GEOTECHNICS

Lecture 7: Consolidation and settlements

Dr. Emre ÇEÇEN

ececen@umt.edu.al
 Course Outline

Date Topic

th
Consolidation theory
11 Week
Revision - Problems Solving

Shear Strength of Soil

th
12 Week
Revision - Problems Solving
 What is Consolidation?

When a saturated clay is loaded externally,

GL

saturated clay

the water is squeezed out of the clay over a long time (due to low
permeability of the clay).

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 What is Consolidation?

This leads to settlements occurring over a long time,

settlement

time

which could be several years.

4
 In granular soils…
Granular soils are freely drained, and thus the settlement is
instantaneous.
settlement

time

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 During consolidation…

Due to a surcharge q applied at the GL,

the stresses and pore pressures are increased at A.

q kPa
..and, they vary with
GL time.
∆σ
∆u
A
∆σ’
∆σ
saturated
clay

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 During consolidation…
∆σ remains the same (=q) during consolidation.

∆u decreases (due to drainage) while ∆σ’ increases,

transferring the load from water to the soil.

q kPa ∆σ
∆u
GL
∆σ ∆σ’
∆u
A
∆σ’
∆σ
saturated q
clay

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 One Dimensional Consolidation

~ drainage and deformations are vertical (none laterally)

~ a simplification for solving consolidation problems

q kPa
GL

water squeezed out

reasonable
saturated clay simplification if the
surcharge is of
large lateral extent

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 ∆H -∆e Relation

average vertical strain =

∆H
Ho
q kPa
GL q kPa
∆H
GL

Ho
saturated clay
saturated clay
e = eo
e = eo - ∆e

Time = 0+ Time = ∝ 9
 ∆H -∆e Relation

Consider an element where Vs = 1 initially.

∆e
eo

Time = 0+ Time = ∞

∴average vertical strain =

∆e
1 + eo 10
 ∆H -∆e Relation
Equating the two expressions for average vertical strain,

consolidation change in void ratio

settlement
∆H ∆e
=
Ho 1 + eo
initial void ratio
initial thickness of clay
layer

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 Coefficient of volume compressibility
~ denoted by mv

~ is the volumetric strain in a clay element per

unit increase in stress
no units

change in volume
=
original volume ∆V
i.e.,
mv = V
∆σ
kPa-1 or MPa-1 kPa or MPa
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 Consolidation Test
~ simulation of 1-D field consolidation in lab.

GL
porous stone

undisturbed soil
specimen metal ring
Dia = 50-75 mm (oedometer)
Height = 20-30 mm

field lab

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Preparing undisturbed specimen
 Oedometer cell

Details of oedometer cell

 Consolidation Test
loading in increments

allowing full consolidation before next increment

∆q1 ∆q2
∆H1
∆H2
H o eo eo- ∆e1

∆H1 ∆H 2
∆e1 = (1 + eo ) ∆e2 = (1 + (eo − ∆e1 )
Ho ( H o − ∆H1 )

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 e – log σv’ plot
- from the above data

loading
void ratio

σv’ increases &

e decreases
unloading
σv’ decreases &
e increases (swelling)

log σv’
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Compression and recompression indices

C
r 1
void ratio

Cc ~ compression index

Cc

Cr ~ recompression index 1
(or swelling index)
Cr
1

log σv’
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 Preconsolidation pressure
is the maximum
vertical effective
stress the soil element
void ratio has ever been
subjected to

σp’ log σv’

preconsolidation pressure
 Virgin Consolidation Line

original
state
virgin consolidation line
eo
void ratio

eo, σvo’

σp’ log σv’

σvo’
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 Overconsolidation ratio (OCR)

original
state
eo virgin consolidation line

void ratio
σvo’ σ p'
OCR =
σ vo '

Field σp’ log σv’

σvo’
Determination of preconsolidation pressure by
Cassagrande Method

e0

σ’c= σ’p
Normally Consolidated and
Overconsolidated Clays
• A soil in the field has been subjected to a maximum
effective past pressure
• This maximum effective pressure may be equal to or
greater than the current effective overburden pressure
• If the pressures are equal, the soil is normally
consolidated, otherwise, it is overconsolidated
• The maximum effective pressure for an overconsolidated
soil is the preconsolidation pressure

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Normally Consolidated and
Overconsolidated Clays (cont.)

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 Settlement computations
computing ∆e using e-log σv’ plot

If the clay is normally consolidated,

the entire loading path is along the VCL.
e
initial
eo
σ vo '+ ∆σ '
∆e ∆e = Cc log
σ vo '

σvo’+ ∆σ
log σv’
σvo’
 Settlement computations
computing ∆e using e-log σv’ plot

If the clay is overconsolidated, and remains so by the end

of consolidation,

σ vo '+ ∆σ '
∆e = Cr log
σ vo '
initial
eo

∆e note the use of Cr

VC
L
σvo’ σvo’+ ∆σ
 Settlement computations
computing ∆e using e-log σv’ plot

If an overconsolidated clay becomes normally consolidated

by the end of consolidation,

σ p' σ vo '+ ∆σ '

∆e = Cr log + Cc log
initial
σ vo ' σ p'
eo

∆e

VCL
σvo’ σp’ σvo’+ ∆σ
σ’c
 Summary for consolidation settlement
computations
Two distinct methods can be used;
(a) Using the volumetric strain modulus (mv)
σv’ graph)
(e-σ

q kPa

(b) Using the compression (Cc) OR

∆σ=q
∆σ
H recompression (Cr) index
σv’ graph)
(e-logσ

eo, σvo’, Cc, Cr,

σp’- m v , σvo’
-oedometer test
(a) Using the volumetric strain modulus (mv)
σv’ graph)
(e-σ
∆e e0 − ef
av = =
∆σ σ′vf − σ′v0
∆V/V ∆e/(1 + e0 ) ∆e av
mv = = = =
∆σ ∆σ (1 + e0 )∆σ (1 + e0 )

∆H ∆e H0
= ∆H = . ∆e ∆e = mv . (1 + e0 ). ∆σ
H0 1 + e0 1 + e0
H0
∆H = . ∆e = H0 . mv . ∆σ
1 + e0 !!!
σ’)
mv = f(σ
(b) Using the compression (Cc) OR recompression (Cr) index
e
σv’ graph)
(e-logσ

eo

∆e

log σ
σvo’ σvo’+ ∆σ

∆e e0 − ef ∆e
∆H ∆e Cc =
∆logσ′
=
σ′vf
=
(σ′v0 + ∆σ)
= log ′ log
H0 1 + e0 σv0 σ′v0

H0 (σ′v0 + ∆σ)
∆H = . ∆e ∆e = Cc . log
1 + e0 σ′v0
 Normally loaded (NL) clays
Cc  σ ′zf 
∆H =  H 0 log 
1 + e0  σ ′z 0 

Overconsolidated (OC) clays

σzf < σ’c)
1. scenario (σ
Cr  σ ′zf 
∆H =  H 0 log 
1 + e0  σ ′z 0 
σzf > σ’c)
2. scenario (σ

Cr  σ c′  Cc  σ ′zf 
∆H =  H log  + H log 
1 + e0  σ ′z 0  1 + e0  σ c′ 
In case of no consolidation test data, Cc OR Cr;

We can use these empirical relations

NL clays
Disturbed clays
Cr = 1/3~1/6 Cc Overconsolidated clays
Example 1 (Consolidation Settlement of a Normally Consolidated Clay)

The soil profile at a site for a proposed office building consists of a layer of fine
sand 10.4 m thick above a layer of soft, normally consolidated clay 2 m thick.
Below the soft clay is a deposit of coarse sand. The groundwater table was
observed at 3 m below ground level. The void ratio of the sand is 0.76 and the
water content of the clay is 43%. The building will impose a vertical stress
increase of 140 kPa at the middle of the clay layer. Estimate the primary
consolidation settlement of the clay. (Assume the soil above the water table
to be saturated, Cc =0.3, and Gs =2.7.)
Solution
Solution

Step 2:
Example 2 (Consolidation Settlement of an Overconsolidated Clay)
Assume the same soil stratigraphy as in Example 1. But now the clay is
overconsolidated with an OCR = 2.5, w =38%, and Cr = 0.05. All other soil
values given in Example 1 remain unchanged. Determine the primary
consolidation settlement of the clay.

e0 (for sand) = 0.76, w (for clay) = 38%

Ho = 2m, ∆σz= 140 kPa, Cr=0.05, Gs = 2.7

 Solution:
Since the soil is overconsolidated, you will have to check whether σ’zc is less
than or greater than the sum of the current vertical effective stress and the
applied vertical stress increase at the center of the clay.

(Note that the increase in vertical effective stress from the unit weight change in this
overconsolidated clay is very small.)

Step 2: Calculate the past maximum vertical effective stress.

Solution:
Example 3 (Consolidation Settlement of a Lightly Overconsolidated
Clay)
Assume the same soil stratigraphy and soil parameters as in Example 2 except
that the clay has an overconsolidation ratio of 1.5. Determine the primary
consolidation settlement of the clay.

e0 (for sand) = 0.76, w (for clay) = 38%

Ho = 2m, ∆σz= 140 kPa, Cr=0.05, Gs = 2.7

Strategy Since the soil is overconsolidated, you will have to check whether σ’zc
is less than or greater than the sum of the current vertical effective stress and the
applied vertical stress at the center of the clay. This check will determine the
appropriate equation to use.
Solution:
Solution:
Example 4 (Consolidation Settlement Using mv)

A vertical section through a building foundation at a site is

shown in figure below. The average modulus of volume
compressibility of the clay is mv = 5 x 10-5 m2/kN. Determine the
primary consolidation settlement.
Strategy To find the primary consolidation settlement, you need
to know the vertical stress increase in the clay layer from the
building load. Since the clay layer is finite, we will have to use the
vertical stress influence values in Tables or graphs. The clay layer
is 10 m thick, so it is best to subdivide the clay layer into
sublayers ≤2 m thick.

Solution
Step 1: Find the vertical stress increase at the center of the clay layer below
the foundation. Divide the clay layer into five sublayers, each of thickness 2 m
that is, Ho = 2 m.
B = 10 m, L = 20 m, B /2 = 5 m, L /2= 10 m, qs = 200 kPa

Layer Z (m) b/Z l/Z Κ ∆σz = 4K qs

1 1 5 10 0.2491 199.36
2 3 1.67 3.33 0.2314 185.12
3 5 1 2 0.1999 159.92
4 7 0.71 1.43 0.1620 129.60
5 9 0.56 1.11 0.1282 102.56
Solution

Step 2: Calculate the primary consolidation settlement.

(199.36+185.12+159.92+129.60+102.56)

=7.76 cm
 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test

• Deformation of specimen versus time

occurs in three stages:
• Stage I: Initial Compression
(Preloading)
• Stage II: Primary Consolidation Excess
pore water pressure is gradually
transferred into effective stress by the
expulsion of pore water.
• Stage III: Secondary Consolidation
After complete dissipation of excess
pore water pressure, when
deformation of the specimen takes
place because of the plastic
readjustment of soil fabric.
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Secondary Compression

• Theoretically, primary consolidation ends when ∆uo= 0.

• The later time settlement response is called secondary
compression, or creep.
• Secondary compression is the change in volume of a fine-
grained soil caused by the adjustment of the soil fabric
(internal structure) after primary consolidation has been
completed.
• The term “consolidation” is reserved for the process in which
settlement of a soil occurs from changes in effective stresses
resulting from decreases in excess pore water pressure.
 Secondary Compression

• Secondary consolidation is more important than primary

consolidation for organic and highly compressible
inorganic soils
• Secondary consolidation is unimportant for
overconsolidated inorganic clays

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 Settlement from Secondary Consolidation

∗ Settlement is observed after

primary consolidation because
of the plastic adjustment of soil
fabrics: creep.

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Settlement from Secondary Consolidation

∗ The magnitude of the secondary consolidation can be calculated as:

where

and

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 Time Rate of Consolidation

∗ Mathematical derivations based on assumptions:

∗ The clay-water system is homogeneous
∗ Saturation is complete
∗ Compressibility of water is negligible
∗ Compressibility of soil grain is negligible
∗ Flow of water is in one direction
∗ Darcy’s law is valid

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 Time Rate of Consolidation

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 Coefficient of Consolidation
∗ Coefficient of consolidation, cv, generally decreases as the liquid limit of
soil increases.
∗ There are two commonly used graphic methods for determining this
value:
∗ Logarithm-of-Time Method example:

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Coefficient of Consolidation Cont’d
∗ Square-Root-of-Time Method example:

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 Summary
∗ Consolidation is a process by which the load applied on a
saturated soil is transferred from the pore water to the soil
grains.
∗ In granular soils, the consolidation process is almost
instantaneous.
∗ In clays, the process can take from a few months to several
years.
∗ Secondary consolidation (creep) takes place after the
completion of primary consolidation.
∗ Consolidation and secondary consolidation parameters can
be determined from a one-dimensional laboratory
consolidation test on a small clay specimen.
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