before a new transmitted
signal is sent out. Direction, distance and sometimes if necessary the height or altitude of
the target can be determined from the measured antenna position and propagation time of
the pulse-signal.

A monopulse secondary surveillance radar antenna (looks like a lattice fence) mounted on
top of an antenna of a primary radar (parabolic reflector)

These classically radar sets transmit a very short pulse (to get a good range resolution) with
an extremely high pulse-power (to get a good maximum range).

Pulse Radar using Pulse Compression

These radar sets transmit a relatively weak pulse with a longer pulse-width. It modulates the
transmitting signal to obtain a distance resolution also within the transmitting pulse with
help of the pulse-compression.

Monostatic / Bistatic Radars

Monostatic radars are deployed in a single site. Transmitter and receiver are collocated and
the radar uses the same antenna mostly. Bistatic radar consists of a separated (by a
considerable distance) transmitting and receiving sites.
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5.2 Classification on the basis of design:

Radar systems may be divided into types based on the designed use. This
section presents the general characteristics of several commonly used radar
systems:

Classification of radar sets according its use

Although any and every radar can be abused as military radar, the necessary
distinction as military or civil radar has legal causes often.

Air-defence Radars

Air-Defence Radars can detect air

targets and determine their
position, course, and speed in a
relatively large area. The maximum
range of Air-Defence Radar can
exceed 300 miles, and the bearing
coverage is a
complete 360-degree circle. Diagram of Rotating radar pattern

Air-Defence Radars are usually divided into two categories, based on the
amount of position information supplied. Radar sets that provide only range
and bearing information are referred to as two-dimensional, or 2D, radars.
Radar sets that supply range, bearing, and height are called three-dimensional,
or 3D, radars. Air-Defence Radars are used as early-warning devices because
they can detect approaching enemy aircraft or missiles at great distances. In
case of an attack, early detection of the enemy is vital for a successful defence
against attack. Antiaircraft defences in the form of antiaircraft artillery
(abbreviated to “AAA”) missiles, or fighter planes must be brought to a high
degree of readiness in time to repel an attack. Range and bearing information,
provided by Air-Defence Radars, used to initially position fire-control tracking
radar on a target. Another function of the Air-Defence Radar is guiding combat
air patrol (CAP) aircraft to a position suitable to intercept an enemy aircraft. In
the case of
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aircraft control, the guidance information is obtained by the radar operator and
passed to the aircraft by either voice radio or a computer link to the aircraft.

Air traffic control (ATC)

It is a service provided by ground-
based controllers who direct aircraft on the
ground and through controlled airspace, and can
provide advisory services to aircraft in non-
controlled airspace. The primary purpose of
ATC worldwide is to prevent collisions,
organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and
provide information and other support
for pilots.
In some countries, ATC plays a security or
defensive role, or is operated by the military.
Since radar center control a large airspace area,
typically use long range radar that has the
capability are used, at higher altitudes, to see Air Surveillance Radar
aircraft within 200 nautical miles (370 km) of the radar antenna
Radar System

Chapter 6
RADAR DEVICES

6.1 RADAR ANTENNA

Antenna is a structure which serves as a transition between wave propagating in free space,
and the fluctuating voltages in the circuit to which it is connected.
An antenna either receives energy from an electromagnetic field or radiates
electromagnetic waves produced by a high frequency generator.

Parabolic Antenna

The parabolic dish antenna is the form most frequently used in the radar engineering of
installed antenna
types. A dish antenna consists of Reflector (secondary radiator)

one circular parabolic reflector and a

point source situated in the focal point of
this reflector. This point source is called
“primary feed” or “feed”.
Feed (primary radiator)

The circular parabolic (parabolic) reflector

is constructed of metal, usually a frame
covered by metal mesh at the inner side.

Fig Parabolic antenna

The width of the slots of the metal mesh has to be less than λ/10. This metal covering forms
the reflector acting as a mirror for the radar energy. According to the laws of optics and
analytical geometry, for this type of reflector all reflected rays will be parallel to the axis of
the parabolic which gives us ideally one single reflected ray parallel to the main axis with no
side lobes. The field leaves this feed horn with a spherical wave front. As each part of the
wave front reaches the reflecting surface, it is shifted 180 degrees in phase and sent outward
at angles that cause all parts of the field to travel in parallel paths.
Radar System

 The Cassegrain Antenna

A Cassegrain antenna is an antenna in which the

feed radiator is mounted at or near the surface of a
concave main reflector and is aimed at a convex
subreflector. Both reflectors have a common focal
point.
Energy from the feed unit (a feed horn mostly)
illuminates the secondary reflector, which reflects
it back to the main reflector, which then forms the
desired forward beam.

Fig Principle of a Cassegrain telescope

Slot Antenna

Slot radiators or slot antennas are antennas that are used in the frequency range from
about 300 MHz to 25 GHz.

FigBasic geometry of a slotted waveguide antenna

They are often used in navigation radar usually as an array fed by a waveguide. But also
older large phased array antennas used the principle because the slot radiators are a very
inexpensive way for frequency scanning arrays. Slot antennas are an about λ/2 elongated
slot, and excited in the center.
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6.2 Radar Transmitter

A radar transmitter generates RF-

energy necessary for scanning
the free space. The often very
large amount of energy must be
modulated
in a specific time pattern to
obtain a time reference for time Fig Non-linear FM transmitting pulses
measurement of the signal

6.3 Radar Receiver

The function of the receiver is to take the weak echoes from the antenna system, amplify
them sufficiently, detect the pulse envelope, amplify the pulses, and feed them to the
indicator. The receivers used in radars are capable of accepting weak echoes and increasing
their amplitudes by a factor of 20 or 30 million.
Since radar frequencies are not easily amplified, a superheterodyne receiver changes the
radio frequency to an intermediate frequency for amplification.

6.4 Radar Display

Modern radar systems typically use some sort of faster scan display to produce a map-like
image. Early in radar development, numerous circumstances made such displays difficult to
produce. People ultimately developed several different display types.

The radar system transmits a single pulse of electromagnetic radiation, a small portion of
which backscatter off targets (intended or otherwise) and return to the radar system. The
radar receiver converts all received electromagnetic radiation into a continuous electronic
analog signal of varying (or oscillating) voltage.
Radar System

 Radar A- Scope

Fig Principle of operation of an A-scope

The A-scope display, shown in the figure, presents only the range to the target and the
relative strength of the echo. Such a display is normally used in weapons control radar
systems. The bearing and elevation angles are presented as dial or digital readouts that
correspond to the actual physical position of the antenna. The A-scope normally uses an
electrostatic-deflection crt. The sweep is produced by applying a sawtooth voltage to the
horizontal deflection plates. The electrical length (time duration) of the sawtooth voltage
determines the total amount of range displayed on the crt face.

The A- scope display is using in older radar sets only as monitoring oscilloscope. In modern
digital radar sets don't exist a similar video signal of the backscatter. The target messages are
transmitted to the displays as a digital word. There isn't any possibility to get a
synchronizing signal for these asynchronous serial digital signals. Well, the oscilloscope can
get an internal trigger only. Therefore it is impossible to analyze the bit sequence with a
simple oscilloscope.
Radar System

 Radar B-Scope

Fig B - Scope

The B-Scope shows a picture like a Cartesian diagram. It provides a 2-D “top down”
representation of space. The horizontal axis (abscissa) typically represents the measurement
of the azimuth (bearing), and the vertical axis (ordinate) represents the measurement of the
range. Signals appear as bright spots.

B-scope displays were common in airborne and fire-control radars in the 1950s and 60s,
which were mechanically or electronically scanned from side to side, and sometimes up and
down as well. The center of the bearing usually is movable through hand wheels in fire-
control radars. The antenna turntable then is turned into the new direction. The screens
middle is defined as the main reception direction of the antenna normally. The bearing area is
covered through an electro-mechanical or electronic beam steering.

The used designation “B-scope” is ambiguous sometimes. The term refers to two completely
different types of scopes. In radar devices without measurement of the azimuth angle, the
term “B-scope” is also used (e.g.: Ground Penetration Radars). The abscissa is a time coded
scale then, and shows a history of the pulse periods.
Radar System

 PLAN-POSITION INDICATOR

It is an intensity-modulation type display system which indicates both range and azimuthal
angle of the target
simultaneously in polar coordinates.
The demodulated echo signal from the
receiver is applied to the grid of the CRT
which is biased slightly beyond cut-off.
Only when blips corresponding to the
targets occur, a sawtooth current applied
to a pair of coils (on the opposite of the
neck of the tube) flows. Thus, a beam is
made to deflect radially outward from the
centre and also continuously around the
tube at the same angular velocity as that
of the antenna. The brightness spot at any
point on the screen indicates the
presence of an object there.

FigPlan Position Indicator

The distance of the bright spot radiating outward from the centre gives the range or the
distance of the target from the radar transmitter while the direction in which the spot deflects
at certain instant corresponds to the direction of radar antenna (i.e. target direction) at that
instant. Thus a map-like presentation is obtained in true relationship to the polar-coordinates
of the target scanned.

Normally PPI screens are circular with a diameter of 30 cm or 40 cm. Long- persistence
phosphorous are used to ensure that the PPI screen does not flicker. Scanning speed is rather
low (compared to the 60 fields/sec in TV), so that various portions of the screen do not get
dim between successive scans. The resolution of the screen depends on the bandwidth of the
antenna, pulse width, the transmitter frequency and diameter of CRT beam.

Distortion of true map position will occur if PPI is used on an aircraft and its antenna is not
pointing straight down. Then computer processing is used to correct for radar altitude, thus
converting slant range into true range. However it is expensive. PPI displays are used in
search radars and especially when conical scanning is employed.

With modern computer graphics, all of the displays could be made available on a single
screen either in time multiplexed form or in split screen presentation format. Advanced
concepts such as holographic display could become a reality that would provide true 3-D
displays.
Radar System

Future Research:

The focus is in the use of radar for surveillance and environmental Electrical and Electronic
Engineering and the Discipline of Physics in the School of Science together with various
external organizations such as the Australian Defence Science and Technology Organisation,
the Bureau of Meteorology, the Australian Antarctic Division and commercial companies
such as Raytheon Australia.

Key research themes in the Centre are in the area of radar systems and technology, RF
propagation and radar signal processing. The applications focus for the Centre's research will
be the areas of environmental and atmospheric monitoring through radar sensing,
surveillance and radar systems design.

Radar technology currently used to support tactical operations aboard Navy ships will soon
be adapted for a new purpose – weather detection. This state-of- the-art phased array radar
technology may help forecasters of the future provide
Radar System

CONCLUSION

The six weeks of summer training at BEL, Ghaziabad unit generated a lot more
interest in my subject.
It made me more aware of the scope of Electronics & Communication
Engineering. It has also made me appreciative of an industrial work
environment.
Undergoing training on the indoor substation has helped me integrate
conceptual knowledge with real life application. I was fortunate to have
personal guidance from experienced professionals who took been interest in
explaining the working details of various equipments.
I feel that without this opportunity, my own understanding of this subject and
also the motivation to acquire more knowledge would have remained
incomplete. Well, regarding future scope I think my training has given me
enough motivation and an exposure that I will try to join defence services or
get linked up with the defence of the country.

“To know the technical know-how, industrial training is the best way to move
forward.”
Radar System

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] THE MAIN RESOURCES OF THE WORK WERE THE FACULTY

OF HRD DEPARTMENT.

[2] WEBSITE:

 http://www.bel-india.com
 http://www.radartutorial.eu/01.basics/radar%20Principle.en.html