JMAPS 44(1-2) 2022 Das & Khan

Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences 44(1-2), 2022, 12-20

REVIEW ARTICLE

Aromatherapy of Santalum album Linn. and its antiviral activity

DAS SS*  KHAN SY

ABSTRACT
Article History Santalum album Linn. also known as white sandalwood (Chandan/
Received: February 2 , 2022
nd srigandha), is a scented evergreen tree that belongs to the Santalaceae family.
Revised: April 5th, 2022 This plant is rich in essential oils extracted commonly by hydrodistillation.
Accepted: June 01st, 2022 In phytochemical studies, alpha and beta santalols are major constituents in
the heartwood. Sandalwood oil is used in aromatherapy, a holistic approach
to treating mental illnesses without any risk of side effects like conventional
Key Words medicines. Aromatherapy also cures insomnia and skin problems and
Antiviral activity provides relief in case of respiratory ailments too. Among numerous
Aromatherapy beneficial qualities, sandalwood oil also has antiviral properties; it is proven
Essential oil to prevent the multiplication of Herpes Simplex Virus, helps treat Human
Sandalwood Papilloma virus, and indirectly contributes to combating Influenza-A virus.
This article attempts to concisely apply aromatherapy and antiviral activities
using the essential oil of sandalwood.
© CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow-226015

INTRODUCTION worth is determined by three factors: (i) the mass

Plants have been a beneficial and safe
natural source of medicine since the dawn of
humanity (Kesarkar and Khan, 2021). White
Indian sandalwood (Santalum album Linn.) of the
Santalaceae family holds excellent value over the
globe (Fox, 2000). According to historians, this
plant has been cited throughout Indian folklore and
ancient scriptures. Its nativity to peninsular India
dates back to at least 2500 years. Its aromatic and
therapeutic properties are highly valued in many
cultures (Jain et al., 2003). The plant has primarily
been used to produce sandalwood oil, obtained by
various techniques like hydro- or steam-distillation
of its heartwood, microwave extraction and solvent
extraction (Chouhan et al., 2017). Essential oil is
also found in the roots of the said tree. The quantity
and quality of oil vary according to location, tree
age, and distillation technique. Sandalwood oil is
commercially known as East Indian sandalwood
oil (Kirtikar et al., 1933). A sandalwood tree's
of heartwood; (ii) the concentration of heartwood
oil; and (iii) the quality of heartwood oil. The
two primary sesquiterpenols (cis-alpha-santalol
and cis-beta-santalol) that provide the pleasant
characteristic scent determine the quality of
sandalwood oil (Doran et al., 2005, Brand et al., 2007).
Phytomedicine and aromatherapy increasingly
use essential oils, also used by the pharmaceutical
sector (Chouhan et al., 2017). In the sphere of
psychological and emotional healing, obsessive-
compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD), social phobia, generalized anxiety
disorder (GAD), and some other particular phobias
are all often treated with medicaments and/or
psychotherapy. Antidepressants like serotonin
reuptake inhibitors (e.g., citalopram and sertraline),
tricyclines (imiptramine and clomiptramine),
and benzodiazepine anti-anxiety medicines
(clonazepam, lorazepam) are administered.
These drugs have numerous adverse effects that

*Corresponding author: shreya.das@xaviers.edu.in

Department of Botany, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Mumbai-400001, Maharashtra, India

12
 Aromatherapy of S. album and its antiviral activity

could be fatal for the consumer (Koroch et al., Rajasthan (Das et al., 2004). In tropical and temperate
2007). Sandalwood, a relaxant, could be used in regions of the world, there are 30 genera and 400
psychological and emotional treatments to treat species. Santalum comprises roughly 25 species that
depression, anxiety, and mental stress; therefore, range from India and Malaysia to Australia and the
aromatherapy is a safer alternative. Sandalwood Pacific islands (Wagner et al.,1999). It is a medium-
oil is considered to naturally regulate rage and sized glabrous evergreen tree with slender drooping
aggression and operate on the subtle emotional limbs that can grow up to 15-18 meters tall. The bark
centers to promote compassion and receptivity is challenging and has short vertical fractures; it is
(Soundararajan, 2017). Addiction is another pressing dark grey or brownish-black in colour. Leaves are
health issue; its treatment needs physical and simple, opposingly elliptical, lanceolate, glabrous,
mental detoxification. Sandalwood's unique aroma, and whole. Brownish purple, reddish purple or violet
which is utilized in perfumery and cosmetics, blooms grow in axillary and paniculate cymes. The
refreshes the mind and body, allowing the person fruits are purple-black globose drupes with a ribbed
to relax and unwind (Poralla and Srivastava, 2020). endocarp, and the seeds are firm and globose. When
Viruses have been linked to most disease outbreaks new, the heartwood is light yellowish brown, but it
in human populations for centuries; influenza is one darkens to a reddish brown as it ages.
such virus. Because of their vast natural reservoir,
The wood has a strong aroma (Patil et al., 2011).
viruses that pose a significant threat to human
It blooms semi-annually, first in the months from
health cannot be entirely eradicated (Kilbourne,
March to May and then from September to December,
2006). There are now roughly 37 registered
with roughly 6000 seeds per kilogram (Das et al.,
antiviral medications in the market, but many viral
2004). The bark growth, quality and quantity of the
infections are incurable; latency, viral resistance,
essential oil of these aromatic trees respond well
and other common therapeutic issues are also cause
for concern (DeClercq, 2004; Chattopadhyay and
Naik, 2007). As a result, there is a compelling need
to expand the number of antiviral drugs available
that can effectively decrease virus (influenza
A) replication or function in conjunction with
neuraminidase inhibitors (Paulpandi et al., 2012).
Bioactive compounds extracted from the Santalum
album have been reported to exhibit substantial
anti-Helicobacter pylori action in opposition to the
clarithromycin-resistant strain of H. pylori (Ochi et
al., 2005). Sandalwood oil is said to have antiviral
effects on Herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 (Benencia
and Courreges, 1999). The possible impact of alpha-
santalol on influenza virus replication has not
yet been thoroughly investigated, and minimal
evidence is available. However, specific articles have
explored the action of alpha-santalol on replicating
influenza A/HK (H3N2) virus in the MDCK cell
line and antiviral efficacy against HSV-2 (Paulpandi
et al., 2012).

Plant description
The word 'sandal' comes from the sanskrit
word 'Chandana' and the Persian word 'Chandan.'
Peninsular India is home to this species. Santalum
album Linn. is found chiefly on the southern
peninsula, with a limited amount of territory Figure 1: Santalum album Linn. plantation, posted 12th February 2015
by AT, Labels: Floral Nutraceutical (source: http://awesomeflora.
in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and blogspot.com/2015/02/sandalwood.html)

13
JMAPS 44(1-2) 2022
Figure 2: Flowers and fruits of Indian sandalwood tree by
Biodiversity of India (Source: https://www.biodiversityofindia.
org/index.php?title=Santalum_album)
to a variety of edaphic and eco-climatic situations.
The best wood grows in arid locations, especially on
red or stony terrain, whereas on rocky terrain, the
tree generally stays little but produces significantly
more oil (Jain et al., 2003). White sandalwood has
a semi-parasitic root system. Despite having green
photosynthetic leaves, the underground sections
of the plant connect with the root system of host
plants and remain connected through suckers to
obtain nourishment. The suction organ called the
haustorium is an elongation of the root. Sandalwood
seedlings that do not anchor themselves to another
plant within the first year of sprouting has a slim
chance of survival (Erligmann, 2001).
Essential oil extraction method
Researchers generally prefer hydrodistillation
of the sandalwood oil before analyzing it with
gas chromatography. After each heartwood
sample is shredded to less than size-10 of a mesh,
a subsample (20g) is taken for hydrodistillation.
Samples are immersed in demineralized water
overnight and then distilled for 9 hours using a
Dean-Stark apparatus. The volatile chemical is
collected, dehydrated, and measured before being
kept in an inert environment away from sunlight
(Hettiarachchi, 2008). One liter of oil sample (1%
with n-hexane) is pumped into a gas chromatogram
coupled with a flame ionization detector. A capillary
column with a 95% phenyl siloxane coat is used
for this purpose. The injector temperature is set
at 220 °C. The oven temperature rises at a rate of
14
Das & Khan
Figure 3: Cut logs of white sandalwood trees (source: https://www.
iplantz.com/plant/1375/santalum-album/)
1 °C per minute (from ~120 °C to ~180 °C); later,
the obtained data is processed with Labsolutions
software (Shimadzu Scientific, Japan). Recognition
of specific components inside the oil is validated
by applying mass spectroscopy data and Kovat's
indices (Subasinghe et al., 2010). The phthalic esters
of alpha and beta-santalols are fractionated using
various types of fractionating columns or fractional
distillation. The two alcohols will tend to come over
as a continuous boiling mixture if the temperature
isn't adequately regulated during fractional
distillation. A simple column chromatographic
technique is used to separate the alpha- and beta-
santalols of the sandalwood oil that has been treated
to nardenisation, which is the separation of terpenes
and sesquiterpenes from essential oil by shaking
with two immiscible solvents (Shankaranarayana,
1979).
Phytochemicals of sandalwood
The aroma and pharmacological activities
of medicinal plants and aromatic herbs are due to
some prominent phytochemical compounds of
essential oils, such as oxygenated sesquiterpenes,
monoterpenes, and phenylpropanoids, as well as
alcohols, aldehydes, carbohydrates, ethers, and
ketones (Dagostino et al., 2019). The sesquiterpenols
(alpha- and beta-santalols) are the primary
ingredients of santalaceae oils, albeit in different

quantities. These santalols are responsible for the
sandalwood oil's distinctive aroma. The alpha
isomer of the sesquiterpenols (alpha- and beta-
santalol) is the most common in this essential
oil. The more santalols in essential oil, the more
valuable it is economically, and oils with more than
90% santalols are considered the finest (Anonis,
1998; Setzer, 2009). Beta-santalol (90%) possesses
antimicrobial properties and is used in aromatherapy
(Sathiyawathie et al., 2016). According to several
conventional standards, the total santalol content (an
amalgamation of alpha and beta santalol) elucidates
for about 90% of the whole unstable material from
the wood (Subasinghe et al., 2010; Howes et al., 2004).
The heartwood of S. album is noted for having the
maximum oil content and percentage of santalols
(Verghese et al., 1990; Baldovini et al., 2011).
Sesquiterpene synthase enzymes biosynthesize
the sesquiterpenes in the sandalwood, and each
kind of sesquiterpene has its own set of enzymes.
The enzymes are controlled at the genetic level;
still, sesquiterpene production can be affected by
environmental factors (Jones et al., 2008, 2011).
Through various studies, the researchers
have summarised the physical characteristics of
sandalwood oil; some of these are as follows:
Table 1: Physical characteristics of sandalwood oil
Properties Analysis References
Colour Golden-yellow (Prasath et al., 2019)
Specific gravity ~0.96 to ~0.99 (Prasath et al., 2019)
Acid value ~2.0 to 2.2 mg (Prasath et al., 2019)
Ester value ~13.0 to ~16.0 mg (Prasath et al., 2019)
Aromatherapy
According to the National Association for
Holistic Aromatherapy (NAHA), the essential
oils used medically for comprehensive curing is
known as aromatherapy. In 1997, the International
Standards Organization (ISO) described essential
oil as an output derived from the epicarp of citrus
fruit by hydrodistillation (standard method) or dry
distillation. Essential oils have antiviral, nematicidal,
antifungal, insecticidal and antioxidant properties.
Sandalwood oil is a popular essential oil, along
with lavender, basil, rosemary, lemon, and a variety
of others. These oils are utilized in aromatherapy.
(Brazier, 2017).
15
Aromatherapy of S. album and its antiviral activity
Traditional uses
Since the classical era, sacred rubbing stones
have been used to extract sandalwood paste. By
burning the incense sticks prepared from sandalwood
powder and essential oil, the smoke released is
used in therapy and religious ceremonies. Using
the idea of the conventional method of extraction,
some interior components such as hanging bells
(rubber stone bell-lip and sandalwood bell-clapper)
and hanging burners are crafted in the hallways
of traditional Jharokhas (stone oriel window) and
Mashrabiya (wooden oriel window) that help aroma
to disperse into the interiors along with the fresh air,
allowing the legacy fragrance to stand out (Poralla
and Srivastava, 2020). When inhaled, the perfume
can have healing effects on the body and brain and
boost physical wellness (Mansour and Adraa, 2020).
This environmentally friendly substance adds a
positive core to the indoor atmosphere, so it can be
used to design interiors (i.e., multifunctional rooms)
of a rehabilitation facility concerning aromatherapy;
in this way, it keeps the craft alive and also allows
visitors to enjoy the wood's refreshing scent (Poralla
and Srivastava, 2020).
Health effects
The sandalwood oil is said to help with memory
and attention. Santalol relieves stress and anxiety by
keeping the brain pleasant and calm. Inflammation,
fear, and restlessness are all calmed by this oil.
Relaxation, tranquillity, focus, and pleasant ideas
are also induced. It improves both physical and
mental well-being (Joshi, 2003).
Some studies have shown aromatherapy
with sandalwood oil helps to deal with end-of-life
agitation conditions (Ali et al., 2015). Dopamine
D2 and serotonin 5-HT2A receptor coupling were
strongly inhibited by alpha-santalol. Furthermore,
alpha-antipsychotic santalol's impact was identical
to that of chlorpromazine (Okugawa et al., 2000).
After transdermal absorption, alpha-santalol
generated some substantial changes physiologically,
such as calming and tranquil effects; further analysis
showed that it caused physiological deactivation
and behavioral stimulation (Hongratanaworakit
et al., 2004). In addition to soothing the mind,
sandalwood aromatherapy benefits individuals
with insomnia. It can also be used to alleviate
headaches and migraines because of its sedative
properties (Brazier, 2017).
JMAPS 44(1-2) 2022
Table 2: Percentage of sesquiterpenoids present in the oil of Santalum album Linn.
Sesquiterpenols in Structures
the oil
(Z)-a-santalol
(Z)-b-santalol
(E)-a-bergamotol
Epi-b-santalol
(E)-b-santalol
(E)-a-santalol
(E)-(E)-farnesol
TOTAL
Even though several blended essential oils are
applied to improve one's quality of life and relieve
numerous illnesses, the scientific examination of the
aroma therapeutic impacts in humans, on the other
hand, is severely lacking. The major element, alpha-
santalol, has a hypnotic effect and has been proven
to have "harmonizing" benefits when absorbed via
the skin (Hongratanaworakit et al., 2004). After
further exploration of the impact of alpha- and
beta-santalols on the central nervous system in
mice, it was found that they had sedative properties
(Okugawa et al., 1995). Sandalwood oil appeared
to reduce anxiety in experimental testing with a
modest sample magnitude (Kyle, 2006).
16
Das & Khan
Percentage of References
concentration
49.3% (Erligmann, 2001; Setzer, 2009)
20.95% (Erligmann, 2001; Setzer, 2009)
4.95% (Erligmann, 2001; Setzer, 2009)
4.5% (Erligmann, 2001)
2.2% (Erligmann, 2001)
0.57% (Erligmann, 2001)
- (Erligmann, 2001)
82.47%
Case study on aromatherapy with sandalwood oil
Method: Two distinct types of external
aromatherapy reports (sandalwood-lavender and
orange-peppermint) were assessed to a matching
placebo-control delivery mechanism in random
placebo-controlled research. The Spielberger State
Anxiety Inventory Scale was used to determine
anxiety before and after a breast biopsy (Trambert
et al., 2017).
Results and findings: A total of 87 ladies took part
in the research. Compared to the effects of a placebo-
controlled study, a significant anxiety reduction was
observed in the group with sandalwood-lavender

aromatherapy. And also, during an image-guided
breast biopsy, aromatherapy tablets helped to lessen
anxiety (Trambert et al., 2017).
Evidence linked to action: All groups reported
feeling less anxious once the biopsy was completed.
Aromatherapy tabs are an evidence-based nursing
intervention to help women adjust to their breast
biopsy and reduce anxiety. Hence, sandalwood-
lavender aromatherapy was more helpful in
lowering anxiety and promoting adaptability as
compared with orange-peppermint aromatherapy
or placebo (Trambert et al., 2017).
General application
a) Inhalation: Through diffusers or sprays the
oils can be diffused into the air or inhaled,
as in a steam bath. Essential oils can help
with respiratory purification, decongestion,
and psychological advantages, in addition to
creating a pleasant scent. The olfactory system is
stimulated by inhaling essential oils. Molecules
that enter the body orally or through nasal
passage reach the lungs, which are then carried
to other body regions. The chemicals get into
the brain; therefore, it affects the limbic system,
which is associated with emotions, pulse rate,
blood pressure, respiration, memory, distress,
and hormone balance. Hence, the essential oils
can have a gentle overall influence on the body
(Brazier, 2017).
b) Topical applications: Shower and skin care
products and massage oils are absorbed via
the skin. Massaging the region before oil
application may enhance circulation and
absorption. Some say that areas with more
sebaceous glands and hair follicles, like the
head or the palms of the hands, can better
assimilate the oils. However, users must
understand that even natural products
contain chemicals, which could be unsafe if
administered inappropriately. It is crucial
to obey the suggestion of a knowledgeable
professional while using essential oils. These
aromatic oils should always be mixed with a
carrier oil and then applied to the skin for safe
usage. Still, users are recommended to perform
an allergy test; for this, the essential oil must be
diluted in the carrier oil in the 1:2 ratio. Another
method is to smear the mixture on the inside of
the forearm in a quarter-sized area. It should
be safe to use if one doesn't have an allergic
17
Aromatherapy of S. album and its antiviral activity
reaction within 24 to 48 hours. However, after
using essential oils for an extended period,
some people develop sensitivities to them. If a
sudden allergic reaction develops, the person
should cease using it and avoid smelling it
(Brazier, 2017).
It has been examined and speculated that using
mixed essential oils might have a synergistic impact
with the potential of tackling depression or anxiety.
Usually, the essential oil of lavender, bergamot and
Indian sandalwood was commonly used in different
suitable proportions to make the combinations
(Hongratanaworakit et al., 2011).
The recommended dilution of 0.5 to 1% can
be obtained by adding 3 to 5 drops of essential oil
to every ounce of the carrier oil. For this, 30 drops
must be added to ~30 ml of the carrier to obtain a
5% dilution. Adults are typically considered safe to
consume a maximum dosage of 5%. Essential oils
should not be taken orally or swallowed because
these might harm the liver and kidneys if consumed
by mouth. They might also cause problems with
other medications and can alter the stomach
unexpectedly (Brazier, 2017).
Domestic use
The sandalwood oil can also be used in various
aromatherapy applications at home. For example, a
few drops of sandalwood oil can be placed in a small
30ml bottle of any preferred body lotion, directly
heated in a simple kettle of water to scent the entire
house, evaporated using an infuser, or applied to
skin by diluting it in a carrier oil, like sweet almond
(Brazier, 2017).
Antiviral activity
Aromatic oils and their constituent chemicals
exhibit diverse biological activities in vitro and
in vivo, it also includes antibacterial, antifungal,
antiviral, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory.
Regarding injuries, it has curative properties
(D'agostino et al., 2019; Boukhatem et al., 2013).
Amantadine and its derivatives cause resistance
quickly; hence they are not recommended for usage
in the general population (Hayden and Hay, 1992).
In the case of the pandemic A/H1N1 influenza
virus, adamantanes are inefficient, and zanamivir
is risky for patients with respiratory illnesses and
is difficult to be administered to children. Therefore
the usually recommended drug is oseltamivir
(Garman and Laver, 2004). But the resistance of
JMAPS 44(1-2) 2022 Das & Khan

oseltamivir to human influenza-A viruses and the

H5N1 subtype found in Vietnam is a concerning
matter (Ison et al., 2006). Still, resistance to the other
neuraminidase inhibitor, zanamivir, has not been
identified. During in vitro tests, the essential oil
displayed antiviral action against herpes simplex I
and II, impacting virus multiplication inside affected
cells (Benencia and Courreges, 1999). The santalol
isomers are regarded as sedative and neuroleptic
because intraperitoneal administration in mice led
to hypothermic (a-santalol) and analgesic (beta-
santalol) effects (Okugawa et al., 1995).
CONCLUSION
Sandalwood oil's ability to inhibit viral
Sandalwood is one of the most popular plants
multiplication of herpes simplex viruses (HSV)-
in the world, especially in India, for its traditional
1 and 2 also suggested that this oil aids cell
therapeutic applications. The health sector will
protection via altering glutathione S-transferase
always be a priority in society, and considering
and sulfhydryl levels in the liver, which is soluble
the COVID-19 pandemic situation, the need to
in acid (Benencia and Courreges, 1999). In a plaque
maintain good health is a primary concern. Along
reduction experiment, HSV-2 is suppressed in-
with maintaining a healthy physique, taking care
vitro on RC-37 cells, where its T50 (Toxicity 50)
of mental health is equally important. Commonly
value was 0.0015% in RC-37 monolayer cultures.
allopathic drugs are consumed to deal with all
Surprisingly, sandalwood oil only affected the
mental illnesses like anxiety, depression, stress,
virus before adsorption into the cells by inhibiting
insomnia, migraines, etc. These drugs are effective
unspecified interactions between host cells and the
immediately but have a high rate of side effects. A
virus (Koch et al., 2008). Sandalwood is also shown
better alternative is aromatherapy, which uses the
to have virucidal properties (Xu et al., 1996). The
essential oils of plants; one of them is sandalwood
components of sandalwood oil, alpha and beta
oil. Sandalwood essential oil is a critical component
santalols, and their mixtures and derivatives, have
of aromatherapy. It also has antiviral properties,
been linked to treating human warts, particularly
which have been proved to help fight HSV-1 and
HPV (human papillomavirus) and pox virus that
HSV-2, HPV and Influenza-A. Santalum album
cause molluscum contagiosum. These santalol
Linn. is a boon to this planet; more research on it
isomers are effective in treating HIV and other RNA
should be encouraged. Thus, with substantial future
viruses. Sandalwood oil is also effective in treating
prospective, this therapeutically rich plant needs to
some other skin problems like flakiness, dry skin
be conserved and cultivated responsibly.
with seborrheic dermatitis, psoriasis, eczematous
rashes and acne lesions. This oil also helps prevent
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