• What is civilization?

• The word "civilization" comes from the Latin root civ-. Seen in such
Latin words as civis (citizen) and civitas (city). Thus, cities appear
crucial to our sense of what civilization is.
• The Greek vocabulary is similarly revealing. Polis (city) gives us
our words for politics and po
• To be "civilized" essentially meant being a
– townsman,
– governed by the constitution and
– legal statutes of that community
• Elements of Civilisation

• There are five key elements that make a society advanced enough to
be considered a civilization.

• 1. Centralized Government

• 2. Organized Religion

• 3. Job Specialization and Social Classes

• 4. Arts, Architecture, and Infrastructure

• 5. Writing

• The rise of civilization

• Civilization is defined as: highly organized society marked by
– advanced knowledge of trade,
 – government,
– arts, science and
– written language
• Another definitions: the overall manifestations of financial,
scientific, artistic, literary, and social development in a society or in
similar societies.

• The Earliest Civilisations

• The earliest known civilizations (as defined in the traditional sense)

arose in Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in
modern-day Iraq, Persia in modern-day Iran, the Nile valley of
Egypt.

• The inhabitants of these areas built cities, created writing systems,

learned to make pottery and use metals, domesticated animals, and
created complex social structures with class systems.

• Hadhara
• The Arabic word ‫ حضارة‬ḥaḍāra (from which "Hadhari" is derived)
refers to both "civilization" and "settled life" or "sedentariness" (i.e.
not being nomadic), so that the term Islam Hadhari implicitly
contrasts itself with the Islam of nomads or bedouin.
• The word “hadhara” is the opposite of the word “bedouinism” or,
respectively, savageness and barbarism. Thus, urban life stands
against Bedouin life and vice versa.

• Tamaddun
• Tamaddun (‫)تمدن‬: To build, To civilize, To humanize.
• Tamadun/-Maddana/madaniyyah: Material element system of value
& ethic Spirituality element

• Pioneer of the term tamadun were Ottomans and Christian Arab Jurji
Zaydan meanings: civitas, civis, developing and civilising.

• ‘Umran

• ‘Umran/’imar/mamurah: ( ‫)عمران‬

• 'urbanization', ‘town planning’, “nation”, “prosperity”, ‘peculiar to

human’ and ‘society peculiar to human’, the science of human
community as significance the psychology of group or become
socialized.

• Pioneer of the term ‘umran was Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406)

• Main Demand of Islamic Civilisation

• Islamic Civilization demands its followers to be the best of example

for mankind, to other Muslim, and also to non-Muslim.

• ‘You are the best of nation (people) evolved for mankind, enjoining
what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and believing in Allah.’
(Quran, Ali-Imran 3:110)

• Concept of Civilisation
History of Islam Islamic Civilisation

• Elements of Civilisation

• There are five key elements that make a society advanced enough to
be considered a civilization.
• 1. Centralized Government

• 2. Organized Religion

• 3. Job Specialization and Social Classes

• 4. Arts, Architecture, and Infrastructure

• 5. Writing

• The Earliest Civilisations

• The earliest known civilizations (as defined in the traditional sense)

arose in Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in
modern-day Iraq, Persia in modern-day Iran, the Nile valley of
Egypt.

• The inhabitants of these areas built cities, created writing systems,

learned to make pottery and use metals, domesticated animals, and
created complex social structures with class systems.

• Islamic terms of civilisation

✓ Hadharah
✓ Tamadun-Madaniyyah
✓ Umran
• Main Demand of Islamic Civilisation
• Islamic Civilization demands its followers to be the best of example
for mankind, to other Muslim, and also to non-Muslim.
• ‘You are the best of nation (people) evolved for mankind, enjoining
what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and believing in Allah.’
(Quran, Ali-Imran 3:110)
• Topics 1
• The Islamic terms for civilisation
• The main sources of Islamic Civilisation
• The Administrative instutitions in Islamic Civilisation: Caliphate,
Wazirate etc.
• Ibn Khaldun’s concepts of civilisation
• Social structure in Islamic Civilisation: Family, social classes
• Education in Islamic Civilisation: Maktabs, kuttabs, madrasas etc.
• Religious institutions in Islamic Civilisation: Mosques
• Social-Religious institutions in Islamic Civilisation: dargahs, takkas,
zawiyahs etc.
• Science and knowledge in Islamic Civilisation
• Books and libraries in Islamic Civilisation
• The Translation of books from the other civilisation into Islamic
environment
• Muslim cities: the case of Baghdad and Istanbul
• Topics 2
• Islamic Civilisation and the Arabs
• Islamic Civilisation and the Turks
• Islamic Civilisation and the Persians
• Islamic Civilisation and the Indian Muslims
• Islamic Civilisation and the African Muslims
• Islamic Civilisation and the Balkan Muslims
• Turkish experiment of the Islamic Civilisation in the Ottoman
Empire
• The Role of Women in Islamic Civilisation
• The Bayt al-Hikmah
• Development of Religious Uluum and Science in Islamic
Civilisation
• The Position of Non-Muslims in Islamic Civilisation
• The Futuwwa Organization in the Abbasid Period
• The Causes of Decline for Islammic Cavilisation
• Topics 3
• The Judical Instututions in Islamic Civilisation
• The Social cooperative institutions in Islamic Civilisation: Waqfs
• The Organisation artisans and craftsmen in Muslim Lands: the
Futuwwa and Akhids.
• The Influence of Islamic Civilisation on Europe.
• The Influence of Islamic Civilisation on Russian Culture
• The Influence of Islamic Civilisation on Indian Culture
• The Influence of Islamic Civilisation on Balkan Culture
• The Current value of Islamic civilisation
• Is the Clash of civilisations real?

⚫ Expansion of Islam
⚫ early victories
⚫ backsliders (tribes) punished
⚫ Apostasy = treason = death
⚫ assaults on:
⚫ the Byzantine (East Roman) empire
⚫ the Sassanid (Persian) Empire also known as Eranshahr or “Empire
of the Aryans (Persians)”
⚫ Muslim Arab Victories
⚫ Syria: 635 A.D.
⚫ Palestine: 636 A.D.
⚫ Persia: captured in one battle
⚫ expansion into India
⚫ expansion to the borders of China
⚫ Egypt: help by local Christians
⚫ North Africa: the Berbers
⚫ Expansion and Defeat
⚫ Spain 711-720 A.D. (Franks)
⚫ Battle of Tours: October 732 A.D.
⚫ Charles Martel (Carolingian Family)
⚫ Siege of Constantinople: 717-718 A.D.
⚫ Leo III of Byzantine Empire
⚫ Greek fire
⚫ beginnings of Christian reconquest of former Roman/Christian
territory (Holy Lands)
⚫ Reasons for success
⚫ exhaustion of Rome and Persia
⚫ End of a 400 year war
⚫ nationalist sentiments in Egypt and Syria
⚫ arguments among Christian factions
⚫ speed and size of Muslim armies
⚫ simplicity and uncomplicated nature of Islam
⚫ acceptance of the Old and New Testament
⚫ People of the Book
⚫ Policy toward Conquered Peoples
⚫ Favoritism of Arab military rulers causes discontent
⚫ Limited social mobility for non-Arab Muslims
⚫ Head tax (jizya) on non-Muslims
⚫ Umayyad luxurious living causes further decline in moral authority
⚫ Abbasid Dynasty
⚫ Turkish Migrations
⚫ Consolidation of Tang Dynasty (7th-8th C) pushes nomadic peoples
of inner Asia westward just like the Han did to the Huns and others
⚫ Nomadic peoples begin to convert to Islam as a result of contact with
Muslim scholars and mystics
⚫ The Turkish-speaking people gained control of Bukkara and
Samarqand and began to sponsor the development of the Turkish
language and a Turkish-Islamic civilization
⚫ Turkish Migrations
⚫ One of the Turkish-speaking groups was the Seljuks who entered
Central Asia and conquered Afghanistan and Iran.
⚫ The Seljuks defeated the Abbasid Caliph but left them on the throne
and ruled in their name.
⚫ They titled themselves sultans, claiming authority over the secular
side of government while leaving the administration of religious
affairs in the hands of the caliph.

• Rashidun Army

• The Rashidun army was the primary military body of the Muslims
during the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, serving alongside
the Rashidun navy.

• The size of the Rashidun army was

➢initially 13,000 troops in 632,
 ➢but as the Caliphate expanded, the army gradually grew to
100,000 troops by 657.

• The three most successful generals of the Rashidun army were

• Khalid ibn alWalid, who conquered Persian Mesopotamia

• Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah who conquered Roman Syria,

• 'Amr ibn al-'As, who conquered Roman Egypt.

•
Army

• Only Muslims were allowed to join the army as regular troops.

• During the Ridda wars, the army mainly consisted of the corps from
Madinah, Mecca and Taif.

• Later on during the conquest of Iraq in 633 many bedouin corps

were recruited as regular troops.

• In the conquest of Sassanid Persia (633-656), some 12,000 elite

Persian troops converted to Islam and served later on during the
invasion of the empire.

• During the conquest of North Africa, Berber converts to Islam were

recruited as regular troops, who later made the bulk of the Rashidun
army and later the Umayyad army in Africa.

•
Infantry/Piyadah
• Rashidun army relied heavily on their infantry. Mubarizun were a
special part of the army, composed of the champions.

• Their role was to undermine the enemy morale by slaying their

champions. The infantry would make repeated charges and
withdrawals known as karr wa farr, using spears and swords
combined with arrow volleys to weaken the enemies and wear them
out.

• However, the main energy had to still be conserved for a

counterattack, supported by a cavalry charge, that would make
flanking or encircling movements.

• Cavalry / Sipahis

• The Rashidun cavalry was one of the most successful light cavalry
forces, provided it was competently led. It was armed with lances
and swords.

• Cavalry regiments were initially stationed behind the flanks and

center.

• The proportion of cavalry within the Rashidun forces were initially

limited to less than 20% due to the inability of the poor economic
condition and arid climate of the Arabian Peninsula to support large
numbers of warhorses.

• Weaponry/Asliha and Divisions

• Helmets: miğfer Armour: Dir/zırh, Shields: Kalkan Sword:

Sayf/kılıç Bows-arrows: yay-ok Siege weaponry: ed Dababah
• The army divisions

• Muqaddimah or The vanguard

• Qalb or The center

• Al-khalf or The rear

• Al-mou'akhira or The rearguard

• In battle

• The army was organized on the decimal system.

• 1. Qalb or The center

• 2. Maimanah or The right wing

• 3. Maisarah or The left wing

• Every tribal unit had its leader called Arifs.

• In such units, there were commanders for each 10, 100, and 1,000
men

• Arifs were grouped and each group was under a commander called
Amir-ul-Ashar and

• Amir-ul-Ashars were under the command of a section commander,

• who were under the command of the commander in chief, Amir-ul-

jaish.

• Warfare ethics-jurisprudence of Muslims

• Development of rulings

• The first military rulings were formulated in accordance with the

interpretations of the Qur'an and Hadith

• The key themes in these rulings were the justness of war, and the
injunction to jihad. The rulings do not cover feuds and armed
conflicts in general.

• Jihad (Arabic for "struggle") was given a military dimension after

the oppressive practices of the Meccan Quraish against Muslims.
• It was interpreted as the struggle in God's cause. Injunctions relating
to jihad have been characterized as individual as well as collective
duties of the Muslim community.

• The nature of attack is important in the interpretation —if the

Muslim community is attacked jihad becomes incumbent on all
Muslims.

•
Ethics of warfare

• The basic principle in fighting in the Qur'an is

– that other communities should be treated as one's own.
– Fighting is justified for legitimate self-defense, to aid other
Muslims and after a violation in the terms of a treaty, but
should be stopped if these circumstances cease to exist.
– The principle of forgiveness is reiterated in between the
assertions of the right to self-defense.

•
Civilian areas

• it is not permissible to kill women or children unless they are

fighting against the Muslims.

• the Shafiis: permissible to kill all types of adult men.

• the Hanafiis, Hanbalis and Malikis: not permissible to kill old men,
monks, peasants, employees and traders (this meaning male non-
combatants).
• Harming civilian areas and pillaging residential areas is also
forbidden, as is the destruction of trees, crops, livestock and
farmlands.
– not loot travelers
– not have the right to use the local facilities of the native people
without their consent. If such a consent is obtained, the Muslim
army is still under the obligation to compensate the people
financially for the use of such facilities.

• THE SOURCES OF MUSLIM LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES

• 1· The Holy Quran: a complete Code of Life which contains

guidelines on spiritual, social, economic and political aspects of
human life.

• 2· The Holy Prophet: "For you the life of the Prophet is a good
model of behaviour" (33:21).

• 3· The Wise Caliphs and Pious Followers: The first four Caliphs
and Sahaba followed the teachings of the Quran and the Prophet
Muhammad (pbuh) and achieved extraordinary results.

• Main principles and values of Muslim leadership

• 1. Faith and belief. Iman and itikad

• 2. Knowledge and Wisdom. Ilm and Hikmah

• 3. Courage and determination. Casarah and Azimah

• 4. Mutual consultation and Unity. (Fraternity and brotherhood.)

Shura and Ittihad
• 5. Morality and Piety. Ahlaq and Taqwa

• 6. Superior communication.

• 7. Justice and compassion. Adalah and Shawkah-Marhamah

• 8. Patience and Endurance. Sabır and Muqawamah

• 9. Commitment, Sacrifice and Endeavour. Kararlılık, Fadakarlık

and Gayret

• 10. Gratitude and Prayers. Shukur and dua-salah

• Response of Muslims to Abolition of the Caliphate

• The title was then claimed by King Hussein bin Ali of Hejaz,
leader of the Arab Revolt, but his kingdom was defeated and
annexed by Ibn Saud in 1925.
• A summit was convened at Cairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of
the Caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate and no
action was taken to implement the summit's resolutions.
• The title Amer al-Mumineen adopted by the King of Morocco
• Recently by Mullah Mohammed Omar, former head of the Taliban
regime of Afghanistan used the same title as well.
• A group in Iraq formed as an affiliate of the al Qaeda of militants
during the Iraq War. The group eventually expanded into Syria and
claimed as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)
• In the summer of 2014, the group captured Mosul. The group
declared itself a "caliphate" under Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, who took
the name and title of "Caliph Ibrahim", and renamed itself as the
"Islamic State".
•
Diwans: the State Administration

• The State administration as a whole was called Diwan.

• Al-Mawardi enumerated four chief offices of Government are

under:
1. The Army Board
2. The Board of Provincial Boundaries
3. The Treasury
4. The Board of Appointment and Dismissal of Officers.

•
Judiciary/the Qaziyat

Mawardi stresses on justice and qaza. After the imam and ministers,
qaza is a very important branch of government. A state where there is no
justice, such states ever fall.

• A judge should have the qualities:

1. intelligent and clever so, be in position to go to the grass roots of the
issues.
2. male (according to some Hanafis, a female may be appointed judge if
she bears the required qualities).
3. Free not be slave.
4. Muslim (Abu Hanifa allows a non-Muslim judge if he is to handle
those cases where there is no involvement of shariah).
5. honest and temperate.
6. having the knowledge of the holy Quran hadiths and fiqh.
7. have perfect hearing and seeing capabilities.
•
Functions of the Qazi/Judge

1. To secure rights
2. Supervision of awqaaf
3. Protection of children, and mental’ properties
4. Widow’s marriage
5. Execution of wasiah
6. Supervision of subordinates staff to assist him.
7. Imposition of Hadoods/limits of Sharia
8. Maintaining balance
9. Appointment of Amins

• Sipahsalar (commander in chief)

• The state should have active military forces and these forces should
have qualities, attitude with his juniors, behavior with the prisoners
of war and attitude with his enemies.

• He counts five major responsibilities of the commander.

• 1. Not to allow military personnel to adopt professions like

agriculture and business.

• 2. To train army in such a way as to increase their professional skill

especially to guard against the attack of the enemy and to attack
enemy.to destroy enemy’s potential

• 3. Selection of the battlefield, especially in those places where

supply is easy and where his army is well protected.

• 4. To facilitate animals used by army.

• 5. To encourage his forces; to meet with them and to acknowledge to
them advantages of war.

• Muhtasib (Police or ombudsman)

• Al-Mawardi has explained powers and functions of the muhtasib

and categorizes his duties into two categories:
➢Paid,
➢volunteer.
• He is
1. to maintain law and order situation in the state, internal
stability,
2. to guard social values,
3. to compel people to obey laws, on the spor sentences especially
in those crimes which committed openly and
4. to send criminals before the courts.

• Urbanisation in Islam

• According to Islamic tradition, man is responsible constructing a

beautiful world, almost a reflection of Paradise.

• Islam is seen as an urban religion, which favours communal practice

on individual worship.

• it is widely accepted that most of Islam's teaching is best practised in

an urban setting.
• made particular emphasis on the form and design of the city
enabling it a greater functionality and responsiveness to meet the
socio-economic and cultural needs of the community/ummah.

• The city is called in Arabic "madinah" which is derived from the

word tamaddun, which denotes civilization.

• In other Muslim languages, abad, kant, şehr and balık refer city as
well.

• What is Islamic City

• There is no firm consensus on what the term “islamic city” means.

– It can mean a city founded by Muslims during some particular,
historical epoch.
– Or a city whose design, construction and expansion took place
during epochs dominated by Islamic civilization.
– Or a city that has in it certain, specific features generally
identified as ‘Islamic’ (mosques and minarets, for example).
– Or a city, old or new, that happens to be located within the
Islamic world.
the term is sometimes used as a theoretical or abstract concept, a
kind of ideal city whose architectural styles and relationships are
inspired by full adherence to the norms and values of Islam.

• the Islamic city as an entity with distinctive form and characteristics.

• the identifying features and characteristics

• there is a general consensus (among scholars) that the Islamic city

has some typical features.
• Some believe that the concept of an Islamic city is the product of the
"Orientalism”. The notion of the Islamic city originates in the west,
that it is "defined in difference" to Western city.

•
Morphological Components of the Islamic City

• 1. The main Mosque: Al-Jami-al-Kabir/Jamiu’l-Fath/Ulu Jami

• The most important of part is the congregational mosques, built to

express and focus the religious commitment of the Muslim
community and its solidarity.

• The commercial and administrative activities and associated

buildings grew around this central symbol of the Islamic city.

• It occupied the heart of the town and was usually surrounded by

the Suq (market) as the case of Zaytouna mosque in Tunis and
central mosque in Isfahan. This was where weekly Friday prayers
were held and attached to it there was the Madrasa providing
religious and scientific teaching.

•
3. Citadel

• Also known as kal’a, casbah or qasaba, representing the palace of

the governor,
• the citadel was surrounded by its own walls and constituted a district
on its own with its own mosque, guards, offices, and residence. It
was usually located in the high part of the town near the wall.

•
4. Residential Quarters/Mahalla

• the division of the cities into quarters where the Arab settlers were
first housed.

• in many cases the different quarters are still called by the names of
the clans who first inhabited them.

• There were also separate quarters for non-Arab converts to Islam

• quarters also for the non-Muslims,

• the different areas being linked by roads and lanes and joined to the
common centre.

• They were described by some sholars as clusters of households of

particular quality of life based on closeness (qarâba) which is
manifested in personal ties, common interests and shared moral
unity.

• Each quarter had its own mosque used only for daily prayers,
Quranic school, bakery, shops and other first necessity objects. They
even had their own gates which were usually closed at night after
last prayers and opened early morning at early prayers time.
•
5. Street network

• Connecting between these quarters and to the central place was a

network of narrow winding streets consisting of public and private
and semi-private streets and cul de sacs.

• The elevations on the Islamic city streets are distinguished by their

plainness and simplicity.

• In contrast to the simplicity the exterior facades, the interior of the

houses was rich in architectural details and ornamentation, varying
according to the tastes and means of the occupants.

• Thus, while simplicity and likeness on the outside confirmed the

solidarity and egalitarianism of the community, the variety and
wealth of the interiors allowed for individual freedom.

•
6. Wall/Sur

• A well-defended wall surrounded the town with a number of gates.

• The city was surrounded by a wall, which in addition to

– providing some defense in the event of military attack
– protected the inhabitants against the sand-laden desert winds.
Access into the city was by large gates in the city walls, then along
the main spinal roads where the commercial activities were
concentrated.

• 7. Exterior/Birun
• There were the cemeteries (separate ones for Muslims and Jews, and
in a later period for Christians),

• a weekly market just outside the main gate where most animal suqs
were held

• to private gardens and fields.

• Science in the context of Islamic civilization

• Islam has its own world view system including beliefs about
"ultimate reality, epistemology, ontology, ethics, purpose, etc."

• Muslims believe that the Qur'an is the final revelation of Allah for
the guidance of humankind.

• The belief that the Qur'an had prophesied scientific theories and
discoveries has become a strong and widespread belief in the
Islamic world; these prophecies are often offered as evidence of the
divine origin of the Qur'an; see scientific foreknowledge in sacred
texts for further discussion of this issue.

•
Islamic Golden Age

• This period traditionally rfers the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun
al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of
Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world
 sought to translate and gather all the known world's knowledge into
Arabic.

• It is said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate

with the Mongol invasions and the Sack of Baghdad in 1258.

• Several contemporary scholars, however, place the end of the

Islamic Golden Age to be around the 15th to 16th centuries.

• The metaphor of a golden age began to be applied in 19th- century

by Orientalism. In 1868 Josias Leslie Porter, the author of a
Handbook for Travelers in Syria and Palestine, observed that the
most beautiful mosques of Damascus were "like Mohammedanism
itself, now rapidly decaying" and relics of "the golden age of Islam".

•
Notable fields of Sciences

• The roots of Islamic science drew primarily upon Arab, Persian,

Indian and Greek learning.

• The extent of Islamic scientific achievement is not as yet fully

understood, but it is extremely vast.

• a wide range of subject areas; most notably

– Mathematics Astronomy Medicine
• Other notable areas, and specialized subjects, of scientific inquiry
include
– Physics, Alchemy and chemistry Cosmology Ophthalmology
 – Geography and cartography Sociology, Psychology
• Innovations

• Muslim engineers made a number of innovative industrial uses of

• hydropower, tidal power, wind power, and petroleum.

• watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century,

• By the time of the Crusades, every province throughout the Islamic

world had mills in operation. These mills performed a variety of
agricultural and industrial tasks.

• It has been argued that the industrial use of waterpower had spread
from Islamic to Christian Spain, where fulling mills, paper mills,
and forge mills were recorded for the first time in Catalonia.

• A number of industries were generated during the Muslim

Agricultural Revolution, including early industries for textiles,
sugar, rope-making, matting, silk, and paper.

• Latin translations of the 12th century passed on knowledge of

chemistry and instrument making in particular.

•
Literature

• The best known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of
One Thousand and One Nights /Kitāb alf laylah wa-laylah.
• This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in
the 18th century. Many imitations were written, various characters
from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western
culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba.

• A famous example of Arabic poetry on romance was Layla and

Majnun, which further developed mainly poets in Persian, Turkish
dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century.

• It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and
Juliet.

•
The views of on the impact of medieval Islamic science

• There are several different views on Islamic science among

historians of science.

• The traditionalist view, by Bertrand Russell: Islamic science, while

admirable in many technical ways, lacked the intellectual energy
required for innovation and was chiefly important as a preserver of
ancient knowledge and transmitter to medieval Europe.

• The revisionist view, as exemplified by Abdus Salam, George Saliba

and John M. Hobson: a Muslim scientific revolution occurred during
the Middle Ages.

• Scholars such as Donald Routledge Hill and Ahmad Y Hassan:

Islam was the driving force behind the Muslim achievements.
• Dallal: science in medieval Islam was "practiced on a scale
unprecedented in earlier human history or even contemporary
human history".

• Toby E. Huff: although Islamic science did produce a number of

innovations, it did not lead to the Scientific Revolution.

• Will Durant, Fielding H. Garrison, Hossein Nasr and Bernard

Lewis: Muslim scientists helped in laying the foundations for an
experimental science with their contributions to the scientific
method and their empirical, experimental and quantitative approach
to scientific inquiry.

•
Causes of the Decline

• 1. Invasions

• a. The Crusade: put the Islamic world under pressure with invasions
in the 11th and 12th centuries.

• b. The Mongols: A far greater threat emerged from the East during
the 13th century.The destruction of Baghdad and the House of
Wisdom by Hulagu Khan in 1258.

• c. The Christian Reconquista: In the Iberian Peninsula, the Catholic

Monarchs completed the missions in 1492, which also marks, for
some historians, the end of the Islamic Golden Age
• Causes of the Decline

• 2. Politics, reasoning and economics

• political mismanagement

• the stifling of ijtihad (independent reasoning) in the 12th century in

favor of institutionalised taqleed (imitation) thinking played a part.

• Some Muslims rejected the thesis, arguing that science was always
kept separate from religious argument;

• they instead analysed the decline in terms of economic and political

factors. Economically the Ottoman conquest of the Arabic-speaking
Middle East in 1516-17 placed the traditional heart of the Islamic
world under Ottoman Turkish control. Starting in the 16th century,
the opening by the European powers of new sea trade routes to East
Asia and the Americas bypassed the Islamic economies, greatly
reducing prosperity.

• Definitions of Family

• Some of the definitions of “family” (from Latin: familia) are as

following:
➢A group of individuals living under one roof and usually under
one head or household.
➢The basic unit of society traditionally consisting of two parents
raising their children.
➢A family is a group of two people or more (one of whom is the
householder) related by birth, marriage, or adoption and
residing together; all such people (including related subfamily
members) are considered as members of one family.
• With the rise of “single parent families”, “same sex couples” and
“live together outside of marriage”, traditional definitions of family
are being widely broken in the western world.

• Types of Family

• As the basic unit of society anthropologists generally classify most

family organization as
✓Matrifocal family (a mother and her children);
✓Conjugal/nuclear family (a husband, his wife, and children;
✓Avuncular family: kind, tolerant, babacan (for example, a
grandparent, a brother, his sister, and her children);
✓Extended family (parents and children coreside with other
members of one parent's family).

•
Functions of Family

• The primary functions of the family involves

• providing a framework for the production and reproduction of

persons,
➢biologically and/or
➢socially: the principal institution for raising children and their
socialization

• This can occur through

✓the sharing of material substances (such as food);
✓the giving and receiving of care and nurture (nurture kinship);
 ✓jural/legal rights and obligations; and
✓moral and sentimental ties.
•
Family Quotes

• You are a garment to them, and they are a garment for you. Qur'an
2:187

• “Nikah (marriage) is my Sunna. He who shuns my Sunna is not of

me.” Hz. Muhammad

• "When a man marries, he has fulfilled half of his religion, so let him
fear Allah regarding the remaining half." Hz. Muhammad

• "A man marries a woman for four reasons: for her property, for her
rank, for her beauty, and for her religion (and character). So marry
the one who is best in the religion and character and prosper". Hz.
Muhammad

• “You don’t chose your family; they are God’s gift to you, as you are
to them.” Desmond Tutu

• “Family is not important, it is every thing.” Michael J. Fox

• Muslim Family

• A Muslim family consists of

 ➢a legally married couple (husband and wife) and
➢their children.
• It also includes
their parents,
siblings and other relatives.
• A Muslim family comes into existence through two means:
❖blood relationship and
❖marriage.
Allah says, “And it is He Who has made man from water: Then He
has set up relationships of family and marriage.” [Furqan: 54]

• The First Family in history

• The first family came into existence with the creation of first man
and woman, Adam and Hawa (Eve). Allah says,

• “And (remember) when your Lord said to the angels; “I will create
a vicegerent on earth.” They said: “Will You place in there, one who
will make mischief and shed blood in there? While we (indeed)
celebrate Your Praises and glorify Your Holy (Name)? He said: “I
do know what you do not know.” [Baqarah: 30]

• Then Allah created for the first man his pair (zawj) in the form of
the first woman. That’s how the first family of husband and wife
came into being.
Muslim Women
• the Quran, says: men and women are equal before God. Muslims
offer these practices as evidence of equality:
– Islam accepts a woman, whether single or married, as an
individual in her own right, with the right to own and dispose
of her property and earnings.
– A marital gift (mahr) is given by the groom to the bride for her
own personal use,
– She may keep her own family name rather than adopting her
husband's.
– Roles of men and women are complementary and collaborative.
– Rights and responsibilities of both sides are equitable and
balanced in their totality.

•
CHARACTERISTICS OF A MUSLIM FAMILY

• 1.0 RIGHTS and RESPONSIBILITIES

• 1.1 Balance between rights and responsibilities: Each member of

the family husband wife, or child, has both rights and
responsibilities.

• 1.2 Child rearing: Both parents are jointly responsible for the
upbringing of their children (aqidat, emotional, physical,
psychological, and social)

• 1.3 Division of labor: Women are emotionally and psychologically

equipped for child rearing. There has been no corresponding
increase in men's home responsibilities with the result that the
family ends up as the ultimate loser.
• 1.4 Conjugal rights: Each of the spouses has rights and
responsibilities to the other.

• The Importance of Education in Islam

• "Iqra" READ! Seek knowledge! Educate yourselves! Be educated.

(al-Alaq, 1)
• "Are those equal, those who know and those who do not know?"
(Al-Zumr, 9)
• "Allah grants wisdom to whom He pleases and to whom wisdom is
granted indeed he receives an overflowing benefit." (Al-Baqarah,
269)

• “Seeking knowledge is mandatory for all Muslims.” Hadith

• “The position of only two persons is enviable; the person whom
Allah bestowed wealth empowering him to spend it in the way of
righteousness, and the person whom Allah gave wisdom with which
he adjudges and which he teaches to others.” Hadith
• “A single scholar of religion is more formidable against shaytaan
than a thousand devout persons.” Hadith
• "It is the duty of every Muslim man and woman to seek
ilm/education," Hadith

• Traveling to other cities to seek knowledge under the direction of

different masters was a common practice called “rıhla” in the early
centuries of Islam.
•
Early history of Islamic Educational Institutions

• The first institute of madrasa education was at the estate of Arkam

bin Abi’lArkam near a hill called Safa.

• Hz. Muhammad was the teacher and the students were some of his
followers.

• After Hijrah the madrasa of "Suffa" was established in Madina on

the east side of the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi.

• In the curriculum, there were teachings of The Qur'an, The Hadith,

fara'iz, tajweed, nasab/genealogy, treatises of first aid, etc.

• There were also trainings of horse-riding, art of war, handwriting

and calligraphy, athletics and martial arts.

•
Mosque/Masjid: The First Schools

• the early elementary educational institutions

• masjeds the mosque schools

• founded by the Prophet himself; he sat in the mosque surrounded by

a halqa (circle) of listeners, intent on his instructions.

• Hz. Muhammad also sent teachers to the various tribes to instruct

their members in the Qur'an.

• During the Abbasid period, thousands of mosque schools were

established throughout the Muslim empire
• the subjects of study Qur’an, hadith, fiqh , philology, poetry, rhetoric
and others.

• Maktab/Kuttabs: Primary and Secondary education

• The word maktab (Turkish: Mekteb) derives from the Arabic root k-
t-b meaning "writing”, Therefore, maktab literally means "a place
where writing and learning take place".

• In the medieval Islamic world, an elementary, primary and

secondary schools were known as a maktab/kuttabs, which dates
back to at least the 10th century.

• a maktab was often attached to an endowed mosque.

• Madrasa: Higher Education

• The word madrasah (Turkish: Medrese) derives from the Arabic root
d-r-s, meaning "a place where something is done".

• Therefore, madrasah literally means "a place where learning and

studying take place".

• Madrasa is any type of educational institution, whether secular or

religious.

• In the West, the word usually refers to a specific type of religious

school or college for the study of the Islamic religion, though this
may not be the only subject studied. Muslims; there is also a modern
curriculum.
• Western writers and commentators post-9/11 often perceive
madrasas as places of radical revivalism with a connotation of anti-
Americanism and radical extremism, frequently associated in the
Western press with Wahhabi attitudes toward non-Muslims
• Influences of Muslim Educational System on Europe

• the European university borrowed many of its features from the

madrasa, including
✓the concepts of a degree and doctorate.
✓holding the 'Chair' of their subject" being based on the “Islamic
pattern of teaching where the professor sits on a chair and the
students sit around him",
✓the term 'academic circles' being derived from the way in which
Islamic students "sat in a circle around their professor”
✓the terms "having 'fellows', 'reading' a subject, and obtaining
'degrees', be traced back" to the Islamic concepts of aṣḥāb,
qirāʼah
✓ijāzah ('licence [to teach]') respectively,
✓delivering inaugural lectures,
✓wearing academic robes,
✓obtaining doctorates by defending a thesis,
✓the idea of academic freedom modelled on Islamic custom.”
•
Influence of Muslim Educational System on Europe
In the 11.-12. centuries, as Islamic influence spread to Spain, Sicily and
the rest of Europe, Europeans became increasingly aware of Muslim
advancements in many fields, especially education and science.

• Books were translated from Arabic into Latin and, later, to

vernacular language. European schools which had long limited
learning to the "seven liberal arts" began to expand their curricula.
For some five hundred years, Islamic learning and scholarship played a
major role in the development of education in the West.

• The Muslims brought with them well-developed techniques in

translation and research and opened new vistas in areas of medicine,
the physical sciences and mathematics.
Application of empiricism in all fields of study was rapidly incorporated
into the learning system of those who became familiar with Muslim
methodology.

• Long before the popularization of the phrase "transfer of

technology," a term used to describe advanced expertise which
developed nations offer to Third World countries, the Muslims
shared their accumulated knowledge and institutions with the rest of
the world.

•
Support of Muslim Women to Education

Unlike Europe during the Middle Ages (and even up until the 1800s and
1900s), rather than being seen as second-class citizens, women played
an active role in public life, particularly in the field of education.
• The al-Qarawīyīn University in Fas was established in 859 by a
wealthy merchant by the name of Fatima al-Fihri.
Harun al-Rashid’s wife, Zubayda, personally funded many construction
projects for mosques, roads, and wells in the Hijaz, which greatly benefit
the many students that traveled through these areas.
• The Ayyubid dynasty in the 12th and 13th centuries, when 160
mosques and madrasas were established in Damascus, 26 of which
were funded by women through the Waqf system. Half of all the
royal patrons for these institutions were also women.
The wife of Suleyman, Hurrem Sultan endowned
numerous madrasas, in addition to other charitable works such as
hospitals, public baths, and soup kitchens.

• What is social structure?

• The people in a society considered as a system organized by a

characteristic pattern of relationships; social structure is social
organization based on established patterns of social interaction
between different relationships. Social structure varies between
countries and can play a key role in interaction between countries.
Social structure has influence on the followings:
• Socialization
• Status Expectations
• Legal Regulations
• Ideology

• Islamic usage and origin

• Al-Ummah al-Wāhidah in the Quran ( ‫"أمةواحدة‬One Community")

refers to all of the Islamic world as it existed at the time.
• The Qur’an says: "You [Muslims] are the best nation brought out for
Mankind, commanding what is righteous ( ‫معروف‬Ma'rūf, lit.
 "recognized [as good]") and forbidding what is wrong ( ‫منكر‬Munkar,
lit. "recognized [as evil]")" [Al-i Imran 3:110].
• The usage is further clarified by the Constitution of Medina

• Ummah in Macca

• The first Muslims did not need to make a break with traditional
Quraysh customs since the vision for the new community included
moral norms that were not unfamiliar to the tribal society of Mecca.

• However, what distinguished this community from the tribes was its
focus of the place of those morals within a person's life.

• Ummah in Madina
• Hz. Muhammad and the first converts to Islam al-Muhajirun
(immigrants) were welcomed in Medina by the Ansar (Helpers), a
group of Pagans who had converted to Islam.
• Despite Medina already being occupied by numerous the arrival of
Hz Muhammad and his followers provoked no opposition to
Medina's residents.
• Hz. Muhammad composed the document/Constitution of Medina
with the various Arab tribal leaders and Jewish tribes in order to
form the Meccan immigrants and the Medinan residents into a single
community, the ummah.
• the Constitution of Medina ensured that the ummah was composed
of a variety of people and beliefs such as Judaism essentially
making it to be supratribal.

• Membership of Principles of ummah

• The membership of the ummah was based on two main principles.
– to worship God alone
– in order to worship God properly one must be in a guided
community.

• The essentials of the new society were the new relations between
human beings and God and between human beings and one another.
The society was held together by the Prophet.

• Main Segments of Islamic Social Structure

• Muhajirun

• Muhajirun were the early, initial Muslims who followed the prophet
Muhammad on his Hijra (withdrawal from Mecca to Medina).

• Ansar

• Ansar denotes the Medinan citizens that helped the prophet

Muhammad and the Muhajirun on the arrival to the city after the
migration to Medina

• and fought in the cause of Islam.

• they belonged to two main tribes, the Banu Khazraj and the Banu
Aus.

• Mawaly
• Mawaly or mawālá (‫ )موالي‬is a term in classical Arabic used to
address nonArab Muslims such as Persians, Turks, Africans Babras
and Kurds converted to Islam.
• Originally the term mawla (singular of mawaly) referred to a party
with whom one had an egalitarian relationship, such as a relative,
ally, or friend, but the term eventually came to designate a party
with whom one had an unequal relationship, such as master, and
patron, and slave, freedman, and client.
• The influx of nonArab converts to Islam created a new difficulty in
incorporating them into tribal Arab society. The solution appeared to
be the contract of wala', through which the nonArab Muslims
acquired an Arab patron.

• The Ulama
• There is an encouragement in Qur’an to go deep in scholarship.
• The word “ulama” is plural of “alim”
▪ The place of “ulama” has always been important in the Ummah
▪ They have been perceived representatives of the prophet.
▪ In early Islamic times, this notion was very strong and those who
were in the status of ulama would be appointed as judges.
▪ The ulama were most concerned with preserving, interpreting and
applying the Qur’an and to maintain the norms of the prophet’s
original umma.
▪ Ulama are very concerned with the contemporary problems of
umma.
▪ Their assessments of issues, personal opinions as well as collective
discussions, from theological doctrine to criminal punishments
established a basis for religious and social order.
• Foundations of Economic regulations in Islamic Civilisation

The Qur’an and Sunnah: The economic concepts are constructed on

the Qur’an and the Sunnah, and systematized by commentators.
Fiqh has traditionally dealt with economy determining what is
property, money, employment, taxes, etc. or anything else, on state
economy of revenues, expenditures and economy of people,
trading, farming, herding, crafting.
Islamic law distinguishs between ibadat (ritual worship such as prayer
or fasting) and muamalat (acts involving interaction and exchange
among people such as sales and sureties).
Early Muslim scholars contributed to Islamic economic thought:
Abu Yusuf (d. 798), Mawardi (d. 1058), Ibn Hazm (d. 1064),
Sarakhsi (d. 1090), Tusi (d. 1093), Ghazali (d. 1111), Dimashqi (d.
after 1175), Ibn Rushd (d. 1187), Ibn Taymiyyah (d.1328), Ibn al-
Ukhuwwah (d. 1329), Ibn al-Qayyim (d. 1350), Shatibi (d. 1388),
Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406), Maqrizi (d. 1442), Dawwani (d. 1501), and
Shah Waliyullah (d. 1762).

•
Bait al-Mal: History

In the time of Hz. Muhammad and Abu Bakr no permanent Bayt alMal.
Revenues were received were distributed immediately. No salaries to be
paid, and no state expenditure. Abu Bakr earmarked a house for keeping
all money. As all money was distributed immediately the treasury was
locked up. At the death of Abu Bakr there was only one dirham in Bayt
alMal.
• After consulting Umar establish the Bait al-Mal. Abdullah bin
Arqam was appointed as the Treasury Officer.
• Later provincial treasuries were set up. After meeting the local
expenditure the provincial treasuries were required to remit the
surplus amount to the central treasury at Madinah.
Yaqubi records that the salaries and stipends charged to the central
treasury amounted to over 30 million dirhams. A separate building was
constructed for the royal treasury by the name Bayt al-Mal, which in
large cities was guarded by as many as 400 guards.

•
Welfare state of Islamic Civilisation

• The concepts of welfare and pension were introduced in early

Islamic law as forms of Zakat (charity), under the Rashidun
Caliphate in the 7th century. This practice continued well into the
Abbasid era of the Caliphate.

• The taxes (including Zakat and Jizya) collected in the treasury were
used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly,
orphans, widows, and the disabled.

• According to Ghazali (d. 1111), the government was also expected

to stockpile food supplies in every region in case a disaster or
famine occurred.

• The Caliphate administration can thus be considered the world's first

major welfare state.

•
Public property

The public property in Islam refers to natural resources (forests,

pastures, uncultivated land, water, mines, oceanic resources etc.) to
which all humans have equal right.

• Such resources are considered the common property of the

community.
• Such property is placed under the guardianship and control of the
state, and can be used by any citizen, as long as that use does not
undermine the rights of other citizens.
“People are partners in three things: water, fire and pastures” Hadith

• It led some scholars to believe that the privatization of water and

energy is not permissible.
Hz. Muhammad allowed other types of public property, such as gold
mines, to be privatized, in return for tax payments to the state.

•
Free Market economy

In Islam "everything is Halal unless it has been declared Haram",

consequently "the economic model in Muslim environment is based on
the freedom of trade and freedom of contract .
• Islam prohibits narhk (price fixing) by a dominating handful of
buyers or sellers. During the days of Hz. Muhammad, a small group
of merchants met agricultural producers outside the city and bought
the entire crop, thereby gaining a monopoly over the market. The
produce was later sold at a higher price within the city.
Some scholars hold that if an inexperienced buyer is swayed by the
seller, the consumer may nullify the transaction upon realizing the
seller's unfair treatment. The Qur'an also forbids discriminatory
transactions.
• Rushwah (bribery) is forbidden. Hz. Muhammad cursed the one
who offers the bribe, the one who receives it, and the one who
arranges it.
• Islam also declared haram recieving riba (interest).
"O, you who believe! Devour not riba, doubled and redoubled, and be
careful of Allah; but fear Allah that you may be successful." Quran 3:
130)
•
Mediavel Trade in Islamic Civilisation

• The West Asian economy during the Islamic period depended very
heavily on trade, the silk route and the spice route.

• In the north of the Islamic Empire was the Silk Road, running
across China, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Iran, Iraq, and Syria to
Lebanon, the Byzantine Empire, and across the Mediterranean to
Italy.

• It led through deserts and over very high mountain passes, so it was
a difficult and dangerous route.

• As the name implies, silk was a very important part of what was
traded along the Silk Road. But other things also traveled - from
China, cotton cloth, paper, furs etc. From Africa, the Mediterranean
and West Asia, traders carried gold, silver, ivory, glass, and jewels.

• In the south of Islamic lands the spice trade refers to

the trade between historical civilizations in Asia, Northeast Africa
and Europe. Spices such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger,
pepper, and turmeric were known and used in antiquity for
commerce in the Eastern World.

• Trade of Muslims by Sea route

• Traders in the Islamic Empire also controlled another very rich trade
route from India to Egypt by way of the Arabian Peninsula.

• Most of these traders went by sea, taking advantage of the monsoon

wind patterns to sail their ships. From the Mediterranean and Africa,
these traders brought gold, glass, and ivory.
• They exchanged these things in India for, black pepper, sugar, and
other spices, and for oranges, though by 300 AD people were
beginning to grow oranges for themselves even in Italy.

• The Islamic Agricultural Revolution

• Fundamental transformation in agriculture from the 8th century to
the 13th century in the Muslim lands, a period which the Islamic
Civilisation in its peak.
widely practiced cash cropping and the modern crop rotation system
where land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter
crops were followed by summer ones, and in some cases there were
crops in between. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were
used, such as spinach and eggplants/aubergine, the land could be
cropped three or more times a year.
developed a scientific approach based on three major elements;
– sophisticated systems of crop rotation,
– highly developed irrigation techniques, and
– the introduction of a large variety of crops which were studied
and catalogued according to the season, type of land and
amount of water they require.

• Sources of Islamic civilization

• The primary sources, accepted universally by all Muslims,
❖ the Qur'an
❖ Sunnah.
• Secondary sources
 consensus/ijma,
 the exact nature of which bears no consensus itself;
 analogical reason/qıyas;
 pure reason/aqıl;
 seeking the public interest/maslaha;
 juristic discretion;
 the rulings of the first generation of Muslims;
 local customs/urf.
• The Qur’an
• The verses of the Qur'an are categorized into three fields:
"science of speculative theology",
"ethical principles”
"rules of human conduct".
• The Holy Qur'an is considered
➢ a source of thought and
➢ origin of understanding, knowledge, legislation and civilization
• The Sunnah

• Commonly defined as "the traditions and customs of the prophet

Muhammad" or "the words, actions and silent assertions of him".
• The sunnah is the Qur’an in action, or the Qur’an-implemented, at
the hands of the infallible and most trusted person, Prophet
Muhammad (pbuh). The sunnah thus cannot be observed and rightly
understood except through the prism of the Qur’an.
The sunnah owes its very existence to the Qur’an.

• Qıyas/Anology
• Literally means measuring the length, weight or quality of
something.
• Technically Qiyas means comparison to establish equality or
similarity between two things.
• The success and expansion of Islam brought it into contact with
different cultures, societies and traditions, such as those of
Byzantines and Persians. With such contact, new problems
emerged for Islamic law to tackle. Moreover, there was a
significant distance between Medina, the Islamic capital, and the
Muslims on the periphery on the Islamic state. Thus far off
jurists had to find novel Islamic solutions without the close
supervision of the hub of Islamic law (back in Medina).

• Ijma’/consensus

• The word ijma’is derived from jamaa’. Meaning: Collecting,

gathering together.

The ijma' or consensus amongst Muslim jurists on a particular legal

issue.

• Muslim jurists provide many verses of the Qur'an that legitimize

ijma' as a source of legislation. Muhammad himself said: "My
followers will never agree upon an error or what is wrong", "God's
hand is with the entire community".
• In history, it has been the most important factor in defining the
meaning of the other sources and thus in formulating the doctrine
and practice of the Muslim community.

•
Istihsan/Juristic discretion

• Abu Hanifa developed a new source known as juristic discretion

called istihsan. Juristic discretion is defined as:

• A means to seek ease and convenience,

• To adopt tolerance and moderation,

• To over-rule analogical reason, if necessary.

• The doctrine was justified directly by the Qur'anic verse stating:

"Allah desires you ease and good, not hardship".

• This doctrine was useful in the Islamic world outside the Middle
East where the Muslims encountered environments and challenges
they had been unfamiliar with in Arabia.

•
Masalih al-mursalah/Public interest

• Malik developed a tertiary source called al-maslahah al-mursalah,

which means that which is in the best interests of the general public.
According to this source, rulings can be pronounced in accordance
with the "underlying meaning of the revealed text in the light of
public interest".
• ‘Urf/Local custom

• The term urf, meaning "to know", refers to the customs and
practices of a given society.

• Islam recognizes customs that prevailed at the time of prophet

Muhammad but were not abrogated by the Qur'an or the tradition
(called "Divine silence").

• Practices later innovated are also justified, since Islamic tradition

says what the people, in general, consider good is also considered as
such by God. According to some sources, urf holds as much
authority as ijma (consensus), and more than qiyas (analogical
deduction).

• Urf is the Islamic equivalent of "common law”

• Transmission routes

• The main points of transmission of Islamic knowledge to Europe lay

in Sicily and Spain/Andalus.

• In Spain particularly Toledo, following the conquest of the city by

Spanish Christians in 1085.

• In Sicily, following the Islamic conquest of the island in 965 and its
reconquest by the Normans in 1091, an intense Norman-Arab-
Byzantine culture developed, exemplified by rulers such as King
Roger II, who had Islamic soldiers, poets and scientists at his court.

• The Crusaders

• The Crusades also intensified exchanges between Europe and the

Levant, with the Italian maritime republics taking a major role in
 these exchanges. In the Levant, in such cities as Antioch/Antakya,
Arab and Latin cultures intermixed intensively.

• During the 11th and 12th centuries, many Christian scholars

travelled to Muslim lands to learn sciences. From the 11th to the
14th centuries, numerous European students attended Muslim
centers of higher learning (which the author calls "universities") to
study medicine, philosophy, mathematics, cosmography and other
subjects.

•
Islamic technology

• A number of technologies in the Islamic world were adopted in

European medieval technology: various crops; various astronomical
instruments, including the Greek astrolabe which Arab astronomers
developed

• The word alcohol (to describe the liquid produced by distillation)

comes from Arabic al-kuhl.

• Islamic examples of complex water clocks and automata are

believed to have strongly influenced the European craftsmen who
produced the first mechanical clocks in the 13th century.

• The importation of both the ancient and new technology from the
Middle East and the Orient to Renaissance Europe represented “one
of the largest technology transfers in world history.”

• Various fruits and vegetables were introduced to Europe in this

period via the Muslim World, including the artichoke, spinach, and
aubergine.
• New techniques in clothing and new materials were also introduced,
including muslin (ince kumaş), taffetas (pamuklu kumaş), and satin.

• The production of sugar from sugar cane, pulp and paper, silk, and
various advances in making perfume, were transferred from the
Islamic world to medieval Europe.

• Islamic art

• Islamic decorative arts were highly valued imports to Europe

throughout the Middle Ages.

• In the early period textiles were especially important, used for

church vestments, shrouds, hangings and clothing for the elite.
Islamic pottery of everyday quality was still preferred to European
wares.

• Islamic objects did not offend Christian sensibilities. Medieval art in

Sicily is interesting stylistically because of the mixture of Norman,
Arab and Byzantine influences in areas such as mosaics and metal
inlays, sculpture, and bronze working.

• Islamic carpets

• Islamic carpets of Middle-Eastern origin, either from the Ottoman

Empire, the Levant or the Mamluk state of Egypt or Northern
Africa, were a significant sign of wealth and luxury in Europe, as
demonstrated by their frequent occurrence as important decorative
features in paintings from the 13th century and continuing into the
Baroque period.
•
Literature

• Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, considered the greatest epic of

Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the
hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islamic
eschatology, such as the Hadith and the spiritual writings of Ibn
Arabi. The Kitab al-Miraj, concerning Hz. Muhammad's ascension
to Heaven, was translated into Latin in 1264.

• Music

• A number of musical instruments used in European music were

influenced by Arabic musical instruments, including the rebec
(ancestor of violin) from the rebab, the guitar from qitara, the naker
from naqareh and the shawm and dulzaina from the reed
instruments zamr and al-zurna.

•
Vocabulary

• The adoption of the techniques and materials from the Islamic world
is reflected in the origin of many of the Arabic words now in use in
the Western world.

• Modern European languages, such as Spanish, Portuguese, French,

Italian and English owe a great debt to Arabic.
• The English language itself contains many words borrowed from
Arabic: algebra, alchemy, admiral, genius, ghoul, mare sherbet, soda
and many others.

Science in the cintext if Islamic civilizatin

• Islam has its own world view system including
beliefs about "ultmate reality, epistemology,
ontology, ethics, purpose, etc."
• Muslims believe that the Qur'an is the fnal
revelaton of Allah for the guidance of humankind.
• The belief that the Qur'an had prophesied
scientfc theories and discoveries has become a
strong and widespread belief in the Islamic world;
these prophecies are ofen ofered as evidence of
the divine origin of the Qur'an; see scientfc
foreknowledge in sacred texts for further
discussion of this issue.
Science in the cintext if Islamic civilizatin
• In 1976 Maurice Bucaille published his book,
The Bible, The Qur'an and Science,
• Argued that the Quran is in agreement with
scientfc facts, while the Bible is not. He states
that in Islam, science and religion have always
been “twin sisters”.
• Believed that the Quran's descriptons of
natural phenomena make it compatble with
modern science.

Islamic “Gilden Age”

• This period traditonally refers the reigns of the Abbasid caliph Harun
al-Rashid (786 to 809) and Ma’mun (813-833) with the inauguraton
of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various
parts of the world sought to translate and gather all the known
world's knowledge into Arabic.
• It is said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate
with the Mongol invasions and the Sack of Baghdad in 1258.
• Several contemporary scholars, however, place the end of the Islamic
Golden Age to be around the 15th to 16th centuries.
• The metaphor of a golden age began to be applied in 19th- century
by Orientalism. In 1868 Josias Leslie Porter, the author of a Handbook
for Travelers in Syria and Palestne, observed that the most beautful
mosques of Damascus were "like Mohammedanism itself, now
rapidly decaying" and relics of "the golden age of Islam".
Causes if Rising Science 1
• 1. Religiius inscriptins: Qur’an and Sunnah
• The Muslims were infuenced by the Quranic injunctons and hadiths
stressing the
value of knowledge.
• In the Abbasid era Baghdad in the Fatmid era Egypt became the center
of learning
and knowledge power, Included North Africa, Sicily, Palestne, Jordan,
Lebanon,
Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Tihamah, Hejaz, and Yemen.
• During that age, the major Islamic capital cites of Baghdad, Cairo,
Bukhara,
Samarkand, Córdoba became the main intellectual centers for science,
philosophy,
medicine, trade, and educaton.
• Many classic works of antquity that might otherwise have been lost
were translated
into Arabic and Persian, and later in turn translated into Turkish,
Hebrew, and Latn.
• They assimilated, synthesized, and advanced the knowledge gained
from the ancient
Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, Chinese, Egyptan, and Phoenician
civilizatons.
• 2. Freedim if Expressiin
• Perhaps the most signifcant feature of the Islamic Civilisaton in the
early era were
the freedoms given to the people and libertes given to the mind and
reason.
• The Abbasids reserved separate pulpits for diferent Islamic sects, and
scholars
expressed their ideas in whatever manner they pleased.
A Muslim alim
Causes if Rising Science 2
• 3. Givernment spinsirship
• The Muslim government heavily gave patronage to scholars and
invited them
from every place, fnancially supported them, and ignored what they
believed
in, even when it went against their beliefs.
• The money spent on research and the Translaton Movement for some
translatons is estmated to be equivalent to about twice the annual
research
budget of the United Kingdom’s Medical Research Council.
• The best scholars and notable translators, such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq,
had
salaries that are estmated to be the equivalent of professional athletes
today.
• 4. New techniligy
• With a new, easier writng system and the introducton of paper,
informaton
was democratzed to the extent that for probably for the frst tme in
history, it
became possible to make a living from simply writng and selling books.
• The use of paper spread from China into Muslim regions in the eighth
century,
arriving in Spain (and then the rest of Europe) in the 10th century.
A manuscript writen on paper in the Abbasid Era.
Causes if Rising Science 3
• 5. Earlier cultural infuence
• Eastern Christan scholars were important in preserving ancient Greek
texts.
• They contributed to the Islamic Civilizaton during the Ummayads and
the Abbasids by translatng
works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and aferwards to Arabic.
Nestorians played a prominent
role in the formaton of Arab culture, with the Jundishapur school being
prominent in the late
Sassanid, Umayyad and early Abbasid periods.
• Centers of learning and of transmission of classical wisdom included
– colleges such as Nisibis, Edessa, and the renowned hospital and
medical academy of Jundishapur;
– libraries included the Library of Alexandria and the Imperial Library
of Constantnople;
– other centers of translaton and learning functoned at Merv, Salonika,
Nishapur and Ctesiphon, situated just
south of what later became Baghdad.
– The House of Wisdom was a library, translaton insttute, and academy
established in Abbasid-era Baghdad,
Iraq.
• 6. Philisiphy
• Islamic scholars would also absorb ideas from China and India, adding
to the tremendous
knowledge from their own studies. Ibn Sina and other philosophers such
as al-Kindi and al-Farabi
combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced
through Islam.
• Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Latn and Ladino,
contributng to the
development of modern European philosophy.
• During this period, non-Muslims were allowed to fourish relatve to
their treatment in the
Christan Byzantne Empire. The Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides,
who lived in Andalusia,
is an example.
Causes if Rising Science 4
• 7. Science Scientfc methid
• Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) was a signifcant fgure in the history of
scientfc method, partcularly
in his approach to experimentaton, and has been referred by some to be
the "world’s frst true
scientst".
• There was the example of the classifcaton of materials as a sign of new
ways of thinking. While
the classifcaton of the material world by the ancient Greeks into Air,
Earth, Fire and Water was
more philosophical, medieval Islamic scientsts used practcal,
experimental observaton to
classify Materials.
• 8. Educatin
• During the early decades of Islam mosques formed the nerve centre of
politcal, religious and
educatonal actvites in Islam. Even during the present tme, mosques
house maktabs and
important insttutons of religious educaton throughout the Islamic
countries. Special quarters
were atached to the mosques and shrines for the residence of teachers,
students and travellers.
• Madrassa mosque was an innovaton of Persia, whose big
congregatonal mosques had separate
portons assigned for the important insttutons which imparted educaton in
all branches of
learning.
• There were three kinds of insttutons:
• (l) Those established and supported by the ruling class,
• (2) those founded by the wealthy class and supported by donatons and
endowments and
• (3) those founded by private lecturers.
Causes if Rising Science 5
• 9. Libraries
• The necessity of preserving the Quran and the Traditons (Hadith)
awakened the
spirit of collectng such writngs in various forms, which paved the way
for the
establishment of the earliest libraries in the world Of Islam.
• Khalid bin Yazid, a learned scientst of the Omayyad dynasty is credited
with being
the originator of libraries in Islaim. Hisham Bin Abdul Malik collected a
large. number
of rare manuscripts on various subjects in eluding an illustrated copy of
the ancient
history of Persia. A large number of books on theology had been
collected by
Shahab-al-Zuhri, a well-known traditonalist of his age.
• The Bait al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) founded by Harun-ar-Rashid
which was
divided into two sectons one was concerned with the translaton work
and the other
related to the collecton of books and housed a big library.
• Harun and Mamun was the moving spirit behind the House of Wisdom,
which
employed the best brains of the age and acquired astounding success is a
short span
of 20 years.
• The library atached to the House of Wisdom was immensely enlarged.
The libraries
gained so much popularity that by the close of the 11th century A. D.
there existed a
network of libraries throughout the vast Abbasid Empire, and before the
Mongol
invasion, Baghdad alone had 36 big libraries.
Scholars at an Abbasid library. Maqamat of al- Hariri Illustraton
by Yahyá al-Wasit, Baghdad 1237
Nitable felds if Sciences
• The roots of Islamic science drew primarily upon
Arab, Persian, Indian and Greek learning.
• The extent of Islamic scientfc achievement is not
as yet fully understood, but it is extremely vast.
• a wide range of subject areas; most notably
– Mathematcs Astronomy Medicine
• Other notable areas, and specialized subjects, of
scientfc inquiry include
– Physics, Alchemy and chemistry Cosmology
Ophthalmology
– Geography and cartography Sociology, Psychology
Illustratin if medieval Islamic schilars
The eye, according to Muslim scholars
From a manuscript dated circa 1200.
Innivatins
• Muslim engineers made a number of innovatve industrial uses of
• hydropower, tdal power, wind power, and petroleum.
• watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century,
• By the tme of the Crusades, every province throughout the Islamic
world had
mills in operaton. These mills performed a variety of agricultural and
industrial
tasks.
• It has been argued that the industrial use of waterpower had spread
from
Islamic to Christan Spain, where fulling mills, paper mills, and forge
mills were
recorded for the frst tme in Catalonia.
• A number of industries were generated during the
Muslim Agricultural Revoluton, including early industries for textles,
sugar,
rope-making, matng, silk, and paper.
• Latn translatons of the 12th century passed on knowledge of chemistry
and
instrument making in partcular.

Literature
• The best known fcton from the Islamic world was
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights /Kitāb alf laylah
wa-laylah.
• This epic has been infuental in the West since it was
translated in the 18th century. Many imitatons were writen,
various characters from this epic have themselves become
cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and
Ali Baba.
• A famous example of Arabic poetry on romance was
Layla and Majnun, which further developed mainly poets in
Persian, Turkish datng back to the Umayyad era in the 7th
century.
• It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later
Romeo and Juliet.
The views if in the medieval Islamic science
• There are several diferent views on Islamic science among historians of
science.
• The traditonalist view, by Bertrand Russell: Islamic science, while
admirable in
many technical ways, lacked the intellectual energy required for
innovaton and
was chiefy important as a preserver of ancient knowledge and transmiter
to
medieval Europe.
• The revisionist view, as exemplifed by Abdus Salam, George Saliba
and John M.
Hobson: a Muslim scientfc revoluton occurred during the Middle Ages.
• Scholars such as Donald Routledge Hill and Ahmad Y Hassan: Islam
was the
driving force behind the Muslim achievements.
• Dallal: science in medieval Islam was "practced on a scale
unprecedented in
earlier human history or even contemporary human history".
• Toby E. Huf: although Islamic science did produce a number of
innovatons, it
did not lead to the Scientfc Revoluton.
• Will Durant, Fielding H. Garrison, Hossein Nasr and Bernard Lewis:
Muslim
scientsts helped in laying the foundatons for an experimental science
with
their contributons to the scientfc method and their empirical,
experimental
and quanttatve approach to scientfc inquiry.

Causes if the Decline

• 1. Invasiins
• a. The Crusade: put the Islamic world under pressure with invasions in
the 11th and 12th
centuries.
• b. The Mongols: A far greater threat emerged from the East during the
13th century.The
destructon of Baghdad and the House of Wisdom by Hulagu Khan in
1258.
• c. The Christan Reconquista: In the Iberian Peninsula, the Catholic
Monarchs completed the
missions in 1492, which also marks, for some historians, the end of the
Islamic Golden Age
• 2. Pilitcs, reasining and ecinimics
• politcal mismanagement
• the stfing of ijthad (independent reasoning) in the 12th century in favor
of insttutonalised
taqleed (imitaton) thinking played a part.
• Some Muslims rejected the thesis, arguing that science was always
kept separate from
religious argument;
• they instead analysed the decline in terms of economic and politcal
factors. Economically the
Otoman conquest of the Arabic-speaking Middle East in 1516-17 placed
the traditonal heart
of the Islamic world under Otoman Turkish control. Startng in the 16th
century, the opening
by the European powers of new sea trade routes to East Asia and the
Americas bypassed the
Islamic economies, greatly reducing prosperity

Waqf in Islamic Civilisatin

Defnitons
• The wird waqf in Arabic literally means “ti hild, ti set aside”,
ir “ti dedicate cinfnement and prihibitin" ir “causing a thing
ti stip ir stand stll”.
• The term meaning: setng up perpetual charites ir
endiwments fir the beneft if the piir ir the general public, ir
even fir the beneft if ine's iwn family afer ine's death.
• The legal meaning if Waqf accirding ti Imam Abu Hanifa, is the
detentin if specifc thing in the iwnership if waqf and the
devitng if its prift ir priducts "in charity if piirs ir ither
giid ibjects".
• A waqf was used ti keep miney ir priperty tigether in private
hands; a piiling if wealth ti maintain private iwnership. It is a
piius and perpetual endiwment that is free frim tax.
• In English: Fiundatin, endiwment, charity
Bases of Waqf
• Waqf is ine if the means ti infaq ir give charity that is required and
shiuld be
implemented by the Islamic cimmunity.
• Allah has legislated endiwments, enciuraged it, and made it a way ti
draw nearer ti Him.
“You can never atain to true piety unless you spend on others out of
what you cherish
yourselves, and whatever you spend, verily Allah has full knowledge
thereof” (Al-i `Imran
3:92)
• The charity is described in the Baqarah: And spend in the way of Allah
and do not throw
[yourselves] with your [own] hands into destructon [by refraining]. And
do good; indeed,
Allah loves the doers of good. (Baqarah 2: 195
• The Messenger said: “The rewards if the giid deeds that will reach a
believer afer his
death are:
– kniwledge which he taught and spread;
– a righteius child whim he leaves behind;
– a cipy if the Qur'an that he leaves as a legacy;
– a misque that he built;
– a hiuse that he built fir wayfarers;
– a canal that he dug;
– ir charity that he gave during his lifetme when he was in giid health.
These deeds will reach him
afer his death.”
• al-sadaqa al-jariyah
Benefts of Waqf
• Islam enciurages giid deeds and spending fir the sake if
Allah.
• Endiwments are frim the types if perpetual, ingiing charity.
• It have pisitvely infuenced the prisperity in Muslim lands.
• it is the greatest and lify means if giid and mist benefcial
paths if righteiusness.
• İt is a means if silidarity between individuals if this religiius
cimmunity.
• İt imprives the living cinditin if the piir and strengthens
and assists the weak.
• İt is live, afectin, and mutual afnity are atained, and
stability and ciiperatin are established amingst individuals
if a siciety.
First Waqfs in Islam
• The Priphet (pbuh) endiwed the priperty he had in his
pissessiin as a charity fir the piir afer his death.
• Afer the Priphet's death, a number if his Cimpaniins,
including his iwn wives, filliwed these precedents and set up
waqf investments as perpetual charites.
• `Umar ibn Al-Khatab asked the Priphet what he shiuld di
with the priperty he had acquired in Khaybar, the Priphet
advised him ti endiw it as a waqf.
• Abu Bakr Siddiq, Uthman Ghani, Ali Ibn Abu Talib, Zubair, Muaz
ibn Jabal, Zaid ibn Thabit, Saad ibn Waqqas, Khalid ibn Walid,
Jabir ibn Abdullah, and Abdullah ibn Zubair had all made a
Waqf.
• Inspired by such precedents, the Muslims develiped the system
if waqf, which cinsists if perpetual charites ir endiwments.
Uthman b. Afan’s Waqf
When the Muslim migrated ti Madina there was severe shirtage if water.
There was
inly ine sweet water well (kniwn as the well if Rauma) iwned by a Jew
whi used ti
charge exirbitant amiunt if miney fir his water.
Rasulullah (saw) primised hiuse in paradise fir the ine whi buys this well
and dedicates
it ti the believers fir their water needs.
Uthman Ibn Afan (RA) went ti the Jew and ifered ti purchase his well
which the Jew
declined. Uthman persisted in his ifer and paid enirmius miney fir half if
the well. It
is mentined that Uthman paid simewhere ariund 20,000 Dirhams fir half
if the well
which is enirmius price even by tiday’s standards. (The Islamic Dinar is
a specifc
weight of 22k gold (917.) equivalent to 4.25 grams. The Islamic Dirham
is a specifc
weight of pure silver equivalent to 2.975 grams. 7 dinars is equivalent to
10 dirhams.)
Uthman Ibn Afan (RA) dedicated the well fir free water and it cintnues ti
pump water
even untl tiday.
Over 1400+ years due ti abundant water the area ariund the well becime
fertle and
develiped a garden if high quality dates with as many as 1550 trees
during the Otiman
rule if Madina. The Acciunts (tiday) are kept in a Bank Acciunt in
Madina even tiday if
all the prifts in the name if Uthman Ibn Afan. Saudi Givernment has
decided ti build a
Hitel with this miney and the yearly earning are estmated ti be 50 milliin
Saudi Riyals.
Half if the prifts will be spent in the piir while the ither half (if the prifts)
will be
depisited back inti the Acciunt.
Waqfs if Uthman b. Afan ra
Founding a Waqf 1
• Processes of Founding
• Fıqh puts several legal cinditins in the pricess if establishing a
waqf.
• Founder/endower
• A waqf is a cintract, therefire the fiunder (called al-waqıf ir almu abbis
h ) must be if the capacity ti enter inti a cintract. Fir
this the fiunder must:
– be an adult
– be siund if mind
– capable if handling fnancial afairs
– nit under interdictin fir bankruptcy
– being a Muslim is nit required ti establish a waqf, and dhimmis may
establish a waqf.
– if a persin is fatally ill, the waqf is subject ti the same restrictins as a
will in Islam.
Founding a Waqf 2
• Property
• The priperty (called al-mawqūf ir al-mu abbas h ) used ti fiund a waqf
must
be ibjects if a valid cintract.
• 1. the fiunder must have cintril iver the ibject; fir example fsh in the
sea
wiuld nit sufce.
• 2. the ibject shiuld nit be illegal in Islam (e.g. wine ir pirk).
• 3. these ibjects shiuld nit already be in the public dimain. Thus, public
priperty cannit be used ti establish a waqf: the priperty must be the
fiunder's iwn.
• 4. The fiunder cannit alsi have pledged the priperty previiusly ti
simeine
else.
• 5. The priperty dedicated ti waqf is generally immivable, such as
estate.
• 6. All mivable giids can alsi firm waqf, accirding ti mist Islamic jurists.
The Hanafs, hiwever, alsi alliw mist mivable giids ti be dedicated ti a
waqf with sime restrictins.
• Sime jurists have argued that even gild and silver (ir ither currency)
can be
designated as waqf.
Waqf Writng Room in Mevlana Museum
Founding a Waqf 3
• Benefciaries
• The benefciaries (mawqūfun laha or mawqūfun alayha) if the waqf can
be
persins and public utlites.
• The fiunder can specify which persins are eligible fir beneft (such the
fiunder's family, entre cimmunity, inly the piir, travelers). Public utlites
such as misques, schiils, bridges, graveyards and drinking fiuntains can
be
the benefciaries if a wa f. k
• Valid benefciaries must satsfy the filliwing cinditins:
• 1. must be identfable. At least sime if the benefciaries must alsi exist at
the tme if the fiunding if the waqf.
• 2. must nit be at war with the Muslims. Schilars stress that nin-Muslim
citzens if the Islamic state (dhimmi) can defnitely be benefciaries.
• 3. may nit use the waqf fir a purpise in cintradictin if Islamic
principles.
• Mist schilars agree that ince the waqf is fiunded, it can't be taken back.
• The anafs hild that the list if benefciaries include a perpetual element;
the H
waqf must specify its benefciaries in case.
Founding a Waqf 4
• Declaraton of founding
• The declaratin if fiunding is usually a writen dicument,
(waqfiyaha/waqıfnama) deed accimpanied by a verbal
declaratin.
• In sime cases even, a waqf can be fiunded by cimmitng
actins that imply the intentin if establishing a waqf. Fir
example, if a persin builds a misque and alliws ither ti pray
in it regularly, ir if simeine builds a graveyard and alliws
ithers ti bury their dead, then these actins are regarded
tantamiunt ti fiunding a waqf.
• Whatever the declaratin, mist schilars hild that it is nit
binding and irrevicable untl actually delivered ti the
benefciaries ir put in their use. Once in their use, hiwever,
the waqf becimes an insttutin in its iwn right.
A waqfyah
Waqfyah
• The twi ildest kniwn waqfya (deed) dicuments
are frim the 9th century, while a third ine dates
frim the early 10th century, all three within the
Abbasid Periid.
• The ildest dated waqfya gies back ti 876,
cincerns a mult-vilume Qur'an editin and is
held by the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum in
Istanbul.
• A pissibly ilder waqfya is a papyrus held by the
Liuvre Museum in Paris, with ni writen date but
cinsidered ti be frim the mid-9th century.
Administraton
• The fiunder makes arrangements by appiintng an
administratir (called na ir z ir mutawallī ir kayyim) and
lays diwn the rules fir appiintng successive
administratirs and biard if trustees (al-majlis almutawallis)
• The administratir, like ither persins if respinsibility
under slamic law, must have capacity ti act and
cintract.
• In additin, trustwirthiness and administratin skills are
required.
• the administratir be a Muslim, thiugh the Hanafs drip
this requirement.
Dutes of the Board of Trustees
• 1. Striving hard in administering the waqfs with the mist
well-kniwn custimary means.
• 2. Creatng irganizatin and regulatins in irder ti
administer what the supervisiin if waqfs needs in
fulflling its interests and future benefts.
• 3. Administering investments which fulfll its interests
withiut restrictins ir cinditins except fir adhering ti
Islamic regulatins.
• 4. Creatng an acciuntng department ti prepare annual
acciunts and fnancial repirts, in additin ti budgets,
and fnancial statements.
• 5. Appiintng an internal and external auditir frim
aming the best cinsultng frms in the feld if auditng.
Extncton
• Waqf are intended ti be perpetual and last firever. Nevertheless, Islamic
law envisages cinditins under which the waqf may be terminated:
• 1. If the giids if the waqf are destriyed ir damaged.
• Schilars interpret this as the case where giids are ni linger used in the
manner intended by the fiunder. The remains if the giids are ti revert
ti the fiunder ir his/her heirs.
• Other schilars, hiwever, hild that all pissibilites must be examined ti
see if the giids if the waqf can be used at all, exhaustng all methids if
expliitatin befire the terminatin. Thus, land, accirding ti such jurists,
can never becime extnguished.
• 2. A wa f can be declared null and viid by the a i, if its firmatin k k d
includes cimmitng acts itherwise illegal in Islam, ir it dies nit satsfy
the cinditins if validity, ir if it is against the nitin if philanthripy.
Since waqf is an Islamic insttutin it becimes viid if the fiunder
cinverts ti anither religiin.
Types of Waqfs:
• Waqfs are divided in twi categiries:
• 1. That which the waqıf gives in charity frim a primary siurce such as
land that he
endiwed fir a misque ir cemetery; ir a histel fir passer-bys; ir a hiuse fir
sildiers; ir
a residence fir pilgrims.
• 2. That which the waqıf gives in charity frim its revenue instead if the
primary siurce.
• A waqf, in regards ti the enttlement if its revenue, is divided inti twi
primary
categiries:
• 1. Family Based Waqf / Waqf-ı has
• the enttlement if the revenue is designated ti the endiwer himself, his
children, and
grandchildren, and a similar patern fir his relatves. Any endiwment
expenditures are
cinstricted ti the endiwer and his relatves and nit meant fir public
charitable purpises.
• 2. General or Charitable Endowment / Waqf-ı āmm
• Revenue generated frim this type if endiwment is distributed ti variius
avenues if
charitable efirts, whether they are individuals such as: the piir, desttute,
irphans, ir
students if sacred kniwledge; ir general avenues if giidness such as:
misques, schiils,
hispitals, libraries, invitng ithers ti Islam, paving riads, and si in, which
can beneft
peiple at large.
Goals of a Waqf:
• A waqf has hinirable gials and ibjectves. Sime if them:
• 1 – Seeking the pleasure if Allah.
• 2 – Fulflling the principle if cimmunal silidarity between
individuals if this religiius cimmunity.
• 3 – fulflls sicial and cultural gials. It privides educatinal
and iperatinal develipment fir the Muslim cimmunity.
• 4 – guarantees cinservatin if wealth, its pritectin, its
perpetual beneft, and maximizing its ling-term benefts.
This assures the religiius cimmunity ecinimic prisperity
as well as a secure livelihiid.
• 5 – guarantees fir his future relatves, children, and si in
frim generatins ti cime by means if generatng a steady
incime fir them.
Services of Waqf
• Serving misques, universites, educatinal
insttutins, hispitals, caravansaries,
dispensaries, Suf lidges, etc.
• Serving all kinds if public services, including
plantng fruit and shade trees, prividing water
facilites fir the cites, entertaining thise whi
are hispitalized, and even setng up animal
shelters fir digs, cats, etc.
Waqfs in the Otoman State
• Thriughiut the Otiman realms, the waqf was the primary
philanthripic insttutin as a majir instrument fir delivering public
giids.
• health and educatinal services, essental cinditins fir the
develipment if human capital, were privided via this insttutin.
• the Otimans largely succeeded ti eradicate piverty thriugh awqaf
via a viluntary transfer if wealth frim the rich ti the piir and the
later were fed and taken care if in a decentralized manner.
• Waqf was instrumental ti the spread if the Otimans whise pilicy
if setlement relied heavily in the establishment if awqaf in
suppirt if Suf centers that were planted aling the frinters if the
expanding state, in its strategic trade riutes and trafc arteries,
amidst its pilitcal rivals and enemies, ir in ither strategic
licatins, thus cintributng ti the spread if Islam as well.
(darwishes if cilinisatin)
Waqfs in the Otoman State
• The Otiman state cintributed ti awqaf in twi ways.
• First, either by directly establishing waqf ir by
grantng land ti thise whi wanted ti fiund a waqf.
In this way, the vacant lands had been briught inti
cultvatin, creatng extra revenues fir the state.
• Secind, the state cintributed by supervising,
cintrilling, and recirding the revenues and
expenditures in irder ti secure their wellfunctining. The cintril and the
supervisiin if the
waqf system can be atributed ti the impirtance if
the land in Otiman pilitcs.
Waqfs in the Otoman State
• Estmates shiw existence if sime 26.000 awqaf
in the Otiman State.
• In 1527, 12% if the while Otiman state
revenues were cintrilled by waqf
administratins,
• at the end if the eighteenth century the
cimbined incime if the Otiman awqaf
reached ti ine-third if the state's tital revenue

The Islamic City/Madinah

Urbanisatin in Islam
• According to Islamic traditon, man or woman is responsible
constructng a beautful world, almost a refecton of
Paradise.
• Islam is seen as an urban religion, which favours communal
practce on individual worship.
• it is widely accepted that most of Islam's teaching is best
practsed in an urban setng.
• made partcular emphasis on the form and design of the city
enabling it a greater functonality and responsiveness to meet
the socio-economic and cultural needs of the
community/ummah.
• The city is called in Arabic "madinah" which is derived from
the word tamaddun, which denotes civilizaton.
• In other Muslim languages, abad, kant and şehr refer city as
well.
What is Islamic City
• There is no frm consensus on what the term “islamic city” means.
– It can mean a city founded by Muslims during some partcular,
historical epoch.
– Or a city whose design, constructon and expansion took place during
epochs dominated by
Islamic civilizaton.
– Or a city that has in it certain, specifc features generally identfed as
‘Islamic’ (mosques
and minarets, for example).
– Or a city, old or new, that happens to be located within the Islamic
world.
– the term is sometmes used as a theoretcal or abstract concept, a kind of
ideal city whose
architectural styles and relatonships are inspired by full adherence to the
norms and values
of Islam.
• the Islamic city as an entty with distnctve form and characteristcs.
• the identfying features and characteristcs
• there is a general consensus (among scholars) that the Islamic city has
some
typical features.
• Some believe that the concept of an Islamic city is the product of the
"Orientalism”. The noton of the Islamic city originates in the west, that it
is
"defned in diference" to Western city.
Mirphiligical Cimpinents if the Islamic City
• 1. The main Misque: Al-Jami-al-Kabir/Jamiu’l-Fath/Ulu Jami
• The most important of part is the congregatonal mosques,
built to express and focus the religious commitment of the
Muslim community and its solidarity.
• The commercial and administratve actvites and associated
buildings grew around this central symbol of the Islamic city.
• It occupied the heart of the town and was usually surrounded
by the Suq (market) as the case of Zaytouna mosque in Tunis
and central mosque in Isfahan. This was where weekly Friday
prayers were held and atached to it there was the Madrasa
providing religious and scientfc teaching.
Umayyad Mosque Damascus
2. The Suqs/Bazaar/Market
• Located outside the ulu mosque, the Suqs or markets provided the
economic actvity.
• The central area was also the gathering of other public actvites such
as social services, administraton, trade, arts and crafs and baths
(Hammam) and hotels (Funduq and Waqala).
• Workshops and small factories were situated side by side, ofen
cooperatng in the producton of diferent artcles.
• Commercial centres also grew up around the main city gates, serving
the residental areas of the city and outlying villages.
• From the commercial centre, streets and roads branched out, usually
becoming narrower and more winding, more disposed to provide
seclusion than general access, into the residental quarters.
Al-Hamidiyyah Suq Damascus
3. Citadel
• Also known as kal’a, casbah or qasaba,
representng the palace of the governor,
• the citadel was surrounded by its own walls
and consttuted a district on its own with its
own mosque, guards, ofces, and residence. It
was usually located in the high part of the
town near the wall.
Kal’a of Aleppo

Kale of Ankara
4. Residental uarters/Mahalla
• the division of the cites into quarters where the Arab setlers were frst
housed.
• in many cases the diferent quarters are stll called by the names of the
clans
who frst inhabited them.
• There were also separate quarters for non-Arab converts to Islam
• quarters also for the non-Muslims,
• the diferent areas being linked by roads and lanes and joined to the
common
centre.
• They were described by some sholars as clusters of households of
partcular
quality of life based on closeness (qarâba) which is manifested in
personal tes,
common interests and shared moral unity.
• Each quarter had its own mosque used only for daily prayers, Quranic
school,
bakery, shops and other frst necessity objects. They even had their own
gates
which were usually closed at night afer last prayers and opened early
morning
at early prayers tme.
5. Street netwirk
• Connectng between these quarters and to the central place
was a network of narrow winding streets consistng of public
and private and semi-private streets and cul de sacs.
• The elevatons on the Islamic city streets are distnguished
by their plainness and simplicity.
• In contrast to the simplicity the exterior facades, the interior
of the houses was rich in architectural details and
ornamentaton, varying according to the tastes and means
of the occupants.
• Thus, while simplicity and likeness on the outside confrmed
the solidarity and egalitarianism of the community, the
variety and wealth of the interiors allowed for individual
freedom.
6. Wall/Sur
• A well-defended wall surrounded the town with a
number of gates.
• The city was surrounded by a wall, which in
additon to
– providing some defence in the event of military atack
– protected the inhabitants against the sand-laden
desert winds.
Access into the city was by large gates in the city walls,
then along the main spinal roads where the commercial
actvites were concentrated.
7. Exteriir/Birun
• There were the cemeteries (separate ones for
Muslims and Jews, and in a later period for
Christans),
• a weekly market just outside the main gate
where most animal suqs were held
• to private gardens and felds.
Design Principles if the Islamic City
• A number of factors played decisive roles in
ordering and shaping the plan and form of the
Islamic city.
– the infuence of local topography
– morphological features of pre-existng towns,
– the general socio-cultural, politcal, and economic
structures of the newly created society.
1. Natural laws
• the adaptaton of the built form and plan of
the city to natural circumstances expressed
through weather conditons and topography.
• These were expressed in the adopton of
concepts such as courtyard, terrace, narrow
covered streets and gardens.
• Such elements were designed for coping with
hot weather conditons dominatng the
environment in most of the regions of the
Islamic world.
2. Religiius and cultural beliefs
• The beliefs and practces formed the centre of cultural life
for populatons.
• the mosque is the central positon in spatal and
insttutonal hierarchies.
• The cultural beliefs separatng public and private lives
regulated the spatal order between uses and areas.
• Thus, the town plan consisted of narrow streets and cul-desacs
separatng private and public domains, while the land
use emphasised the separaton of male and female users.
• economic actvity that involved exchange and public
presence was separated from residental (private dwellings)
use and concentrated in public areas and in the main
streets.
3. Design principles stemmed frim Shariah law
• The Islamic city refected the rules of Sharia in
terms of physical and social relatons between
public and private realms, and between
neighbours and social groups.
• The privacy principle was made into a law
which sets the height of the wall above the
height of a camel rider.
• This as well as the laws of the property rights,
for example, were all factors determining the
form of the Islamic city.
4. Sicial principles
• The urban society was based on social groupings sharing
the same blood, ethnic origin and cultural perspectves.
• The city founded to meet these social needs, especially
in terms of kinship solidarity, defence, social order and
religious practces. Such groups included: Arabs, Moors,
Jews and other groups such as Andalusians, Turks, and
Berbers, as in cites of the Maghreb. These were
refected in the concept of quarters known as Ahya' (in
the Mashraq) or Huma (in the Maghreb).
• Factors such as extended-family structures, privacy,
gender separaton and strong community interacton
were clearly translated in the densely built form of the
courtyard houses. Haremlik and selamlık
Sime examples if Muslim Cites
Baghdad
• Bag "god" and dad "given", translatng to "God-given" or "God's
gif". Another explanaton bag "garden" and dad "fair", translatng
to "The fair garden”
• Mansur, chose the name Madinat al-Salam or City of Peace. This
was the ofcial name on coins, weights, and other ofcial usage,
although the common people contnued to use the old name. By
the 11th century, "Baghdad" became almost the exclusive name
for the world-renowned metropolis.
• It took four years to build (764-768). The Abbasid caliph Mansur
assembled engineers, surveyors, and art constructonists from
around the world to come together and draw up plans for the city.
• Over 100,000 constructon workers came to survey the plans;
many were distributed salaries to start the building of the city.
Baghdad
• Baghdad evolved into a signifcant cultural, commercial,
and intellectual center for the Islamic world.
• In the High Middle Ages considered to be the largest
city in the world with an estmated populaton of
1,200,000 people. According to some archeologists it
was the frst city to reach a populaton over one million
inhabitants. By the 10th century, the city's populaton
was between 1.2 million and 2 million. In 1907 as
185,000.
• The city was largely destroyed at the hands of the
Mongol Empire in 1258.
Baghdad
• conqured by, by Timur in 1402, Kara Koyunlu (1411–1469), Ak
Koyunlu
(1469–1508), and the Iranian Safavid (1508–1534) dynastes.
• In 1534 captured by the Otoman Turks, untl the 20th century remained
under Otoman rule untl 1917, when captured by the Britsh during
World War I.
• In Iraq as an independent state (formerly the Britsh Mandate of
Mesopotamia) in 1938, Baghdad gradually regained some of its former
prominence as a signifcant center of Arab culture.
• the city has ofen faced severe infrastructural damage, most recently
due
to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and the subsequent Iraq War that lasted untl
December 2011.
• In recent years, the city has been frequently subjected to insurgency
atacks. As of 2012, Baghdad was listed as one of the least hospitable
places in the world to live, and was ranked as the worst of 221 major
cites as measured by quality of-life.
Plan of Baghdad
• The basic framework of the city consists of two large
semicircles about 19 km in diameter.
• The city was designed as a circle about 2 km in
diameter, leading it to be known as the "Round City".
• The original design shows as single ring of residental
and commercial structures along the inside of the city
walls, but the fnal constructon added another ring
inside the frst.
• Within the city there were many parks, gardens,
villas, and promenades.
• In the center of the city lay the mosque, as well as
headquarters for guards.
Baghdad between 767 and 912 AD
Original Constructon of Baghdad
Original Form of Baghdad
Baghdad in Middle ages
Baghdad in Middle ages
Cinquest if Baghdad by the Mingils in 1258
Briths entering Baghdad 1917
Baghdad 1930
Baghdad 1932
Baghdad 2000’s
THE ANDALUSIAN CITIES
• The cites and towns of Muslim Andalus were like brilliant
pearls. Among these were the key cites of Córdoba,
Granada, Seville, and Toledo.
Each of these cites played an important role in shaping
and sustaining the common culture of Al-Andalus.
• Córdoba served as the politcal center of Al-Andalus for
many centuries.
• Toledo was vibrant fronter cites.
• Seville played a key role in the agricultural vitality of
Islamic Spain.
• And, Granada witnessed the rise and fall of Muslim rule in
Iberia.
Qurtuba Mosque
Granada Alhambra Palace
Granada Alhambra
Sevilla/Ishbiliyyeh
Toledo
The old city of Sana'a, Yemen, with its distnctve
constructon and decoratve style.
The skyline of the city of Khiwa, Uzbekistan.
Bukhara Uzbekistan
Lahore Fort Pakistan
The skyline of a secton of old Cairo, Egypt.
Yazd Iran
Kairawan Tunisia built by Uqba b. Naf
Great Mosque of Kairawan
Great Mosque Kairawan
Samarra
Samarra
Kufa Iraq 1915
Kufa Iraq
Part 1 Summary:
1. **Definition of Civilization:**
- Originates from the Latin root civ- and Greek root polis (city).
- Implies being a townsman, governed by community laws.

2. **Elements of Civilization:**
- Centralized Government
- Organized Religion
- Job Specialization and Social Classes
- Arts, Architecture, and Infrastructure
- Writing

3. **Rise of Civilization:**
- Highly organized society with advanced knowledge in trade,
government, arts, science, and written language.
- Earliest civilizations in Mesopotamia, Persia, and Egypt.

4. **Islamic Terms for Civilization:**

- Hadhara: Civilization and settled life.
- Tamaddun: To build, civilize, humanize.
 - 'Umran: Urbanization, town planning, prosperity.

5. **Main Demand of Islamic Civilization:**

- Followers are expected to be exemplary, enjoining what is right,
forbidding wrong, and believing in Allah (Quran, Ali-Imran 3:110).

6. **Topics for Discussion:**

- Islamic terms for civilization
- Main sources of Islamic civilization
- Administrative institutions
- Ibn Khaldun’s concepts
- Social structure, education, religious institutions
- Muslim cities like Baghdad and Istanbul

7. **Expansion of Islam:**
- Early victories, expansion into various regions, reasons for success.
- Policies toward conquered peoples, societal dynamics, and causes of
decline.

8. **Rashidun Army:**
- Size growth and successful generals.
- Composition, inclusion criteria, and structure of the army.

9. **Warfare Ethics in Islam:**

- Formulated according to interpretations of Quran and Hadith.
- Jihad interpreted as struggle in God's cause.
- Ethical principles regarding civilians, non-combatants, and conduct
during war.

10. **Sources of Muslim Leadership Principles:**

- Holy Quran, Holy Prophet, Wise Caliphs, and Pious Followers.
- Main principles include faith, knowledge, courage, unity, morality,
justice, patience, commitment, gratitude, and prayers.

11. **Response to Abolition of the Caliphate:**

 - Historical responses, claims to the title "Caliph," and contemporary
developments.

12. **Diwans (State Administration) and Judiciary:**

- Key offices in government and the role of judges in maintaining
justice.

13. **Urbanization in Islam:**

- Islam's emphasis on constructing a beautiful world.
- Characteristics of an Islamic city, including mosques, citadels,
residential quarters, street networks, and walls.

14. **Science in Islamic Civilization:**

- Worldview in Islam, belief in the Quran's prophetic nature.
- Islamic Golden Age with notable achievements in mathematics,
astronomy, medicine, physics, and more.

15. **Literature:**
- Influence of Islamic literature, including The Book of One Thousand
and One Nights and Layla and Majnun.

16. **Views on Impact of Medieval Islamic Science:**

- Different historical perspectives on the role of Islamic science.

17. **Causes of Decline:**

- Invasions (Crusades, Mongols, Reconquista), political
mismanagement, and economic factors.

This summary captures the main ideas and topics discussed in Part 1 of
your content. If you have more parts to summarize, feel free to share
them!

Part #2
*Definitions of Family:*
- Various definitions of "family" from Latin (familia) include a group of
individuals living together, the traditional unit of society with two
parents raising children, and a group related by birth, marriage, or
adoption residing together.
- Traditional family definitions are evolving due to the rise of single-
parent families, same-sex couples, and couples living together outside
marriage in the western world.

*Types of Family:*
- Anthropologists classify family organizations into Matrifocal,
Conjugal/Nuclear, Avuncular, and Extended families.

*Functions of Family:*
- Primary functions involve providing a framework for the production
and reproduction of individuals through biological and social means.
- Family functions include sharing material substances, giving and
receiving care, jural/legal rights, and moral and sentimental ties.

*Family Quotes:*
- Quotes from the Qur'an, Hadith, and notable figures emphasize the
significance of family in Islam and human life.

*Muslim Family:*
- A Muslim family comprises a legally married couple and their children,
including parents, siblings, and other relatives.
- The creation of a Muslim family is based on blood relationships and
marriage, following Allah's guidance.

*First Family in History:*

- The first family consisted of Adam and Hawa (Eve), created by Allah,
forming the foundation of the concept of family.

*Muslim Women:*
- Islam recognizes women as equal individuals with rights to own
property, receive marital gifts, keep their family names, and play
complementary roles with men.

*Characteristics of a Muslim Family:*

- Emphasis on the balance between rights and responsibilities within the
family.
- Joint responsibility for child-rearing, division of labor, and conjugal
rights.

*Importance of Education in Islam:*

- Islam promotes seeking knowledge as a mandatory duty for all
Muslims, and scholars are highly regarded.

*Early History of Islamic Educational Institutions:*

- Madrasa education began with the Prophet Muhammad, and early
institutions covered various subjects beyond religious teachings.

*Mosque/Masjid as Schools:*
- Early mosque schools were foundational to Islamic education, focusing
on Qur'an, hadith, fiqh, and other subjects.

*Influence of Muslim Educational System on Europe:*

- Islamic educational features influenced the structure of European
universities, demonstrating the transfer of knowledge from the Muslim
world.

*Support of Muslim Women to Education:*

- Unlike medieval Europe, Muslim women actively participated in
education and contributed to the establishment of educational
institutions.

*Social Structure:*
- Social structure in Islam influences socialization, status expectations,
legal regulations, and ideology.

*Islamic Usage and Origin:*

- The concept of Ummah emphasizes unity and moral norms within the
Muslim community, transcending tribal affiliations.
*Main Segments of Islamic Social Structure:*
- Muhajirun, Ansar, Mawaly, and Ulama constitute key segments of
Islamic social structure.

*Foundations of Economic Regulations in Islamic Civilization:*

- Economic concepts are based on the Qur'an and Sunnah, with early
scholars contributing to Islamic economic thought.

*Bait al-Mal: History:*

- Bait al-Mal, the treasury, was established by Umar, and welfare
practices were introduced during the Rashidun Caliphate.

*Welfare State in Islamic Civilization:*

- Early Islamic administrations practiced welfare and pension systems,
utilizing Zakat and Jizya for the benefit of the needy.

*Public Property and Free Market Economy:*

- Natural resources are considered public property in Islam, and the
economic model promotes freedom of trade and contract, prohibiting
price fixing and interest.

*Medieval Trade in Islamic Civilization:*

- Islamic lands played a crucial role in the Silk Road and Spice Route
trade, influencing the exchange of goods between Asia, Africa, and
Europe.
*Trade of Muslims by Sea Route:*
- Muslim traders controlled a rich sea route trade between India and
Egypt, contributing to the exchange of various commodities.

Part #3 - "The Islamic Agricultural Revolution,

Sources of Islamic Civilization, Transmission Routes,
and Contributions to Europe":

### The Islamic Agricultural Revolution

- Fundamental transformation in agriculture from the 8th to the 13th
century in Muslim lands during the peak of Islamic Civilization.
- Practiced cash cropping and modern crop rotation with sophisticated
systems.
- Developed a scientific approach involving crop rotation, advanced
irrigation, and cataloging crops based on season and water requirements.

### Sources of Islamic Civilization

#### Primary Sources
- Qur'an: Categorized into speculative theology, ethical principles, and
rules of human conduct.
- Sunnah: Traditions and customs of Prophet Muhammad.

#### Secondary Sources

- Consensus (Ijma'), analogy (Qiyas), pure reason (Aqil), seeking public
interest (Maslaha), juristic discretion, rulings of the first generation, and
local customs (Urf).

### Transmission Routes

- Knowledge transmission from the Islamic world to Europe via Sicily,
Spain/Andalus, and the Crusades.
- Christian scholars traveling to Muslim lands for education.

### Islamic Technology

- Adoption of various technologies in Europe: crops, astronomical
instruments, water clocks, automata, and new clothing materials.
- Transfer of sugar production, paper-making, silk, and perfume
production from the Islamic world to medieval Europe.

### Islamic Art

- Islamic decorative arts valued in Europe during the Middle Ages.
- Influence on medieval art in Sicily with a mixture of Norman, Arab,
and Byzantine elements.
### Literature, Music, and Vocabulary
- Influence of Islamic literature, such as "One Thousand and One
Nights," on European culture.
- Musical instruments like the rebec, guitar, naker, shawm influenced by
Arabic counterparts.
- Adoption of Arabic words in European languages, including algebra,
alchemy, admiral, genius, and more.

### Science in the Context of Islamic Civilization

- Belief in the Qur'an's prophetic nature regarding scientific theories.
- The Islamic "Golden Age" marked by the House of Wisdom in
Baghdad.

### Causes of Rising Science

1. Religious inspiration from the Qur'an and Sunnah.
2. Freedom of expression in Islamic civilization.
3. Government sponsorship and financial support for scholars.
4. Introduction of new technology like paper.
5. Earlier cultural influences from Eastern Christian scholars.
6. Incorporation of ideas from China and India.
7. Development of the scientific method by figures like Ibn Al-Haytham.
8. Emphasis on education and the establishment of libraries.

### Decline of Islamic Civilization

1. Invasions: Crusades, Mongols, and the Christian Reconquista.
2. Political, reasoning, and economic factors: Political mismanagement,
stifling of independent reasoning, and economic decline due to European
trade routes.

The Islamic Civilization made significant contributions in agriculture,

science, technology, art, and language, shaping the cultural landscape of
both the Islamic world and medieval Europe. The decline was influenced
by external invasions and internal political, reasoning, and economic
challenges.

Part #4
### Part #4 Summary:

#### **Waqf in Islamic Civilization**

**Definitions:**
- The term "waqf" in Arabic means "to hold, to set aside," and it refers to
establishing perpetual charities or endowments for various purposes.
- Waqf is seen as a means of giving charity, as encouraged by Islamic
teachings.

**Bases of Waqf:**
- Waqf is considered a means of charitable giving required by the
Islamic community.
- Allah has legislated endowments and encouraged them, emphasizing
the importance of spending on others.
- Various types of charitable deeds are rewarded even after the believer's
death.

**Benefits of Waqf:**
- Encourages good deeds and spending for Allah's sake.
- Perpetual, ongoing charity positively impacts prosperity in Muslim
lands.
- Strengthens solidarity within the religious community.
- Improves the living conditions of the poor and supports the weak.

**First Waqfs in Islam:**

- Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) set an example by endowing his property
for charity after his death.
- Companions, including Umar ibn Al-Khatab and Abu Bakr Siddiq,
followed these precedents, establishing waqf investments.

**Uthman b. Afan’s Waqf:**

- Uthman Ibn Afan (RA) purchased a well in Madina for an exorbitant
amount to provide free water to the community.
- Over 1400 years later, the well continues to operate, generating income
used for charitable purposes.

**Founding a Waqf:**
- The process involves legal conditions, a founder in sound mental and
financial condition, specific property dedication, and identifiable
beneficiaries.

**Administration:**
- The founder appoints an administrator, and rules for successive
administrators and a board of trustees are laid down.
- The administrator must be trustworthy, have administrative skills, and,
in most cases, be a Muslim.

**Duties of the Board of Trustees:**

- Administering waqfs with customary means.
- Establishing regulations and organizations for effective supervision.
- Managing investments adhering to Islamic regulations.
- Creating accounting departments and appointing internal and external
auditors.

**Extinction of Waqf:**
- Waqfs are intended to be perpetual, but circumstances like destruction
of goods or illegality can lead to termination.

**Types of Waqfs:**
- Family-Based Waqf: Revenue designated for the endower's family.
- General or Charitable Endowment: Revenue for various charitable
efforts.
**Goals of a Waqf:**
- Seeking the pleasure of Allah.
- Fostering communal solidarity.
- Fulfilling social and cultural goals.
- Guaranteeing wealth conservation, perpetual benefit, and long-term
prosperity.

**Services of Waqf:**
- Supports mosques, universities, hospitals, and various public services.

#### **Waqfs in the Ottoman State:**

- Waqfs were instrumental in providing public goods and services in the
Ottoman Empire.
- Contributed to eradicating poverty and supporting strategic settlement
policies.

### **Islamic City/Madinah:**

#### **Urbanization in Islam:**

- Islam emphasizes constructing a beautiful world, reflecting communal
practices over individual worship.
- Islam is considered an urban religion, favoring communal practices in
urban settings.
#### **What is an Islamic City:**
- No firm consensus on the term's definition.
- Refers to cities founded or developed during epochs dominated by
Islamic civilization.
- Some consider it an ideal city with architectural styles inspired by
Islamic values.

#### **Major Components of the Islamic City:**

1. **Main Mosque (Jami):** Symbolizing religious commitment,
economic activities grow around it.
2. **Suqs/Bazaar/Market:** Economic activities concentrated outside
the main mosque.
3. **Citadel (Kal’a):** Represents the governor's palace, surrounded by
its own district.
4. **Residential Quarters (Mahalla):** Divided into areas for different
social groups, emphasizing kinship and solidarity.
5. **Street Network:** Narrow, winding streets separating private and
public domains.
6. **Wall (Sur):** Surrounds the city, providing defense against military
attacks and sand-laden winds.
7. **Exterior (Birun):** Includes cemeteries, weekly markets, private
gardens, and fields.

#### **Design Principles of the Islamic City:**

1. **Natural Laws:** Adaptation to weather and topography.
2. **Religious and Cultural Beliefs:** Centered around mosques, with
distinct separation between public and private.
3. **Design Principles from Shariah Law:** Reflecting property rights
and Shariah regulations.
4. **Social Principles:** Emphasizing kinship, defense, social order,
and religious practices.

#### **Examples of Muslim Cities:**

**Baghdad:**
- Founded by the Abbasid caliph Mansur, named "City of Peace."
- Evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center.
- Destroyed by the Mongols in 1258 and faced subsequent infrastructural
damage.

**Summary of Original Form of Baghdad:**

- Basic framework of

circular design.
- Central mosque surrounded by circular roads.
- Six main gates with market areas and residential quarters.
- Palace for the caliph and administrative offices.

**Cairo:**
- Significant cultural and economic center.
- Notable for its Islamic architecture.
- Has faced challenges such as overpopulation and pollution.

**Fez:**
- One of the oldest imperial cities in Morocco.
- Known for its well-preserved old town (Medina).
- Focused around a major suq and the University of Al Quaraouiyine.

#### **Challenges to the Islamic City:**

1. **Colonial Influence:** European colonization impacted the urban
fabric and spatial organization.
2. **Modernization:** Introduction of Western architectural styles and
planning principles.
3. **Population Growth:** Rapid urbanization leading to challenges in
infrastructure and housing.
4. **Globalization:** Influence of global economic trends on urban
development.

### **Islamic Economy:**

#### **Foundations of Islamic Economic System:**

1. **Shariah Compliance:** Economic activities must adhere to Islamic
principles.
2. **Social Justice:** Wealth distribution, poverty alleviation, and fair
economic practices are emphasized.
3. **Property Rights:** Protected under Shariah law.
4. **Market Mechanism:** Encouraged, but with ethical considerations.
5. **Prohibition of Riba (Usury/Interest):** Interest-free transactions to
avoid exploitation.

#### **Islamic Economic Concepts:**

1. **Zakat:** Wealth redistribution through mandatory almsgiving.
2. **Sadaqah:** Voluntary charity, beyond the obligatory Zakat.
3. **Mudarabah and Musharakah:** Forms of partnership emphasizing
profit and loss sharing.
4. **Ijarah:** Leasing or renting assets.
5. **Islamic Banking and Finance:** Compliant with Shariah principles,
avoiding interest-based transactions.

#### **Critiques and Challenges:**

1. **Globalization:** Balancing Islamic economic principles with
global economic trends.
2. **Financial Inclusion:** Ensuring access to Islamic financial services
for all.
3. **Uniformity:** Differences in interpretation of Islamic economic
principles among Muslim scholars.

### **Islamic Finance:**

#### **Overview:**
- Compliant with Shariah principles.
- Prohibits Riba (interest) and emphasizes risk-sharing.

#### **Principles:**
1. **Prohibition of Riba:** Interest-based transactions are forbidden.
2. **Risk-Sharing:** Emphasizes shared responsibility and risk
distribution.
3. **Asset-Backed Financing:** Transactions must be backed by
tangible assets.
4. **Ethical and Social Impact:** Investments must adhere to ethical
and social standards.

#### **Instruments:**
1. **Mudarabah:** Profit and loss sharing arrangement.
2. **Musharakah:** Joint venture partnership.
3. **Ijarah:** Leasing agreement.
4. **Sukuk:** Islamic bonds backed by tangible assets.

#### **Challenges and Opportunities:**

1. **Standardization:** Lack of standardized practices in Islamic
finance.
2. **Education:** Need for greater understanding of Islamic finance
principles.
3. **Regulation:** Developing robust regulatory frameworks for
Islamic finance.
### **Islamic Art and Architecture:**

#### **Characteristics:**
1. **Geometric Patterns:** Repeating geometric shapes reflecting the
infinite nature of Allah.
2. **Arabesque:** Elaborate designs featuring intertwined plant
elements.
3. **Calligraphy:** Decorative writing, often Quranic verses, used as an
art form.
4. **Use of Light and Space:** Emphasizes illumination and spatial
design.
5. **Avoidance of Representational Art:** Due to religious prohibition
on idolatry.

#### **Types:**
1. **Mosque Architecture:** Distinctive domes, minarets, and prayer
halls.
2. **Palace Architecture:** Blend of functional and aesthetic elements.
3. **Islamic Carpets and Textiles:** Richly decorated, often featuring
geometric and floral designs.
4. **Islamic Calligraphy:** Decorative writing as an art form.

#### **Contributions to World Architecture:**

1. **Innovations:** Advancements in architectural techniques and
decorative arts.
2. **Influence on European Renaissance:** Islamic art and science
contributed to the European Renaissance.

### **Islamic Philosophy:**

#### **Major Themes:**

1. **Tawhid:** Oneness of God.
2. **Justice (Adl):** Central to ethical and moral conduct.
3. **Free Will:** Humans have free will within the framework of divine
guidance.
4. **Knowledge:** Highly valued, and seeking knowledge is
encouraged.

#### **Schools of Thought:**

1. **Ash'ari:** Emphasizes divine transcendence and predestination.
2. **Maturidi:** Stresses human responsibility, free will, and divine
justice.

#### **Influence on Western Philosophy:**

1. **Transmission of Greek Philosophy:** Preserved and transmitted
Greek philosophical works to medieval Europe.
2. **Scholasticism:** Interaction with Islamic philosophy contributed to
the development of Scholasticism in medieval Europe.
### **Conclusion:**
Islamic civilization encompasses a rich tapestry of contributions to
various fields, including philosophy, art, architecture, urban planning,
and economics. Rooted in Islamic principles, these contributions have
left a lasting impact on global culture and knowledge, fostering dialogue
and mutual understanding across civilizations. Islamic civilization's
emphasis on justice, knowledge, and ethical conduct continues to shape
diverse aspects of contemporary thought and practice.