● We could no longer say that the customs
Ethics of other societies are morally inferior to
GE3 - L3: Cultural Relativism
“Different cultures have different moral codes.” -
seems like the key to understanding morality
Claims of Culture Relatives
1. Different societies have different moral
codes.
2. The moral code of a society determines
what is right within that society; that is if
the moral code of the society says that a
certain action is right, then the action is
right, at least within that society.
3. There is no objective standard that can
be used to judge one society’s code as
better than another’s. There are no moral
truths that hold for all people at all times.
4. The moral code of our own society has
no special status; it is but one among
many.
5. It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures.
We should always be tolerant of them.
● Cultural relativism holds that the norms of
a culture reign supreme within the
bounds of the culture itself.
What follows from Cultural Relativism?
- There is no measure of right and wrong
other than the standards of one’s society.
If we take Cultural Relativism seriously, the
consequences are:
our own. We would have stopped
condemning other societies merely
because they are ‘different’
● We could no longer criticize the code of
our own society. Cultural relativism
suggests a simple test for determining
what is right and what is wrong: All we
need to do is ask whether the action is in
line with the code of society in question.
What can we learn from Cultural Relativism?
1. It warns us, quite rightly, about the
danger of assuming that all our
preferences are based on some absolute
rational standard. They are not. Many
(but not all) of our practices are merely
unusual to our society, and it is easy to
lose sight of the fact. (eating the flesh of
the dead is a sign of respect).
2. Cultural Relativism begins with the
valuable insight that many of our
practices are like this – they are only
cultural products. Then it goes wrong by
inferring that, because some practices
are like this, all of them must be (keeping
an open mind).
3. It is an attractive theory because it is
based on a genuine insight: that many of
the practices and attitudes we find
natural are really only cultural products.
Moreover, keeping this thought firmly in
view is important if we want to avoid
arrogance and keep an open mind.
There are important points, not to be
taken lightly. But we can accept them
without accepting the whole theory.
GE3 - L4: Model for Decision Making
Morality - pertains to standards of right and
wrong, usually inherited from a community
Ethics
 - studies standards of right and wrong, the
act of making a decision, the nature of
the agent who makes the decision
- not about theoretical knowledge but
application of that knowledge,
transforming it to action in everyday life
The Study of Ethics
1. Ethics entails a reflective distance to
critically examine standards.
● It looks values beneath these moral
standards (What or Why)
● example: We take for granted that we
should marry in church. But have we
asked why? If we do, this will affect our
attitude to divorce, etc. (value: lifelong
commitment)
2. It looks at the agent who makes the
moral decision
● Mature? Level of moral development.
(Who)
3. It is about the moral decision making
process. (How)
● Ethics is not about theoretical knowledge
but application of that knowledge,
transforming it to action in everyday life.
Dilemmas
- from di (two) + lemma (premise, anything
received or taken)
- its ‘double proposition’ has technical
meanings in rhetoric and logic. In
rhetoric, a dilemma is an argument that
forces a person to choose between two
undesirable alternatives. (Oxford
Dictionary)
- signaled by being bothered
(nababagabag)
- experiences where an agent is confused
about the right decision to make
because there are several competing
values that are seemingly equally
important and urgent
Feelings and Dilemmas
- Strong feelings signal the presence of a
dilemma. But many people do not
always “catch” the dilemma behind the
feeling. One can be conditioned to be
indifferent so that what used to be
nakakabagabag is no longer a dilemma.
● Dilemmas are not about competing
solutions
- We normally handle the
“pagkabagabag” by immediately
offering solutions instead of
articulating the competing values
or issues (example: should I cheat
or not)
Reason
- a faculty (ability)
- a way of dealing with issues
- moral judgements are not a matter of
personal preferences or tastes
“The morally right thing to do, in any
circumstance, is determined by what there
are the best reasons for doing.”
- Rachel’s “What is Morality”
Impartiality
- Every stakeholder’s interest is equally
important.
- There are no special interests or people,
thus in making every moral decision,
each stakeholder interest should be
considered.
- One must not be arbitrary.
- Every person should be treated the same
way unless there is a good reason not to
do so.
Why Reason and Impartiality
- Because dilemmas are complex
experiences; hard to make a good
decision.
- An agent is confused about the right
decision to make because there are
several competing values that different
stakeholders protect.
Model for Moral Decision Making
1. Gather the facts
2. Determine the ethical issues
 3. What principles have a bearing on the
case?
4. List of alternatives
5. Compare the alternatives with the
principle
6. Weight the consequences
7. Make a decision
GE3 - L5: Feelings and Values
Feelings
- common attitude toward feeling:
ambivalent
- unstable and fleeting
➢ To feel is to be involved in something; in a
person, concept, myself, process,
problem, another feeling.
➢ More immediate because feeling
involves the body. More expressed and
expressible in body language (smile,
frown) than in concepts. To control
feeling is also to control expression of
feeling. But here, we do not conceal the
fact that we feel but what we feel.
➢ More intimate than thinking. Our feelings
give the main information to what we are
and our relation to the world. That’s why
also, feelings are more difficult to hide
than thinking.
➢ Object of feeling: Value
According to Max Scheler
Values are given to us immediately in
acts of preferring, the most fundamental of
which is love and hatred.
Preferring, not the same as choosing.
Object of choosing is a good, already implying
a value comprehension.
Love is an immediate attitude towards
objects of value which always encompasses a
whole complex grade of value.
Drive - as defined by psychology, is an innate,
biologically determined urge to attain a goal or
satisfy a need
Importance of Feelings
● Unless I am aware of my feelings, I do not
know what I’m involved in.
● Need to share my feelings, because
feeling is connected with the body, and
the body relates us to others.
● Need to share the feelings of others,
because feelings reveal the intimate core
of persons. Confidentiality is important
when one shares his/her feelings.
● Emotion invites action, because it sees
values.
Value
- etymologically, it comes from the Latin
word “valere”, which means to be strong,
to be worth
- those standard by which a group of
society judges the desirability and
importance of person, ideas, action or
objects (Maciones, 1997)
- shared conceptions of on beliefs in what
are considered desirable or undesirable
(Poponoc, 1974)
- something deserving of one’s best effort,
something worth living for and, if need
be, worth dying for
- principle or ideas in which groups and
individuals may believe strongly and
which guide their respective behaviors;
Principles by which man lives for instance,
the principles of equality, justice, and fair
play
- an enduring conception of the
preferable which influences choice and
action
- the ideas, customs, institutions, etc. of a
society toward which the members of the
group have an effective regard
- refers to the utility of a thing, the
environmental conditions at the time of
evaluation
- the quality of anything which renders it
desirable or useful
Filipino Value System
1. Bahala Na (can viewed in two ways)
- As a kind of fatalistic resignation
which represents withdrawal from
engagement or crisis.
- It involves dependence and deep
abiding faith in the supernatural
spirits which will take care of
everything.
2. Utang Na Loob - ‘debt of gratitude’
which is difficult or almost impossible to
quantify
3. Amor Propio - feeling of high self-esteem
and is shown in the sensitivity of a person
to hurt feelings and insults, real or
imagined
4. Fatalism - refers to the belief that all
events are naturally and supernaturally
predetermined
5. SIR - refers to smooth interpersonal
relationship, such as the use of polite
language, soft voice, gentle manner,
euphemisms and ambiguous expression ,
all of which are intended to avoid
directness or frankness
6. Use of Euphemisms - circumlocutory
remarks to avoid frankness
7. Pakikisama - good public relation or the
avoidance of open disagreement or
conflict with others
8. Hiya or Shame - a painful emotion of
being disgraced or losing one’s face
9. Paggalang - respect toward elders and
superiors
10. Pakikialam - tendency of the elders and
superiors to be officious or to meddle in
the business of their children and
subordinates, sometimes under the
pretext of guidance and wisdom.
11. Tungkulin ng Panganay Sa Pamilya -
responsibility of the eldest child in the
family to act and think like parent
12. Use of Intermediary or Go-Between - use
of a third party to intercede on one’s
behalf in order to gain a favor or to
assuage bruises or avoid a direct quarrel
between individuals or group
13. Segurista Attitude - the predisposition to
ask or demand another of anything that
would demonstrate assured success
14. Gaya-gaya - Filipino imitativeness which
give rise to emphasis on façade,
palabas, pakitang-tao,pagyayabang
15. Pagmamay-ari - tendency to place a
high regard on possession and
attainment. Expressed as positive value,
this result s in thriftiness, to value
education and value one’s home
16. Pagkatitulado - Filipino looks up to people
with a high education. He values the
acquisition of titles and degrees to
improve his/her lot
17. Lack of Sportsmanship - Filipino places
high regard in victories or success in
sports and other competitive endeavors
18. Particularism - refers to the Filipino
attitude wherein he prefers to be loyal to
a particular group or center his concerns
 on a particular group rather than the
nation
19. Filipino Time - an aphorism to indicate the
Filipino attitude on always being late at
an appointed time or place
20. Mañana Habit - procrastination, the
disposition of shelving off responsibility to
another day, the tendency to escape
from duty and obligation as much as
much as possible
21. Ningas-Cogon Tendency - Filipino
attitude towards work which has
semblance to the cogon grass
22. Hele-hele Bago Quiere - behavior that a
person initially refuses an offer even if he
or she is subjected to more prodding
23. Delicadeza - conformity to the ethical
practices or expectations of the group
24. Palabra de Honor - keeping one’s word
or doing what has been promised
25. Colonial Mentality - the mental attitude
of preferring imported goods or ideas
over locally made one’s
26. Compadre System - the practice of
choosing well-known or powerful affluent
persons to act as godparents in the
wedding or baptism of one’s son or
daughter
27. Lakad System - to fix things for someone
28. Lagay System - giving lagay or padulas or
grease money to get what one wants at
the earliest and fastest possible time
29. Querida or Kabit System - keeping two or
more paramours, concubines,
other-women , kabit or mistress
30. Kamag-anak System - practice in
government wherein close relatives are
appointed to juicy positions with or
without the required qualifications and
experience
31. Walang Bigayan, Walang Lamangan
Mentality - Lamangan is the practice of
putting one over someone else
32. Relax Lang Mentality - Filipino idea where
man has to work without anxiety assuring
that he can twist the situation in just a
snap of the fingers
33. Pagkamatiisin - a mental attitude of
patient and silent suffering during times of
crisis and hardship
34. Crab Mentality - the mental attitude of
putting down other people to prevent
them from reaching the top or attaining
success
35. Baka-Sakali Attitude - mental attitude of
relying on swerte or tsamba in some of
our undertakings
36. Status Consciousness - Filipino
predisposition to value their honor and
status more than anything else
37. High Regard for Women - women are
highly regarded and respected and
relied upon when it comes to family, as
well as politics and business affairs
38. Authoritativeness - patriarchal nature of
the Filipino family
39. Fiesta Syndrome - Fiesta is a celebration
in honor of a town’s patron saint

40. Awa Mentality - pitying someone in the

name of charity to shield incompetence
and irregularities

41. Bata System - patronized individual, a

‘portage,’ a close friend , or one who you
can call when need arises