Journal

Frontiers of Knowledge Journal Series | International Journal of Education
and Educational Research ISSN:2635-3636 | Vol. 1 Issue 1(September,2017)
Problems and Prospects of Guidance and Counselling in Schools and

Colleges of Education
Ardo Maji Aliyu1

School of Early Childhood Care and Primary Education, Aminu Saleh
College of Education, Azare Bauchi state (Nigeria)
ardomajialiyue@yahoo.com
Abstract
The paper examined the meaning of guidance and counselling, guidance at the
kindergarten level, primary school level, colleges of education and developmental
characteristics, needs and concerns of primary school pupils and secondary levels.
The paper also touches on guidance services for colleges of education in school,
problems and prospects, implications for education and counselling practice were
highlighted. Recommendations and conclusion were drawn which form part of
employment of qualified counsellors, man power professional teachers and provision
of adequate/relevant equipment and facilities to enhance qualitative teaching and
learning.
KEYWORDS: PROBLEMS, GUIDANCE, COUNSELLING, SCHOOLS,
COLLEGES OF EDUCATION
1. INTRODUCTION
Guidance and counselling is an essential pupils/students personal service that
should be organized for all school levels. In others words, guidance should be a
continuous process throughout the school career of a student.
The development and management of an effective guidance programme should extent
from the nursery school through the secondary school to the colleges of education
level. Guidance should be viewed as an integral part of the total educational
programme throughout the school life of the students. This is because it helps them
meet their increasing and divergent developmental needs, problems and concerns.
Guidance and counselling programmes are specialized psychological activities which
are offered to “normal” people in order to enhance their productive capacity, to the
“subnormal” such as, the mentally retarded in order to make them self reliant and
Open Access Journal www.smrpi.com 1

productive. Special efforts are made to help the gifted and exceptionally bright pupils,
the handicapped (the deaf, blind, crippled and epileptic and those with cerebral
difficulties), the socially deviant (such as drug addicts, alcoholics and to the mentally
sick).
Guidance and counselling services are offered in every educational setting
(from kindergarten, to the college of education, rehabilitation institutions, hospitals
and the army, commercial and industrialized sectors, etc).
The services are also offered to infants, children, mothers, single working women,
high school and college girls, boys and men and to the elderly as well. Provided
human and economic resources allow, guidance and counselling services are open to
all – afterall, the services are pervasive, continuous, developmental and an essentially
integral aspect to human survival.
Guidance refers to a total programme of a number of highly specialized activities
implemented by all staff members to help the individual make wise, intelligent
choices and decisions which can make him understand his abilities, weaknesses,
attitudes and interests Okon (1984), while counselling is a face to face interpersonal
communication between two or more people in which one person the (counsellor)
helps another (counsellee) to make informed decisions and to act upon them. Sambo
(2008).
In this write up, special attention on guidance and counselling will be made on:
a. Guidance and counselling at the kindergarten level.
b. Guidance in the primary school.
c. Guidance in the secondary school and
d. Guidance services for colleges of education and beyond.
2. MEANING OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
The term guidance means different things to different people depending on the
context which it is used, Denga, (1986) defined the term “guidance” as a cluster of
formalized services through which help is given to individuals in situations where
adjustment, planning, interpretation of information, and choices are needed. Guidance
involves rendering assistants to individuals or group of people to enable them direct
themselves and relate their needs effectively to (i) requirement (ii) demand and (iii)
opportunities of social, educational, occupational and psychological situations.

Sambo, (2012). The primary function of guidance is to help individuals understand

themselves and the nature of their concerns so that self direction can be effected
Sambo, (2008).
In other words, through guidance individual come to know:
 Who they are as individuals
 Understand clearly the nature of their person.
 Experience the world and
 The total surrounding and the people with whom they interact/relate more
effective, productive and happier human beings i.e. they will become more
fully functioning persons in life, while counselling denotes a wide range of
procedure including giving advice, encouragement, information, test,
interpretation and psychological analysis. English and English (1966) defined
counselling as “a relationship in which one person endeavours to help another
to understand and solve his adjustment problems”. It pointed out areas of
adjustment such as educational counselling, vocational counselling and
personal social counselling.
Gesinde, in: Kolo (1997) views the term counselling as “an in depth interaction
between two or few individuals with the intent of assisting the client to better
understand himself in relationship to his or her present and future problems”.
Ivey, (1980) defined counselling as “the process concerned with assisting normal
people to achieve their goals, or function effectively”.
Shertzer and Stone (1976) emphasized that counselling focuses basically on areas of
nurturing and healing emotionally problem management, support and life skills
training. Counselling is a face to face interpersonal communication between two or
more people in which one person (the counsellor) helps another (the counselee) to
make informed decisions and to act upon them Sambo, (2008).
Thus, guidance and counselling terms have been used conjointly and synonymously.
Being used conjointly then means that guidance and counselling is a process of
assisting individuals to cope with their problems Bakare, (1984).
Having known briefly what is guidance and counselling, the paper is incomplete
without touching these areas:

2.1 Guidance and counseling at the kindergarten level:

The significance of the child’s emotional experiences at the transitional period
from home to nursery and kindergarten schools are acknowledged by
educators and psychologists. Every effort is made for the child not to face any
emotional problem at this stage of development.
The strong positive link that must be existed between the child’s home and the
nursery schools, between the children’s parents and the staff of the nursery
school must be realized: all for the purpose of creating smooth social and
psychological experiences for the child during this transaction period. It is for
this reason that it said, that effective services of guidance and counselling
must be implemented at the nursery and kindergarten levels.
Another significant role of guidance and counselling services involved a
consideration of the positive identification and constructive cultivation of the
talents and potentialities of the child at this early age. The development of
socially and politically accepted personality traits must start at this level of
educational system Abdullahi, (1989).
2.2 Guidance at the primary school level:
Guidance and counselling services are recommended at the elementary level.
Infact, the service would be most successful because the younger the child, the
more flexible his learning behavior, and the earlier his problems are identified,
the earlier their solutions and adjustments are. Abdi, (1996), the formative
years are the most important in the growth and development of the child. His
behaviour patterns are less rigid, his environment is more easily manipulated
and his parents are more readily brought into conference with teachers and
administrations.
Guidance and counselling programmes in elementary schools are more of goal
directed than accomplishments. The objectives of guidance and counselling
services will be centered on the development of a whole some attitude toward
work and workers. Miller, (1964).
Guidance and counselling programmes in the elementary school provide
emotional security, a sense of belonging is developed; corrective and
preventive services are provided stoops, (1959).

3. DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS, NEEDS AND

CONCERNS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS (6 – 12 YEARS)
Developmental tasks refers to tasks which arise at or about a certain period of
the life of the individual, successful achievement of which leads to happiness and to
the success of the later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual,
disapproval by the society, and difficulty with later tasks. Elementary school
counsellors can judge their pupils based on the following six (6) developmental tasks
such as;
1. Leaning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
2. Learning appropriate masculine or feminine social roles.
3. Acquiring a social personality.
4. Learning the three (3) (3Rs (Reading, writing and numeracy).
5. Developing conscience, morality and scale of values.
6. Achieving personal independence.
Stiltne, (1978) indentified the below as the major problems facing primary schools
pupils such as:
1. Emotional problems.
2. Intellectual disabilities.
3. Motivational inadequacies.
4. Moral defects.
5. Physical adamant.
6. Social maladjustment.
4. RESPONSIBILITIES OF COUNSELLORS, TEACHERS AND PARENTS IN

THE PRIMARY SCHOOL
Having known problems facing primary school pupils Kuppuswan, (2002)

emphasized in the guidance responsibilities of counsellors, teachers and parents in the
primary school level which consist of the following:
1. Developing a helping, tension – free – classroom atmosphere;
2. Orientation
3. Studying the children
4. Informal counselling

5. Providing educational/vocational information

6. Promoting personal and social growth
7. Cooperation in the guidance programme
4.1 Guidance and counselling in the secondary school level:

The students in the senior high school are assumed to be more mature, the
guidance and counselling services are continuous services, in these services,
appropriate educational and career planning, wholesome attitudes to the
changing social environments, learning good study habits and preparation of
future adult life are the factors to which primary consideration is given.
Students in the secondary school have their own particular problem of
“growth” in their social development they need help in order to adjust to the
adult society. They should be encouraged to develop appreciation for
philosophy of life, and adopt sensible approaches as to how their leisure time
will be wisely used.
Similarly, Oladele (2004) enumerated the below as the major characteristics and
problems of adolescents in the secondary school such as:-
- Forming more matured relations with age mates
- Achieving masculine and feminine social roles
- Accepting one physique and using one’s body effectively.
- Preparing for marriage and family life
- Preparing for career
- Developing social intelligence
- Developing conceptual and problem solving skills while
5. MAJOR PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENTS IN COLLEGES

5.1 The major problems of adolescents in colleges include the below;
5.2 Sexual Issues: including sexual intercourse, nudity, love songs and
poems.
5.3 Social Issues: including social interactions such as dancing, discussing,
and interacting with members of the opposite sex or both sexes.
5.4 Political Issues: these include political parties, leaders in the country and
comments about national issues.

5.5 Religious Issues: these are issues about God, Jesus, Muhammad (S.A.W)
the Qur’an and the Holy Bible.
5.6 Intellectual Issues: these are issues about classroom works, school
subjects or abstracts or creative matters
5.7 Competition or rivalry: This relates to ideas or the wish of one group to
do better than the other especially individuals or classes in exam
performance, games and other social activities.
5.8 Vocational: deals with occupational aspirations and preferences. Denga,
(2001) listed these as major challenges which he believed the adolescent needs
to be aware of so that his contribution to move the nation forward can be
pitched appropriately which include:
1. The adolescent and democracy
2. The Nigerian adolescent and sustainable economic development
3. Sport challenges
4. Maladaptive behaviours
5. Examination malpractice
6. Sex education
7. Drug abuse and
8. Vocational counselling
5.9 Guidance service for colleges of education and beyond:
Guidance and counselling services in the colleges of education setting
also known as “student personnel services are usually heavily oriented toward
helping young people adjust to the environment and to demands that are
typically assumed by higher institutions as being right” Egwe, (1990).
The greatest need for better guidance and counselling services in collegiate
institutions today stemmed from “the need to re-evaluate the instructional
programs of colleges of education”. Paul, (1994). There is always a gap
between the old and the new students in many areas in college of education
setting. This gap depends on the size of the institutions traditions, values
exposed by other students, course offerings, social climate, study conditions
and various types of freedom. Beatrice (2005).

Sambo, (2008) emphasized that these services below can help colleges of
education make necessary adjustment in life;
a. Orientation
b. Associations, clubs and societies
c. Health clinic
d. Vocation and graduate placement
e. Housing – accommodation
f. Students sporting activities
g. Dormitory counselling (Hall advisers)
h. Religious advising
i. Registration advising
j. Student union
k. Goal planning and constructive use of time
6. NEED FOR GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING IN SCHOOLS AND

COLLEGES OF EDUCATION
Sambo, (2012) outlined the below as the major purposes and need for guidance
and counselling in our nowadays schools and colleges which include:
1. Changes in educational system
2. Students potentialities and limitations
3. Choice of subjects and careers
4. Gainful employment
5. Dropping out of school (or educational wastage)
6. Falling standard of education
7. Students indiscipline/moral decadence
7. GENERAL PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF GUIDANCE AND

COUNSELLING IN OUR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
Sambo, (2008) emphasized more on the major and general problems facing
guidance and counselling in our schools and colleges which bring set back to have
effective guidance in our schools such as;
1. There are too few tools for counsellors to work with
2. Lack of office accommodation

3. No qualified guidance counsellors at the moment

4. There are sometimes rivalries, little co operation, suspicion, between teachers
and counsellors.
5. Post of guidance counsellors are not fully recognized by institutions.
6. No enough funds
7. Issue of indiscipline in our schools
8. No stated objectives, goals and strategies
9. No commitment of counsellors to the profession
10. The post of guidance is yet to exist in many schools
11. Guidance is still limited to the school setting
8. IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION AND COUNSELLING PRACTICE

ZAJES, (2014) opined on the implications for education and counselling
practice by stating that the role of counselling and education in helping adolescents to
cope with the problems and challenges described above cannot be over emphasized.
The counsellor must be quite approachable and knowledgeable, especially with
regards to relevant information and in understanding the sources of adolescents’
problems. Children should be educated as to normality and college of education of
these challenges.
Sex education should be part of the school curriculum. Counsellors need to
develop work experience and education programmes to help young people acquire the
necessary experience. Adolescents must be given positions of responsibility and be
made to feel that they are controlling their lives by being allowed to plan and execute
their own programmes. Also, every primary, secondary and even tertiary must have a
counsellor.
The non-science students will benefit through orientation service, better
relationship with teachers, parents, management, peer cluster programmes,
recreational intervention programme, youth exchange, decision making forum and
information based programmes. The school curriculum should be flexible and at the
same time accommodate diverse talents and abilities of the adolescents. We need to
de-emphasize white collar jobs in our school curriculum, and promote acquisition of
skills that promote entrepreneurship.

9. RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The development and management of an effective guidance programme
should extent from the nursery school through primary, secondary school and
colleges of education level.
2. Guidance and counselling should be viewed as an integral part of the total
educational programme throughout the school life of the students.
3. Guidance and counselling services should be extended to rehabilitation
institutions, hospitals, the army, prison service, commercial and industrialized
sectors e.t.c.
4. Guidance and counselling services should be open to all, both old age
including men and women, infants, boys and girls.
5. Employment of qualified counsellors, manpower professional teachers and
provision of adequate/relevant equipment and facilities to enhance qualitative
teaching and learning.
6. The government should provide enough funds of funding educational
programmes, welfare packages, regular training of teachers, proper
orientations, seminars and conferences for both staff and students from
primary to colleges of education.
7. Nigerian governments should give attention to educational sector with
reference to guidance and counselling by implementing 26 percent of its
annual budgetary allocation to education as demanded by UNESCO.
10. CONCLUSION
Most of the problems highlighted in this paper are traceable to environmental,
societal, biological and physical. All hands must be on deck to find a solution to the
problems and meet the modern day challenges of the youths.
The government needs to establish a vibrant youth department that will work hand in
hand with the Ministry of Education to review the curriculum, setup programmes that
will take our youths away from crime and promote entrepreneurship. Every primary
school, secondary and even tertiary institution must have guidance counsellors to deal
with the various psychological and behavioural traits that pose a challenge to
adolescents.

11. REFERENCES
Abdi, Y. O. (1996). Introduction to Guidance and Counselling Hand Book for
Ethiopian Counsellors, Addis Ababa, Department of Psychology.
Abdullahi, O. E. (1989). Prevalence of Adolescents Problems amongst Ebira

Secondary Schools: Ilorin: Heknap Press.
Bakare, C. G. M. (1984). Psychology of Adolescence and its Implications for

Guidance and Counselling in Nigeria Schools. Ibadan Nigeria (assessed) 2nd
April, 2013.
Beatrice, B. (2005). An Introduction of Theory and Practice of Developmental

Psychology. Jos: Deka Publications.
Denga, D. I. (1986). Guidance and Counselling in Non-School Settings. Jos: Savanna

Publishers Limited.
Denga, D. I. (2001). The Nigeria Adolescent in Perspective. Ekwulobia: The O-

Onwuka and Sons Publishers.
Ekwe, S. O. (1990). Professional Hand Book to Psychology Teachers. Owerri: New

African Publishing.
English, H. B. & English A. C. (1966). A Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychological

and Psycholoanalytical Terms. New York: Longmans Green.
Ivey, A. E. (1980). Counselling and Psychotherapy Skills, Theories and Practice

Engle Woodcliff: Prentice Hall.
Kolo, F. D. (1997). Conditions, Techniques and Skills for an Effective Counselling

Process. Jos: Jofegan Associates.
Kuppuswan, B. (2002). Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Sterling

Publishers.
Miller, J. V. (1964). Intensive High School Occupational Guidance Approaches for

Initial Work and Technical School Placement, Ann Arbor, Michigan, ERIC
Cleaning House on Counselling and Personal Services.
Okon, S. E. (1984). Guidance for the 6-3-3-4 System of Education. Zaria: Institute of
Education Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
Oladele, O. J. (2004). Fundamental of Educational Psychology (5th Edition). Lagos:

Jolus-Lad Publishers.
Paul, C. (1994). Learning and Behaviour. California: Books/Cole.

Sambo, S. (2008). Understanding Guidance and Counselling. Ahmadu Bello

University Press Limited. Zaria, Kaduna State Nigeria.
Sambo, S. (2012). A Proposal submitted to Mekelle University for the establishment

of the Department of Counselling Psychology.
Shertzer, B. & Stone, S. C., (1976). Fundamentals of Guidance. 3rd Edition, X Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Company.
Stitne, O. (1978). School Needs Research. Personnel and Guidance Journal 41 (1):
202 – 204.
Stoops, H. H. (1959). Psychotherapeutic Techniques, Professional Affiliation and

Experience Level. Journal of Counselling Psychology 19: 1 – 4 (a).
Zaria Journal of Educational Studies (ZAJES). A Publication of the Federal College

of Education, Zaria, volume 15 number 1 July, 2014. Sponsored by Tertiary
Education Trust Fund.

The Effect of Lecture and Discussion Methods of Teaching on

Learner’s Performance in Social Studies in Continuing Education
Institution Borno State, Nigeria
Amina Abba Sanda (PhD)1 Ester A. Mazila2
Department of Continuing Department of Visual and
Education and Extension Performance Arts, Faculty
Services, University of of Arts, University of
Maiduguri, (Nigeria) Maiduguri, (Nigeria)
Abstract
The study examined the effects of lecture and discussion methods of teaching on
learners’ performance in social studies in Continuing Education Institute, Borno
State. This study used empirical research design, while random sampling technique
was used in selecting fourty (40) learners from the Basic Adult Education
Programme. Social studies performance tests of 10 items objective test was used as
the instruments for data collection. Single factor analysis of variance was used in
analyzing the data obtained. Two research questions guided the study; (1) is the
performance of learners taught with lecture method significantly higher in the post-
test than the pre-test? (2) Is the performance of learners taught with discussion
significantly higher in the post-test than the pre-test? Two hypothesis were raised (1)
Learners taught with lecture method performed significantly higher in the post-test
than the pre-test. (2) Learners taught by discussion method performed significantly
higher in the post-test than the pre-test. The single factor analysis of the calculated F
value were less than the tabulated F values at 5% level of significance df = 9. Thus,
the null hypothesis were rejected. The overall outcome of the study showed that,
discussion method of teaching stands as an effective method of enhancing learners’
performances in social studies. The following recommendations were made based on
the findings. The use of discussion method of teaching should be adopted into social
studies teaching in the Basic Adult Education Programme in Borno State. Discussion
method should be incorporated into teacher education programmes so as to acquaint
teachers/institutors with the tenets. The government should organize on the job
trainings, workshops, seminars symposia and conferences at intervals for the

instructors/teachers of social studies in learning institutions to update their

knowledge on the application of discussion method of teaching the subject.
Keyword: Effect of Lecture, Methods of Teaching, Learner’s Performance, Social Studies
1. INTRODUCTION
Teaching methods are ways instructors employ to convey the learning
materials to learners. It is the overall procedure in which the process of teaching is
organized and executed. Instructional method is the series of actions or activities
planned by the instructor and systematically provided to the learner to enable him
receive and process the information, retain and recall it in order to be able to use it to
tackle emerging life task and problems. Amadi (1992) revealed that instructional
methods refers to all the things the instructor does in the classroom to enable the
learner learn. Ugboaja (2008) asserted that instructional method involves the
instructors’ skills and manipulations on the subject matter and the learning situations
in order to secure positive and desired response for the learner. Instructional methods
according to Otagturuagu (1997) are organized sequence of steps by means of which
information is consistently presented to the learner in line with a given instructional
approach. Omotosho (1991) saw instructional method as the strategy or plan that
outlines the approach that instructors intend to take in order to achieve the desired
objectives. It involves the ways instructor organizes and use techniques of subject
matter, instructional tools and instructional materials to meet instructional objectives,
Akinfe, Olufiniyi and Fashiku (2012) said that most untrained instructors point
accusing fingers at learners when the learners are unable to carry out the expected
behaviour at the end of the lesson or examination rather than on themselves in failing
to utilize appropriate and effective instructional methods.
For many years, educators, administrators and researchers have debated over
which variables influence learner’s academic performance. There has been a drastic
reduction in the standard of performance by learners at all levels of education in
Nigeria in the past decades. The fall in the standard of education in Nigeria is
traceable to many factors which are rooted in psychological, physiological or
environmental factors. Many people seem to be perplexed as to what factors are
actually responsible for the fall in standard of learners’ performance in learning. This

puzzled state according to Oche (2012) has eventually led many to attribute the
institutions fall in performance to: poor condition of service for instructors/teachers;
lack of qualified instructors/teachers, inadequate supply of facilities and equipment,
lack of motivation, lack of instructional materials, and wrong methods of teaching.
Mlambo (2011) revealed that a number of studies have been carried out to
identify and analyse the numerous factors that affect learner’s academic performance
in various centres of learning, their findings identify learners’ effort, previous
schooling (Siegfried and Fels, 1979, Anderson and Benjamin, 1994) parents
education, family income (Devadoss and Fottz, 1996), self motivation, age of learner,
learning preferences (Aripin, Mahmood, Rehaizad, Yeop and Anuar 2008), class
attendance (Romer, 1993), and entry qualifications as factors that have a significant
effect on the learners’ academic performance in various settings.
At all levels of our educational system, problems such as inadequate
infrastructure, brain drain, population explosions, lack of motivation on the part
instructors and non-instructional staff, crowded classrooms, lack of instructional aids,
lack of recreational facilities, high student/teacher ratio, inadequate training and
development for staff and dearth of data and statistic exist. All these have serious
implication on instructors’ delivery system in the classroom and certainly have
undesirable effects on learners’ academic performance. It’s been observed that
successful learning depends on various factors that are not all instructor related but
the method that the instructor uses continue to play an important role in learners
learning and in their academic performance. Teaching method is non one-size-fit-fits
all proposition. Flexibility is crucial in adapting teaching methods in the class. Since
all instructors/teachers are different, the strategies they use and the way they use them
will depend on the context and situation of their class. What an instructor does in the
classroom depends to some degree upon which his approach to learning situation,
Fahintola (2014).
It has been reported that learning and understanding of school subjects have
been frustrated by the clumsy methods employed by teachers/instructors, Etukudo
(2006). To support this assertion, Salau (2009) submitted that many researchers have
adduced that poor performance of learners is traceable to the use of inappropriate
teaching methods.

Teaching method comprises the principles and methods used for instruction to
be implemented by instructors to achieve the desired learning by learners. These
strategies are determined partly on subject matter to be taught and partly by the nature
of the learner. For a particular instructional method to be appropriate and efficient it
has to be in relation with the characteristic of the learner and the type of learning it is
supposed to bring about as well as how learners learn, Westwood (2008). Lecture
method is a teacher-centred approach where activity in the class is centred on the
instructor/teacher. Lecture method of teaching is the oldest teaching method applied
in educational institution. This teaching method is one way channel of communication
of information. Learners/students involvement in this teaching method is just to listen
and sometimes pen down some notes if necessary during the lecture, combine the
information and organize it Onwuka (1996) stated that, the traditional view of
teaching is that the instructor knows everything and that the learner is blank. The
instructor uses this method to impart knowledge to the learner by merely telling them.
The instructor talks or addresses the learners by means of reading his notes, while
learners silently and passively listen. While discussion method is a learner/student-
centred approach which shift the focus of activity from instructor/teacher to
learners/students. Learner – centred methods are associated with imaginative, critical
and creative skills; active participation of learners in the learning process through
discussion and intellectual engagement; as well as higher learning achievement and
effectiveness in addressing problems of humanity, Rahman (2017). Discussion
method is an active learning approach in which learners solve problems, answer
question, formulate question of their own discuss, explain, debate or brainstorm
during class.
In discussion method the instructor leads or guides the learners in expressing
their opinions and ideas with a view to identifying and solving problems collectively.
Shulman (2007) said it is an exposition that the image of teaching involves exchange
of ideas (inter-action) between the instructor and learners through questions and
probes, answers and reactions, and praise and criticism. Pollard et al, (2008) perceived
discussion as exploratory talk where participants explore ideas and feelings together,
it makes absolutely fundamental contribution to learning. Duruji et al (2014) asserted
that discussion is a design that provides opportunity for discussion between instructor

and learners, and learners to learners. It is a strategy that centred on shared

conversations, discussions, and exchange of ideas in class. It gives opportunity for all
to sit and listen, as well as talk and think, thus emphasizing the process of “coming to
know” as valuable as “knowing the right answer”. Baxter (2011) concurred with
Zvavanhu (2010) that class discussion can motivate learners while also helping them
retain knowledge and develop effective problem-solving abilities. During discussion
session learners participate in the learning process by contributing problems, placing
the solution(s) into action and evaluating the results.
Quite often, instructors prefer methods that make their work easier based on
their beliefs, personal preferences and norms of their disciplines Water (2003). In this
regard, some instructors believe that lessons should be teacher-centred, where the
instructor is the expert and the authority figure and learners are viewed as “empty
vessels” whose primary role it to passively receive information (via lecture and direct
instruction) with an end goal of testing and assessment, Westwood (2008). Although
instructors have the discretion to choose methods for delivering lessons to their
learners, Handleman (1976) observed that learner-centred pedagogy is a powerful
strategy for improving learning achievement in examinations and application of
knowledge and skills acquired. This implies that instructors need to be conversant
with numerous instructional methods that take recognition of the complex concepts to
be covered if quality teaching and learning is to be maintained.
It has been observed that the manner in which social studies is taught in
educational institutions has been found to be poor. The low performance of learners in
social studies may not be unconnected with the traditional lecture method employed
by instructors which lack the procedural knowledge, techniques and skill of solving
quantitative problems. Social studies is an integration of experience and knowledge
concerning human relation for the purpose of citizenship education, that learners often
consider social studies to be dull and boring. Not only do learner perceive social
studies to be dull, but they also fail to see the relevance of social studies to their
everyday lives Olukayode (2012). One may asked, is it because the subject is truly
dull and boring; or is it because the instructional methods utilized by the instructor do
not engage and inspire learners to learn social studies. Shaughnessy and Haladyna
(1985) concluded that it is the instructor who is key to what social studies will be for

the learner. Instruction tends to be dominated by the lecture, textbook or worksheets

and does not inspire learners to learn. Siler (1998) explained that instructors tend to
use only one instructional style day after day, which denies learners the opportunities
of a variety of instructional techniques. However, research concludes that learners
have more interest in a topic when a variety or relevant instructional methods are
implemented (Bonwell and Eisen, 1991; Chiodo and Byford, 2006; Byford and
Russell; Mills and Durden, 1992; Slavin, 1994). Hafezimoghadam et al (2013)
revealed that the traditional lectures often focus on memorization rather than the
comprehension and use of information.
According to Baldacchino and Farrugia (2002), the quality of education
cannot be seen or improved by simply providing physical resources like books,
extending the duration of learning, training more instructors but by instructors
interpreting the learning material to the learners and appropriately using instruction
and learning opportunities. It is the instructor who has to establish the right climate
for learning using the appropriate instructional methods to attainment of learner’s
greatness. Uganda et al., (2008) observed that one of the factors that hinder learners’
opportunities to learn is poor instructional methods. The learner according to
Glaserfeld (1999) should be actively involved in the learning process, not the
traditional method where the instructor is to instruct and the learner play a passive
receptive role. Nayak and Singh (1997) reiterated that a best scheme of education
becomes a bad scheme if the instructors handling it are bad; even so, a bad scheme
can in practice, be made a good one, if the instructors are good. It is pertinent to say
that instructors/teachers are indispensable human resources out of all the human
resources in educational system. This is because teachers interpreter the aims and
goals of education and ensure that the learners are educated in accordance with them.
Since quality output depends on quality input, the success and quality of any
educational system depends on the quality of teachers input in the system. Tom
(2011) is of the view that teachers/instructors should be well equipped with the
necessary-teacher/instructor factors and experiences needed for use in
instruction/teaching school subjects if learners are to learn maximally. Instructional
strategies adopted by teachers/instructors influence the cognitive affective and
psychomotor outcomes. The call for departure from the traditional method of

instruction has been sounded by many educators in Nigeria with the intention of
obtaining admirable performance (Abakpa, 2010).
In view of the above, the importance of method of approach in teaching and
learning process cannot be over emphasized. The way the instructor presents the
subject matter affects the learning of such subjects as well as the attitudes of the
learners to schooling. This stand was supported by Sadiq (1995) who stated that the
instructors methodology may make the learner to like or dislike not only the subject
matter but also the school and all that is associated with it. Turner (2011) concurred
with Sadiq (1995) maintained that instructional methods and instructor delivery can
have direct impact on how learners learn. That any laudable educational system with a
clear cut set of objectives and a well arranged and rich curriculum will not produce a
satisfactory result without adequate and appropriate method of presenting the
materials to the learners. This statement to the social studies instructors means that the
objectives of the subject will not be achieved without an appropriate method of
teaching at any level of academic programme. Methods employed must suit the
individual needs of all learners. Learners of same age differ markedly in their life
circumstances, past experience and readiness to learn, such differences have
significant impact on the content and method of instruction.
There is therefore, the need for instructors to utilize more suitable and efficient
teaching methods for promoting the level of learners’ performance and retention in
social studies.
2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The choice of effective, adequate and relevant instruction technique by a qualified
social studies instructor cannot be over emphasized. Putting into consideration the
topic to be taught and the learners’ level and ability should be the starting point and a
foundation for attaining effective transaction and communication between instructor
and learners in social studies classroom. This is because the success or failure of
social studies lessons depends on the choice and utilization of effective instructional
techniques. The method that an instructor uses continues to play an important role in
learner’s learning and in their academic achievement. The statement that “anyone who
knows his subject can teach it” Farrant (1964), can be misleading. It is generally
believed that method is all important and subject matter secondary.

The major problem confronting social studies in Nigeria, especially Borno

State is the use of inappropriate method of teaching. It has been observed that
learner’s performance in social studies in the Basic Adult Education programme in the
Continuing Education Institute Borno State has declined over the years. This could be
attributed to the instructors’ use of inappropriate instructional method which hinders
learners’ comprehension of facts, concepts and details about social studies. Social
studies as the study of human beings in their physical social, economic, spiritual,
scientific, political, cultural and psychological environment, needs to be taught
effectively where instructors use innovative instructional methods that centre on the
learners to see if there will be improvement in their academic performance.
2.1 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are to:
i. Assess the effect of lecture method on learners performance in social
studies.
ii. examine the effect of discussion method on learners performance in social
studies.
2.2 Research Questions
The following research questions are developed to guide the study:
i. Is the performance of learners taught with lecture method significantly
higher in the post-test than the pre-test?
ii. Is the performance of learners taught with discussion significantly higher
in the post-test than the pre-test?
2.3 Hypothesis
1. Learners taught with lecture method performed significantly higher in the
post-test than the pre-test.
2. Learners taught by discussion method performed significantly higher in the
post-test than the pre-test.
3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

The Theoretical Framework of this study is based on the learning theories and
teaching methods of Vygotsky (1978) Piaget (1959 & 1967) and Jonassen (1999).

These scholars all talked about constructivism. Social constructivists view learning as
an active process where learners should learn to discover principles, concepts and
facts for themselves. Where instructors are seen as facilitators who see that learners
create value to what they are doing through creative display of instructional skills or
methodologies. According to Piaget (1967) when individuals assimilate, they
incorporate the new experience into the already existing framework without changing
that framework.
According to Jonassen (1999) constructivism is a synthesis multiple theories
diffused into one form. It is the assimilation of both behaviorists and cognitive ideals.
The constructivist stance maintains that learning is a process of constructing meaning;
it is how people make sense of their experience. Constructivist theories have extended
the traditional focus on individual learning to address collaborative and social
dimensions of learning. Jonassen (1999) further observed that constructivism is a
learning theory that gives instructors another perspective to rethink how learners learn
to focus on process and provide ways of documenting change and transformation. It
also remind instructors to look for different ways to engage individual learner,
develop rich environments for exploration, and prepare coherent problem sets and
challenges that focus on the model building effort, and elicit and communicate learner
perceptions and interpretations. Constructivists believe that the individual learner
process stimuli from the environment and the resultant cognitive structures that the
learner builds produce adaptive behaviour, Odundo (2013). As noted by Roblyer
(2006), constructivist believed that knowledge is generated by learners through
experience-based activities rather than, directed by instructors. Advocates of a
constructivist approach suggest that educators first consider that the knowledge and
experiences that the learner brings to the learning tasks are paramount, Odundo
(2013). It is such knowledge, skills and attitudes that is built upon and expanded by
connecting them to new learning (Huitt, 2003). In the process, the learner attains a
level of self-regulation which surpasses more memory recall and explanations and fits
the conceptual framework of the learner. This is done by providing the learner with
the opportunities to uncover facts and discover ideas in either a real world setting or
case-based environment through owns effort in a regulated manner. Cummings (2007)

found that when constructivist approaches are employed in learning, learners post an
improvement in their academic performance.
Bloom’s cognitive processing taxonomy is a valid, reliable, efficient and
effective means of evaluating learning. (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom, et al,
1956; Lord and Baviskar, 2007; Noble, 2004). Specifically, the first three levels of
Bloom’s taxonomy (Knowledge, Comprehension, and application) can be used to
effectively assess cognitive outcomes; because each level assesses learning at a
different depth. The most basic level (i.e. Knowledge) mostly assesses the learners
abilities to remember rational through questions that prompt learners to identify, list
or describe a concept. Second level (i.e. Comprehension) items prompt learners to
reword information in a meaningful manner to show that they understand the material.
Third level (i.e. application) items instruct learners to apply the material to new
phenomena or constructs, which demonstrate their ability to select appropriate
information from situations (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom et al, 1956,
Granello, 2001; Lord and Baviskar, 2007). Knowledge cannot be acquired by
revelation but it comes through experiences. Rusk (1979) argued that man did not find
the environment ready made. He engaged himself in a process of thinking the result of
which improvement on the environment was made (Eyibe, 2000). According to
Akogun (2000) man is an experiencing organism who interacts with his environment.
He is a growing organism with desires, want, interests and so forth. He fixes his own
goals and objectives. He struggles for achievement through the use of his intelligence.
This means that man is social being whose interest are best promoted through living
in harmony with other social beings. In the course of organism’s interactions it
encounter situations in which it can no longer act thinking arises as a means of
dealing with the disturbing situation. Classroom procedures should provide for
intellectual freedom of expression. Through such opportunity learners can exercise
intelligence on problems that are meaningful to their environment. When learners
learn meaningfully, their ability to reflect on their own learning and make adjustment
accordingly fosters deeper learning. Deeper learning is the strategies through which
learners find meaning and understanding from course material and experiences
(Warburton, 2007). This in turn may result to competence of Knowledge transfer to

other domains and how to apply Knowledge in answering questions and resolving
problems (Pellegrine and Hilton, 2012).
However, research has shown that learners do not enter the classroom as a
‘blank slate’ (Pinker, 2003. learners construct Knowledge by making connections
between new information and their existing conceptual framework. Piaget (1964)
noted that “learning is an active process of knowledge construction, the making of
connection between existing networks of knowledge”. According to Bybee (2009),
learners prior conceptions, ideas and experiences which they carry to the classroom
influence the way they learn new concepts and skills. Hence it is important that they
are actively engaged in the learning process and that they are challenged to reflect on
their own learning besides being able to link their prior knowledge. Recent studies
done in Nigeria Eze, 2002; Egbo, 2005; Oludip and Awokoya, 2010, Ameh and
Dantani, 2012; Opara and Waswa, 2013 and Mohammed 2014) suggested that
instructors are in hurry and tend to rush through the scheme of work to enable them
cover the topic in the curriculum within the given period.
Montaigne and Becon’s (1965) thereby emphasized the need to base instruction
on first hand experience. To allow learners explore the environment to discover things
for themselves. The instructor must therefore be constantly devising ways of
stimulating the subjects, while at the same time feeding them gently with such
instruction which will enable them to express themselves better and sincerely at their
own intellectual level. They reiterated that an atmosphere for learning will be one,
which provide adequate stimulation for concept do not arise spontaneously, they are
formed out of the learner’s experience of grappling with different aspects of his
environment. Montaigne and Becon (1965) maintained that classroom procedures
must be restructured for learning to be meaningful and enjoyable because most
learners required to be made anxious to learn. They need to be aroused to develop
ideas that demands expression verbally or non-verbally. It will not be enough for the
instructor to pour out facts for learners to encounter in the course of class activity,
learning by discovery is likely to guarantee adequate concept formulation.
From the views presented above, all the theorists talked about constructivism.
It has been discovered that this theory is relevant to this study because constructivists
view learning as an active process where learners should learn to discover principles,

concepts and facts for themselves. Where instructors are seen as facilitators who see
that learners create value to what they are doing through creative display of
instructional skills or methodologies. The learning process must be experiencial that
build their commitment to engage in critical and creative thinking analysis and
synthesis of ideas. Since social studies deals with man in his physical and social
environments, it is necessary for learners to know more about their physical and social
environments so as to be able to make their contributions to the society. To
successfully facilitate such learning, effective instructional method must be used to
allow the learners explore the environment where they think of problem and also
proffer possible solutions.
4. CLASSROOM PROCEDURE USING DISCUSSION METHOD

Discussion method is an interactive learning process that encourages learners
to think critically and creatively at higher cognitive levels. The use of this method
according to Mezeiobi (2008) said is a consensus learning and encourages
participatory learning where participants put their ideas together and contribute
meaningful ideas that can help arrive at conclusion on a topic. Both the instructor and
the learners discuss the pros and cons of the problem and then arrive at some tangible
conclusion. Thus, “discussion is a thoughtful consideration of relationship involved in
the topic or the problem under study. These relations are to be analysed, compared,
evaluated and conclusions are drawn. The discussion requires a statement or
enumeration of the facts to be analyzed. In discussion mere allegation un-supported
by evidence are of little value.
The constructivist instructor provides learning tools and activities that
encourages problems solving and inquiry-based learning activities with which
learners formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and convey
and pool their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment (Sunderman, 2006).
For a discussion to be proper or effective, Bridges (1979) in Dilion (1984) said the
matter is open for discussion; the discussants are open-minded; the discussion is open
to all arguments, the discussion is open to any person, the time limit is open, not
predictable; the purposes and practices of the discussion are out in the open-ended,
not required to come to a single conclusion. The instructor’s role is facilitative,

coaching, stimulative and provocative in ways that allow the learner to engage in
critical and creative thinking, analysis and synthesis of idea during the learning
process as the instructor assumes the role of a co-learner. Tenant and Philip (1989)
and Tough (1999) posited that successful facilitators should view themselves as
participating in dialogue between equals, be open to change and new experiences, be
genuine in entering into personal relationships with learners rather than consistent
adherence to the prescribed roles of the instructor, able to accept and trust the learner
as a person of worth and have empathy for the learners’ perspective.
Okogu (2013) revealed that most studies have shown that discussion method is
very important in social studies teaching and learning because of its nature of
education. Naturally, social studies provides the ground for group discussion.
Majority of the issues discussed consists of social issues and day-to-day happenings
that affects both instructors and learners alike. Bello (1980) described discussion
method of instruction as verbal exchange of views, opinions or ideas between two or
more people. This activity that the instructor gives the learners a topic to discuss in
the class is what takes place in discussion method. They carefully consider the topic,
debate in democratic manner, suggest solutions and draw conclusion. Sometimes, a
short discussion among the learners may take place as part of lesson in which another
method is dominantly used. This may be an exercise or a form of reinforcement.
Ajaja (2009) supported the use of this method when he described the method
as an organized, predetermined procedure of instruction in social studies. In effect, the
use of this method is taken as pre-planned instructional experience. Thus, other
studies indicate that there is the need for proper preparation before the use of this
method. Callahan and Clark (1977) observed that in preparing to use the discussion
method, the instructor has to first of all consider the topic to ensure that it has no
clear-cut answer but can be viewed from various ways. The topic should be of the
learner’s level and the type they are familiar with. This means that it should be within
the ability of the learners to discuss.
Kochhar (1985) identified two major types which are formal and informal.
Informal discussions are governed by pre-determined set of rules and it includes
debates, panels, symposia etc. While formal discussions may involve whole group or
small groups of people divided with the intension of discussing themes. These are not

governed by pre-determined set of rules. Small group discussion is better than a whole
class discussion. It encourages more learners to give their own views through open
participation. Learners are divided into small groups of four, five, six, seven, eight or
nine and given questions or task to discuss and then report back. Each group should
have a group leader who is instructed to control the discussion process and report
back of what has been discussed. The group setting arrangements should in such a
way be that learners are relaxed and can hear, and see each other well. General
guidelines to a good discussion should involve a well planning where the instructor
should have a clear understanding of the subject topic, content and objectives of the
lesson to be discussed. The instructor’s way of giving instruction should be clearly
and effectively communicated in an atmosphere that is conducive for free discussions.
Instructor should not ridicule or belittle learners, rather stimulate their interest by
giving positive comments and discourage domination of the discussion by the
outspoken members in a group. An instructor who helped the reserved and shy
learners is doing well than harm by providing the learner with an opportunity to
contribute.
The instructor according to Rahman (2011) must keep a balance between
controlling the group and letting it’s members speak. The aim of a discussion is to get
learners to talk purposefully about the course material. Instructor’s role becomes a
facilitator. He/she moderates the discussion rather than convey information. For a
purposeful discussion, instructor should not do all the talking or talk to one learner at
a time. It should be remembered that the discussion is not just a matter of instructor’s
communication to or with learners, it is a chance for them to share ideas. The
instructor’s role in a discussion is not to dominate, but rather to get the discussion
started, set goals, summarize, mediate, clarify and allow all to be heard.
Rahman et al (2011) recommended some responsibilities of an instructor in
discussion such as:
i. Make sure that everyone has a chance to contribute. It emphasized that
once a question is posed, instructor should wait long enough for someone
to answer it, instructor might occasionally try having learners write down
an answer first, which give more reserved learners a chance to think about
their thoughts before speaking.

ii. Organize, summarize and synthesize

This help to structure the conclusions the class has reached and to keep them
on track. An instructor should restate the correct portions of comments made
by a learner. He/she can show attention by building on a learner’s points, by
with holding judgement until several learners responses, or by listing the
multiple responses on the board and asking the learners to group them. At the
end of the class summarize the points they have made and connect them to the
original questions posed at the beginning of the class. It allows learners to
come to their own conclusions, and to help structure and analyze them.
iii. Tolerate opposition
If learners are disagreeing in interpretation in opposition or conclusion, but are
backing their argument up, that’s the nature of discussion. Sometimes finding
out what the learners are thinking and how they will respond to a given
question is more important than momentary control.
Majasan (1997); Perrott (1994) and Clement (1993) opined that a sound
classroom procedure particularly using discussion should be explorative, evocative,
experimental, experiential, demanding, involving as it precipitates the maximum
response from the individual learner. Agatha (2004) stated that the
pragmatic/constructivist instructor should not be authoritarian figure but much of an
organizer and moderator of learner’s learning activities. In fact, he is a resource
person.
The following procedures may be adopted for organization and control of
discussion.
i. the discussion may be started by the learners by giving facts, describing a
situation,
ii. the instructor may introduce the topic by providing data. Discussion should
be stimulated by way of questioning by the instructor,
iii. the instructor in cooperation with the learners should finalized important
points and relevant facts,
iv. for making the discussion interesting and lively it is desirable to cite the
personal experiences of the learners relating to the topic,

v. illustrative materials collected from various sources for example museum

and other community resources and presented in the class,
vi. various proposed solution given by learners be presented to the class,
vii. the summary of the work done and problem discussed be prepared by
learners leaders,
viii. debate discussion should be initiated by pairs of learners on significant and
controversial topics,
ix. panel-discussion, round table discussions, open forum and symposia should
be arranged as per nature of the study. Such type of discussion may have far
reaching values for socialization of class-room discussion.
The extent of success of the discussion depends primarily on the ability of the
instructor in securing the whole hearted cooperation of the learners and selecting,
organizing and conducting group discussions. In case instructor finds that learner
volunteers are not forth coming, then he should ask learners to relate their experiences
in such a way the whole class is represented.
Baxter (1999) recommended a few tips for getting learners to participate in
discussion.
i. Make it clear from the first day that participation from all learners is
expected.
ii. Next, make participation in discussion a part of the learners’ grade.
iii. Explain to learners that discussion is a skill that will be useful in their
careers, and that learning it now will serve them well in future.
Mckeachie (1999) revealed why learners don’t participate, “boredom, lack of
knowledge general habits of passivity, cultural norms- but most compelling is a fear
of being embarrassed”. Mckeachie however, offered the following tips for alleviating
this fear.
i. Help learners get acquainted with one another.
ii. Create an inclusive and welcoming classroom environment.
iii. Give learners time to write down an answer before opening up discussion
to the whole class.
iv. Call learners by name
v. Ask question that have no clear wrong answer.

vi. Have learners respond to a discussion prompt before the class begins.
vii. Arrange the room so that learners are sitting in a circle.
viii. Get to know non-participants so that it is easier to understand why they are
not participating.
Carew (2002) posited that effective instruction requires that learning be
enjoyable, learners to be emotionally involved in the learning process, and granted a
degree of academic freedom to explore their own educational needs and interest; and
that instructors need to know the learners. Effective instruction requires that
instructors make all class periods meaningful and purposeful, by linking what is learnt
with the realities of life. Instructor’s effectiveness is based on sound principles, some
of which include the following.
a. instructors and learners should see themselves as working partners, who
together should find purpose, device plans, share experiences see
relationship in what they learn and evaluate together what has been
accomplished.
b. individual differences should be taken into account and learners guided
toward accomplishment which bring them satisfaction, challenge and new
interests.
c. Learning and instructional experiences should be learner-centred.
d. the primary role of the instructor is to motivate learners and guide them.
e. Instructors should try as much as possible to place each learner in a group
which he can make the most educational progress.
f. instructional environment should be group controlled, instead of instructor
dominated, and be friendly, encouraging one in which all learners feel secure
and are contributing members.
g. Instruction should be seen as a process of helping others to discover and
develop their laten talents. Thus, the role of the instructor is to help learners
do better those things they find they can do.
h. The instructional process should discover the causes of slow learning on non
learning and find ways to overcome them to improve learning (Vannier,
1974) in Carew, (2002).

5. CLASSROOM PROCEDURE USING LECTURE METHOD

Lecture method is the most widely used form of presentation. Lectures are
used for introduction of new subjects, summarizing ideas, showing relationships
between theory and practice, and reemphasizing main points. The lecture method is
adaptable to many different settings including either small or large groups. Lectures
also may be used to introduce a topic or a complete training programme. Lectures
may be combined with other teaching methods to give added meaning and direction
CTL (2006).
There are several types of lectures such as the illustrated talk where the
instructor relies heavily on visual aids to convey ideas to the learners. With a briefing,
the instructor present a concise array of facts to the learners who normally do not
expect elaboration of supporting materials. During a formal lecture, the instructor’s
purpose is to inform, to persuade, or to entertain with little or no verbal participation
by the learners. When using a teaching lecture, the instructor plans and delivers an
oral presentation in a manner that allows some participation by the learners and helps
direct them toward the desired learning outcomes.
Lectures may include several different types of delivery. However, depending
on the requirements of any particular circumstances, a lecture is usually delivered in
one of ways:
i. Reading from a typed or written manuscript.
ii. Reciting memorized materials without the aid of a manuscript.
iii. Speaking extemporaneously from an outline.
iv. Speaking impromptu without preparation.
Doyle (nd) maintained that an effective lecture include the use of images that
illustrate the concepts and ideas being discussed. Images are among the most
powerful instructional tools as 70% of the sensory cortex of the brain is made up of
visual context. For lecture to be effective, Doyle gave steps to be followed:
1. Know your audience (learners)
2. Have a map to follow (lecture outline)
3. Grab the learners’ attention (have a beginning)
4. Recognize learners’ attention span
5. Plan an activity for learners (have a middle)

6. use visual aids/voice and movements

7. Have a conclusion (an end)
8. Have learners do something with the lecture material (accountability).
Below is a brief listing of suggestions for effective lecture preparation and
delivery. The suggestions are arranged under one of three phases of a lecture – the
introduction, the body and the closing.
a. Plan an introduction to catch the learners interest
b. Provide a brief general overview of the lecture’s content
c. Tell learners how you expect them to use the lecture material
d. Define or explain unfamiliar terminology
5.1 The Body of Lecture

A. Organization: Allow for some flexibility in order to respond to learners
questions and comments.
B. Organize material in some logical order: These may include: cause –
effect: events are cited and explained by reference to their origin.
Time sequence: Lecture ideas are arranged chronologically
Topical: Parallel elements of different discussion topics are focused on
successively.
Problem solution: The statement of problems is followed by alternate solution.
Pro-Con: A two-sided discussion of a given topic is presented
Ascending – Descending: Lecture topics are arranged according to their
importance, familiarity, or complexity.
C. Allow time within the lecture to summarize key ideas and prepare relevant
examples to illustrate key ideas.
5.2 Closing the Lecture
a. Answer any question raised from the beginning of the lecture and provide
closure for the lecture.
b. Restate what you expect the learners to gain from the lecture material
It is also expected of the instructor to be mindful about the following:
a. Voice delivery
Do you

i. Give important ideas by varying speech rate, volume, and pitch?

ii. Speak to learners and not to the blackboard, walls, notes, or floor?
iii. Enunciate clearly?
iv. Let your sense of humor show
v. Avoid repetition of pet words or phrases (e.g, okay, you, uh)?
b. Physical Delivery
Do you
i. Establish and maintain eye contact with your learners?
ii. Use gesture and physical movements which complement your verbal
statement (e.g, looking at learners while asking for questions)?
iii. Practice in advance with audio-visuals?
iv. Avoid using distracting gestures of physical movements (e.g, grooming,
pacing)?
Cashin (1985); CTL (2007); Bonwell (1996); Paris (2014),; Iornem (2016);
Teline (2010); Charlton (2006) and Airforce Training instructor’s Guidebook (2007)
gave the advantages and disadvantages of using lecture method as follows:
5.3 Advantages
i. Lectures can communicate the intrinsic interest of the subject matter and
thereby stimulate students to want to learn more.
ii. Lecture can cover materials not otherwise available. This includes original
research or recent development which may not be available from papers or
articles not yet included in textbooks.
iii. Lecture can organize materials in a special ways, lecture method is a very fast,
simple method of presenting materials fitted to the needs or interest of the
learners.
iv. Lecture can convey large amounts of information. It continues to be useful to
convey information that is not available in print.
v. Lectures can communicate to many learners at the same time. With the proper
audiovisual support, a skilled instructor can communicate effectively with a
few hundred (or even few thousand) learners.

vi. Traditional lectures can model how professional in a particular discipline

approach a question or problem. This modeling behaviour is one of the major
characteristics of the teacher-centered method of teaching. The learners can
watch first hand as the teacher ‘thinks’ like professionals in the field.
vii. Lectures permit maximum instructor control. From the instructors’ point of
view this can be an advantage, because the teacher determine the aims,
content, organization, pace and direction of presentation.
viii. Lectures present minimum threats to learners are not required to do anything.
From learners’ point of view this may be an advantage.
ix. Lectures emphasize learning by listening. This is an advantage for students
who learn well this way.
5.4 Disadvantages
In summary, lecture method in use has the following effect on learners
learning ways:
 Learners only transcribe, memorize and reproduce knowledge.
 Learners frequently forget or never learn much of the materials taught.
 Learners are placed in passive rather than active role which hinder learning
and learners’ attention may be lost.
 Instructor cannot interact with all learners on each point.
 Instructors find it difficult to hold the attention of learners.
 Instructors cannot estimate learners’ progress before examination.
6. RESEARCH DESIGN
The design adopted for this study is experimental research design.
Experimental research design is a systematic empirical inquiry in which a researcher
has a direct control of independent variables (Kerlinger 1997). Osuala (1990) stated
that “experimentation is the most scientifically sophisticated research design.
According to Akuezuilo (1993) experimental is a method of research that attempts to
answer a question. If this is done under a carefully controlled condition, what will
happen? For one to answer this question, this research would have to deliberate
systematically through manipulating certain influences, or variables, and observe how
the condition or behaviour of the subject is affected or changed.

In this study, the researcher will use the conventional type of experiment, the
experimental and control group, the pre-test and posttest method of research. This
method is chosen to gather information about the effect of lecture and discussion
methods of teaching social studies on learners’ performance in the basic programme
in Continuing Education Institute Borno State.
6.1 Population and Sample

In research Nworgu (1991) stated that the term population “is used in a more
general sense to include all members or elements be they human beings, animals,
trees, objects, events, among others, of well defined group” Mohammed (2000).
However, from the above definition the population of the study consisted of the
learners in Basic Adult Education Programme in Social Studies.
The target population for this study was learners in the Basic Adult Education
Programme in Continuing Education Institute, Borno State. The learners were seventy
(70) in number and forty learners were used as sample for this study.
Random sampling method was used to select forty (40) learners sampled from
the target population. Random sampling method was used because it is the most
acceptable method that gives equal chance to all members of a population Mohammed
(2000).
The procedure for the sampling technique included:
i. Names of each member of the target population was written on a piece of paper.
ii. The pieces of paper were folded separately and placed in a box and mixed
properly.
iii. A learner was asked to pick forty (40) folded pieces of paper from the box.
iv. When unfolded, the names of those that appeared formed the sample population
for this study.
6.2 Method of Data Analysis
Single factor analysis of variance was used by the researcher to carry out an
analysis of variance to test hypotheses, and attempt to answer research questions,
whether there is or no significant difference between two groups performance was
adopted in this study.

7. RESULTS
Table 4.2.1: Research Question 1. Is the performance of learners taught by lecture

method higher in the post-test than the pre-test?
Table 4.2.1 showed the scores obtained by learners who were taught with
lecture method in both pre-test and post-test. The result indicated increase in the
learners performance in the post-test after the treatment.
Pre-test Post-test
2
N X X- (X- ) Y Y- (Y- )2
1 16 1.8 3.2 22 -0.6 -1.2
2 13 -1.2 -2.4 20 -2.6 -5.2
3 15 0.8 0.64 19 -3.6 -7.2
4 12 -2.2 -4.4 23 0.4 0.16
5 14 -0.2 -0.4 29 6.4 40.96
6 14 -0.2 -0.4 15 -7.6 -15.2
7 12 -2.2 -4.4 30 7.4 54.76
8 13 -1.2 -2.4 20 -2.6 -5.2
9 18 3.8 14.44 27 4.4 19.36
10 15 0.8 0.64 24 1.4 1.96
 42  226
10 10
Distribution of scores obtained by learners taught with lecture method (control group)
in the pre-test and post-test
Table 4.2.2. Research Question 2. Is the performance of learners taught using

discussion method higher in the post-test than in the pre-test?
Table 4.2.2 below showed scores obtained by learner who were taught with
discussion method in both pre-test and post-test which revealed increased in the
learner performance after the treatment.
Post-test Pre-test
2
N X X- (X- ) Y Y- (Y- )2
1 15 0.9 0.81 48 9.9 98.01
2 16 1.9 3.61 35 -3.1 9.61
3 14 -0.1 -0.2 38 -0.9 0.81
4 10 -4.1 -8.2 29 -9.1 82.81

5 13 -8.1 -16.2 26 -18.1 327.61

6 18 3.9 15.21 49 10.9 118.81
7 15 0.9 0.81 33 -6.1 37.21
8 13 -8.1 -16.2 43 4.9 24.01
9 17 2.9 8.41 40 1.9 3.61
10 10 -4.1 -8.2 46 7.9 62.41
141  381
10 10
Distribution of scores obtained by learners taught with discussion method.
8. SUMMARY OF FINDING
The following are the finding of this study:
1. There is increase in the performance of learners who were taught with lecture
method.
2. The performance of learners taught with discussion also showed increased after
the treatment.
9. DISCUSSION
The result of research question 1 showed increase in the learners performance
who were taught using lecture method. Although their performance significantly
improved, it was not encouraging. This affirmed Franklin, Sayre and Clark (20140
statement that learners taught with lecture base classes learn less. Redish (nd)
reiterated that lecture method has never been an effective teaching strategy, is just
waste of time. Handford (nd) reported that research conducted over the past few
decades showed that it’s impossible for learners to take in and processed all the
information presented during a typical lecture. Kukuru (2012) lamented over
instructors who use lecture method for imparting information to their learners, and
said this act should be discouraged because it only ensures shallow instruction and
thinking skills of learners. Pigdon and Woolley (1992) concurred with Kukuru and
reported that learners retention in lecture method based courses is weak. Ipayi (1991)
added that lecture method is not effective in achieving the aim of teaching social
studies. According to Bok (2006) instructional method like lecture method does not
help the learners to acquire sufficient functional knowledge.

Research question 2 revealed high increase in the performance of learners taught with
discussion method. This finding concurred with Zvanvahu (2010) Omwirhire (2015)
and Dillon (1994) that during discussion, learners are not passive recipient of
information rather learners are active participants. Teaching by discussion can
motivate learners while also helping them retain knowledge and develop effective
problem- solving abilities. This is also in line with the National Policy on Education
(NPE 2015) which encouraged learners’ active participation in the learning process
which bring about effective learning, relation, transfer and stimulating thinking than
the lecture method.
10. CONCLUSION
The study has shown that learners who were taught using discussion method in
the experimental group performed better than those taught using lecture method in the
control group. In this study, learners seemed to gain knowledge and understanding
about the subject matter as revealed by their scores in the post test. This confirmed the
assertion of Al- Faleh (1992) and Andala and Ngumbi (2016) that the reason for
learners obtaining high scores in posttest and performance for discussion method is
that it prompts the learners to be active and involved in the classroom. Thus, using the
discussion method allowed the learners to share information, give opinions, and offer
comments. In contrast, using the lecture method as the only means for instruction
appeared to make most learners bored very quickly, and thus loose enthusiasm and
interest of what the instructor has to say. This affirmed Bojak (2014) views who said
lectures are not just boring they are ineffective. The study has also revealed increased
in scores in the post test of learners in the control group who were taught using lecture
method. This means that both lecture and discussion methods were able to increase
the learners’ knowledge on the topic.
11. RECOMMENDATION
The following recommendations were made based on the findings of this
research.
1. Discussion method should be adopted into social studies teaching in the Basic
Adult Education Programme in Borno State.

2. Discussion method should be incorporated into teacher education programmes so

as to acquaint instructors with the tenets.
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Author
1 Ardo Maji A.
He has been teaching educational courses in the department

of early childhood care and Primary Education, Aminu
Saleh College of Education, Azare Bauchi State for over
sixteen (16) years. He has a bachelor of Education (B.ED)
Social Studies from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria and
had masters (M.ED) in guidance and counselling (inveiw)
from the same University of bachelor degree. His research
interest is in writing journal papers and International
Conferences.

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Frontiers of Knowledge Journal Series | International Journal of Education

and Educational Research ISSN:2635-3636 | Vol. 1 Issue 1(September,2017)

Problems and Prospects of Guidance and Counselling in Schools and

Ardo Maji Aliyu1

Open Access Journal www.smrpi.com 1

2. MEANING OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

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Sambo, (2012). The primary function of guidance is to help individuals understand

Open Access Journal www.smrpi.com 3

2.1 Guidance and counseling at the kindergarten level:

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3. DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS, NEEDS AND

4. RESPONSIBILITIES OF COUNSELLORS, TEACHERS AND PARENTS IN

Having known problems facing primary school pupils Kuppuswan, (2002)

Open Access Journal www.smrpi.com 5

5. Providing educational/vocational information

4.1 Guidance and counselling in the secondary school level:

5. MAJOR PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENTS IN COLLEGES

Open Access Journal www.smrpi.com 6

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6. NEED FOR GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING IN SCHOOLS AND

7. GENERAL PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF GUIDANCE AND

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3. No qualified guidance counsellors at the moment

8. IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION AND COUNSELLING PRACTICE

Open Access Journal www.smrpi.com 9

Open Access Journal www.smrpi.com 10

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Sambo, S. (2008). Understanding Guidance and Counselling. Ahmadu Bello

Sambo, S. (2012). A Proposal submitted to Mekelle University for the establishment

Stoops, H. H. (1959). Psychotherapeutic Techniques, Professional Affiliation and

Zaria Journal of Educational Studies (ZAJES). A Publication of the Federal College

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The Effect of Lecture and Discussion Methods of Teaching on

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instructors/teachers of social studies in learning institutions to update their

Keyword: Effect of Lecture, Methods of Teaching, Learner’s Performance, Social Studies

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and learners, and learners to learners. It is a strategy that centred on shared

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the learner. Instruction tends to be dominated by the lecture, textbook or worksheets

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The major problem confronting social studies in Nigeria, especially Borno

2.1 Objectives of the Study

3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

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