PEd 323A: LESSON 1 - OVERVIEW OF THE IN-TEXT CITATION: PAGE NUMBER

RESEARCH PROCESS — In-text citations help readers locate the cited

source in the references section of the paper.
RESEARCH PROCESS For Parenthetical Citation
1. Conceptualization Phase e.g. Research suggests that the Purdue OWL is
2. Design Phase a good resource for students (Atkins, 2018) For
3. Empirical Phase Narrative Citation
4. Analytical Phase E.g. Atkins (2018) suggests that the Purdue OWL
5. Dissemination Phase is a good resource for students.

CONCEPTUALIZATION PHASE IN-TEXT CITATION: PAGE NUMBERS — If

— topic/problem identification the source you’re citing includes page
— review of literature numbers, add that information to your
— hypotheses/proposition development citation. For Parenthetical Citation
— framework development — E.g. Research suggests that the Purdue OWL is
objective formulation a good resource for students (Atkins,2018, p.12)
For Narrative Citation
DESIGN PHASE E.g. Atkins (2018) suggests that the Purdue OWL
— research plan formulation is a good resource for students (p. 12).

EMPIRICAL PHASE IN-TEXT CITATION: QUOTATIONS

— data gathering/ collection
ANALYTICAL PHASE
— data analysis and interpretation
— conclusion
DISSEMINATION PHASE
— communicating and utilizing the findings
LESSON 2 - APA 7th EDITION
MAKING THE REFERENCE LIST
— APA is a complex system of citation. When
compiling the reference list, the strategy below
might be useful:
1.Identify the type of source:
— Is it a book? A journal article? webpage?
2.Find a sample citation for this type of source
3.”Mirror” the sample
4.Make sure that the entries are listed in
alphabetical order and that the subsequent lines
are indented (Recall References: Basics)
— When quoting: Introduce the quotation with a
signal phrase
For Parenthetical Citation E.g. As
scientific knowledge advances, “the application
of CRISPR technology to improve human health
is being explored across public and private
sectors” (Hong, 2018, p. 503) For Narrative
Citation
E.g. Hong (2018) stated that “the application of
CRISPR technology to improve human health is
being explored across public and private sectors”
(p. 503)
IN-TEXT CITATION: SUMMARY OR
PARAPHRASE
— Follow the same guidelines for parenthetical
and narrative citations when summarizing or
paraphrasing a longer chunk of text. For
Parenthetical Citation E.g. In one study that
consisted of 467 young adults, it was found that
social media use may not directly affect mental
health; rather, it depends on how young adults use
social media (Berryman et al., 2018)
 For Narrative Citation
E.g. Berryman et al. (2018) sampled 467 young
adults about their social media use and mental
health and found that social media use may not
directly affect mental health; rather, it depends on
how young adults use social media.
IN-TEXT CITATION: SIGNAL WORDS
— Introduce quotations with signal phrases,
E.g.:
According to Reynolds (2019), “....” (p. 3).
Reynolds (2019) argued that “.... …” (p. 3)
— Use signal verbs such as:
Acknowledged, contended, maintained,
Responded, reported, argued, concluded,
etc.
— Use the past tense or the present perfect tense
of verbs in signal phrases when they discuss past
events.
IN-TEXT CITATION: TWO OR MORE WORKS
— When the parenthetical citation includes two or
more works:
E.g. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet (Adams, 2018;
Collins 2017)
— When citing a work with two authors: — In
the narrative citation, use “and” in-between the
author’s names
E.g. According to scientist Depietri and
McPhearson (2018), Understanding the
occurrence and impacts of interpret current hazard
trends” (p.96).
— In the parenthetical citation, use “&” between
names
E.g. When examining potential climate threats,
“Understanding the occurrence and impacts of
historical climate hazards is critical to better
interpret current hazard trends” (Depietri &
McPhearsin, 2018, p. 96).
— When citing a work with three or more authors:
—List the name of the first author plus “et al.” in
every citation.
(N.C.) PE.g. Lin et al. (2019) examined how
weather conditions affect the popularity of the
bike-sharing program in Beijing. (P.C.) One study
looked at how weather conditions affected the
popularity of bike-sharing programs, specifically
the Beijing Public Bikesharing Program (Lin et al.,
2019).
IN-TEXT CITATION: UNKNOWN AUTHOR
-When citing a work with an unknown author:
— Use the source’s full title in the narrative
citation. — Cite the first word of the title followed
by the year of publication in the parenthetical
citation.
E.g. According to “Here’s How Gardening Benefits
Your Health” (2018)
E.g. (“Here’s, “ 2018)
IN-TEXT CITATION: GROUP AUTHORS
– When citing a group author:
— Mention the organization the first time you cite
the source in either the narrative citation or the
parenthetical citation.
— If you first mention the group in a narrative
citation, list the abbreviation before the year of
publication in parentheses, separated by a
comma. E.g. “ The data collected by the Food and
Drug
Administration (FDA, 2019) confirmed…” — If
you first mention the group in a parenthetical
citation, list the abbreviation in square brackets,
followed by a comma and the year of publication.
E.g. (Food and Drug Administration [FDA],
2019).
IN-TEXT CITATION: SAME LAST NAME/
AUTHOR
– When citing authors with the same last names:
— Use first initials with the last names.
E.g. (B. Davis, 2018; Y. Davis, 2020)
— When citing two or more works by the same
author and published in the same year:
- Use lower-case letters (a,b,c) after the year
of publication to order the references.
E.g. Chen’s *2018a) study of bird migration…
HEADINGS
— APA uses a system of five heading levels (taken
directly from the APA Publication Manual, 7th
edition):
FIGURES
— Label figures with an Arabic numeral and
provide a brief but clear title. The label and title
appear on separate lines above the figure, flush-
left and single-spaced.
— You might provide an additional title centered
above the figure.
— Cite the source in a note below the figure.
LESSON 3: PROCEDURES BEFORE DATA
COLLECTION
SELECTING A RESEARCH DESIGN
- Research designs are plans and procedures for
research that span the decisions from broad
assumptions to detailed methods of data
collection and analysis.
- The selection of a research design is also based
on the nature of the research problem
or issue being addressed, the researchers’
personal experience, and the audiences
for the study.
Qualitative research
- is a means for exploring and understanding
the meaning individuals or groups ascribe
to a social or human problem.
- The process of research involves emerging
questions and procedures, data typically
collected in the participant’s setting, data
analysis inductively building from particulars
to general themes, and the researcher
making interpretations of the meaning of the
data.
- The final written report has a flexible
structure. Those who engage in this form of
inquiry support a way of looking at research
that honors an inductive style, a focus on
individual meaning, and the importance of
rendering the complexity of a situation
(adapted from Creswell, 2007).
Quantitative research
- is a means for testing objective theories by
examining the relationship among variables.
- These variables, in turn, can be measured,
typically on instruments, so that numbered
data can be analyzed using statistical
procedures.
- Like qualitative researchers, those who
engage in this form of inquiry have
assumptions about testing theories
deductively, building in protections against
bias, controlling for alternative explanations,
and being able to generalize and replicate
the findings.
Mixed methods research
- is an approach to inquiry that combines or
associates both qualitative and quantitative
forms.
- It involves philosophical assumptions, the
use of qualitative and quantitative
approaches, and the mixing of both
approaches in a study.
- Thus, it is more than simply collecting and
analyzing both kinds of data; it also involves
the use of both approaches in tandem so
that the overall strength of a study is greater
than either qualitative or quantitative
research (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007).
PHILOSOPHICAL WORLDVIEWS
- Although philosophical ideas remain largely
hidden in research (Slife & Williams, 1995),
they still influence the practice of research
and need to be identified.
- Worldview, which means “a basic set of
beliefs that guide action”.
- Others have called them paradigms
(Lincoln & Guba, 2000; Mertens, 1998);
epistemologies and ontologies (Crotty,
1998), or broadly conceived research
methodologies (Neuman, 2000).
- These worldviews are shaped by the
discipline area of the student, the beliefs of
advisers and faculty in a student’s area, and
past research experiences.
- The types of beliefs held by individual
researchers will often lead to embracing a
qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods
approach in their research.
- Four different worldviews are discussed:
post-positivism, constructivism,
advocacy/participatory, and pragmatism.
Post positivists
- Hold a deterministic philosophy in which
causes probably determine effects or
outcomes.
- Thus, the problems studied by post-
positivists reflect the need to identify and
assess the causes that influence outcomes,
such as found in experiments.
- It is also reductionistic in that the intent is to
reduce the ideas into a small, discrete set of
ideas to test, such as the variables that
comprise hypotheses and research
questions.
The Social Constructivist Worldview.
- Social constructivism (often combined with
interpretivism) is such a perspective, and it
is typically seen as an approach to
qualitative research.
- Social constructivists hold assumptions that
individuals seek an understanding of the
world in which they live and work.
- Individuals develop subjective meanings of
their experiences—meanings directed
toward certain objects or things.
- These meanings are varied and multiple,
leading the researcher to look for the
complexity of views rather than narrowing
meanings into a few categories or ideas.
- The goal of the research is to rely as much
as possible on the participants’ views of the
situation being studied.
- The more open-ended the questioning, the
better, as the researcher listens carefully to
what people say or do on their life settings.
The Advocacy and Participatory Worldview.
- This position arose during the 1980s and
1990s from individuals who felt that the
post-positivist assumptions imposed
structural laws and theories that did not fit
marginalized individuals in our society or
issues of social justice that needed to be
addressed.
- An advocacy/participatory worldview holds
that research inquiry needs to be
intertwined with politics and a political
agenda. Thus, the research contains an
action agenda for reform that may change
the lives of the participants, the institutions
in which individuals work or live, and the
researcher’s life.
- Moreover, specific issues need to be
addressed that speak to important social
issues of the day, issues such as
empowerment, inequality, oppression,
domination, suppression, and alienation.
- This philosophical worldview focuses on the
needs of groups and individuals in our
society that may be marginalized or
disenfranchised.
The Pragmatic Worldview.
- There are many forms of this philosophy,
but for many, pragmatism as a worldview
arises out of actions, situations, and
consequences rather than antecedent
conditions (as in post-positivism).
- Pragmatism is not committed to any one
system of philosophy and reality. This
applies to mixed methods research in that
inquirers draw liberally from both
quantitative and qualitative assumptions
when they engage in their research.
- Although philosophical ideas remain largely
hidden in research (Slife & Williams, 1995),
they still influence the practice of research
and need to be identified.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Population
- Target population refers to all the members
who meet the particular criterion specified
for a research investigation.
- For example a population of schools in
Canada means all the schools built under
the boundary of the country.
- A population of OCD means all the people
have a clinical diagnosis of the disorder.
- A population is said to be homogenous
when every element is similar to each other
in all aspects.
- n other words, every element has all the
characteristics that meet the described
criteria of the target population.
- A population is said to be heterogeneous
when its elements are not similar to each
other in all aspects.
- In other words, one characteristic variable is
not the same among all the elements while
they meet the rest of the criteria that define
the target population.
- Common variables that make a population
heterogeneous are gender, age, ethnicity,
socioeconomic status etc.
- The homogeneity and heterogeneity of the
population depends on the goal and nature
of your research.
- Some population may be homogenous for
one research project and heterogeneous for
the other.
Sample
- A sample can be defined as a group of a
relatively smaller number of people selected
from a population for investigation
purposes.
- The members of the sample are called as
participants.
Sampling and its Purpose
- The process through which a sample is
extracted from a population is called
sampling.
- In investigation it is impossible to assess
every single element of a population so a
group of people (smaller in number than the
population) is selected for the assessment.
- The more the sample is representative of
the population, the higher the accuracy of
the inferences and the better the results
generalizable.
- A sample is said to be representative when
the characteristics of the elements selected
are similar to those of the entire target
population.
- The results are said to be generalizable
when the findings obtained from sample are
equally true for the entire target population.
- The sampling process may encounter the
problem of systematic errors and sampling
biases.
- Systematic errors can be defined as
incorrect or false representations of the
sample.
- Sampling bias is said to occur when the
selected sample does not truly reflect the
characteristics of the population.
TYPES OF SAMPLING
Probability Sampling Methods
- Some form of random selection is used.
Non-Probability Sampling Methods
- Probability sampling is also called a
judgment or non-random sampling.
- Every unit of the population does not get an
equal chance to participate in the
investigation.
- The selection of the sample is made based
on subjective judgment of the investigator.
VARIOUS TYPES OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHOD
1. Simple Random Sampling
- In this type of sampling each element of the
population has an equal chance of being
selected in the sample.
2. Systematic Random Sampling
- Unlike simple random sampling, there is not
an equal probability of every element being
included.
- In this type of sampling the elements are
selected at a regular interval.
- The interval may be in terms of time, space,
or order.
- For instance, an element appearing after
every 30 minutes, or present at a distance of
two meters, or every 5th element present on a
list.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
- This type of sampling method is used when
the population is heterogeneous. i.e. every
element of the population does not match all
the characteristics of the predefined criteria.
- So, the sub-groups are formed that are
homogenous i.e. all the elements within a
group contain the same kind of characteristics.
- The sub groups are called as strata (single
stratum).
- The sample is selected from each stratum
randomly.
- Common criteria used for stratification are
gender, age, ethnicity, and socioeconomic
status.
4. Cluster Sampling
- The group of elements residing in one
geographical region is called as cluster.
- And sampling of clusters is called cluster
sampling.
- This sampling technique is used when the
elements of the population are spread over a
wide geographical area.
- For instance, the population spread over a
country is clustered up into cities, the
population spread over a city is clustered up
into towns etc.
5. Multistage Sampling
- It is a sampling technique where two or more
probability techniques are combined.
VARIOUS TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHOD
1. Volunteer Sampling
- The members of the sample self-select
themselves to be part of the study.
2. Convenient Sampling
- The researcher includes those participants who
are easy or convenient to approach.
- The technique is useful where the target
population is defined in terms of a very broad
category.
3. Purposive Sampling
- In purposive sampling, the sample is approached
having a prior purpose in mind.
- The criteria of the elements who are to include in
the study is predefined.
4. Quota Sampling
- This type of sampling method is used when
population is heterogeneous i.e. every element of
population does not matches all the characteristics
of the predefined criteria.
- The participants are selected non-randomly from
each sub group on the basis of some fixed quota.
5. Snowball Sampling
- It is also called chain sampling.
- One element of the population is approached at
a time and then is asked to refer the investigator to
the other elements of the population.
6. Matched Sampling
- This technique is used in experimental research.
- The main purpose of this sampling is to take a
control group to assess the effects of an
intervention.
- Two groups of elements that resemble a variety
of variables are selected
- Intervention is introduced in only one group.
- The other group is used to compare with the first
one to see what impacts the intervention
produced.
DATA INSTRUMENTATION
- Instrumentation refers to the tools,
methods, or procedures used to collect data
in research (Babbie, 2016; Creswell, 2014;
Johnson & Christensen, 2014; Neuman,
2013).
- In quantitative research, instrumentation
is a critical aspect of the research process,
as it directly affects the validity and
reliability of the data collected.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
- Valid and reliable
- Based on a conceptual framework, or the
researcher's understanding of how the
particular variables in the study connect
with each other.
- Must gather data suitable for and relevant
to the research topic.
- Able to test hypothesis and/or answer
proposed research questions under
investigation.
- Free of bias and appropriate for the context,
culture, and diversity of the study site.
- Contains clear and definite instructions to
use the instrument.
QUANTITATIVE DATA INSTRUMENTATION
- Using inappropriate or poorly designed
instruments can result in inaccurate or
unreliable data, compromising the quality of
the research findings and limiting the
research’s usefulness.
- The choice of research instrument depends
on the research question, the nature of the
phenomenon being studied, and the
available resources (Bryman, 2016;
Creswell, 2014; Dörnyei, 2007; Hair et al.,
2014).
- In education and the social sciences,
quantitative research frequently involves
using various instruments or tools to collect
and analyze data.
- Surveys, questionnaires, tests, and
observations are examples of such
instruments (Bryman, 2016; Creswell &
Creswell, 2018; Fraenkel et al., 2018;
Leedy & Ormrod, 2016).
- Researchers can look through academic
and commercial databases to check if an
appropriate instrument is available.
- However, before utilizing an instrument in a
research project, it must be validated and
evaluated for reliability and validity.
- Additionally, permission from the original
authors or copyright holders may be
required before the researchers utilize the
instrument.
- If it is determined that no instruments exist
that accurately measure the variables in a
study, there are several stages for
constructing an instrument that accurately
measures the variables of interest –
planning, construction, and evaluation
(Creswell, 2014; DeVellis, 2017; Streiner et
al., 2014).
PLANNING
- ✓During the planning stage, researchers
must define the construct(s) or variable(s)
of interest and develop a conceptual
framework that outlines how the variables
are related to each other (DeVellis, 2017;
Hair et al., 2014).
- They should also consider the type of data
that needs to be collected, such as nominal,
ordinal, interval, or ratio, and choose the
most appropriate measurement methods for
each variable.
CONSTRUCTION
- ✓ In the construction stage, researchers
develop the instrument and conduct a pilot
study to evaluate its psychometric
properties (Dillman et al., 2014; Fowler,
2013).
- This includes assessing the reliability and
validity of the instrument.
- Reliability refers to the consistency of the
instrument’s measurements, while validity
refers to “the extent to which the instrument
 measures what it is intended to measure”
(Heale & Twycross, 2015; Leedy & Ormrod,
2016).
- Pilot testing may involve administering the
instrument to a small sample of participants
and analyzing the data to identify potential
problems with the instrument’s items or
response options.
EVALUATION
- This includes assessing the instrument’s
internal consistency, which measures the
degree to which the items on the instrument
are interrelated, and its construct validity,
which measures the extent to which the
instrument measures the intended
construct(s) or variable(s).
AVOID INSTRUMENTATION BIAS
QUALITATIVE DATA INSTRUMENTATION
- Interviews or the interaction where verbal
questions are posed by an interviewer to
elicit verbal responses from an interviewee.
- Structured Interview
A formal set of questions posed to each
interviewee and recorded using a
standardized procedure.
- Unstructured Interview
A less formal set of questions; the
interviewer modifies the sequence and
wording of questions.
- Non-Directive Interview
An unguided interview, including open-
ended questions and the use of
spontaneous engagement.
- Focus Interview
An emphasis on the interviewee's
subjective and personal responses where
the interviewer engages to elicit more
information.
- Focus Group Interview
A group of selected participants are asked
about their opinions or perceptions
concerning a particular topic.
- Observation
(watching what people do) is a type of
correlational (non-experimental) method
where researchers observe ongoing
behavior.
Structured Observations: Research
conducted at a specific place, time, where
participants are observed in a standardized
procedure. Rather than writing a detailed
description of all behaviors observed,
researchers code observed behaviors
according to a previously agreed upon
scale.
Naturalistic Observation: The study the
spontaneous behavior of participants in
natural surroundings. The researcher
simply records what they see in whatever
way they see it.
Participant Observation: A variation on
natural observations where the researcher
joins in and becomes part of the group they
are studying to get a deeper insight into
their lives.
- Researchers can further minimize bias in
their surveys or questionnaires and ensure
that the data collected is accurate and
unbiased.
- Use clear and concise language: Employ
easy-to-understand language and avoid
technical jargon or complicated terms
(Dillman et al., 2014). This will help ensure
that participants can understand the
questions and respond accurately.
- Avoid leading or loaded questions: Avoid
questions designed to elicit a specific
response or bias the participant’s answer
(Diersch & Walther, 2016). For example,
instead of asking, “Don’t you think that
education is important?”, ask, “How
important do you think education is?”.
- Use various question types: Use various
question types, such as multiple-choice,
Likert scale, or openended questions, to
reduce response bias (Dillman et al., 2014).
This will help ensure that participants can
express their opinions or thoughts most
comfortably and accurately.
- Avoid social desirability bias: Social
desirability bias is when participants
respond in a socially acceptable or
desirable way rather than providing their
true opinions or experiences (Tourangeau &
Yan, 2007). To avoid this, reassure
participants that their responses are
confidential and anonymous, and avoid
 asking questions that may elicit socially
desirable responses.
- Pilot-test the survey or questionnaire:
Pilot-test the survey or questionnaire with a
small sample of participants to identify any
issues or areas of potential bias (Dillman et
al., 2014), regardless of whether it is
adopted or adapted [modified] from
previously published scholarly publications
or developed by the researcher. This will
allow the researcher to make any
necessary modifications before
administering the survey or questionnaire to
a larger sample.
- Consider cultural or linguistic
differences: when designing the survey or
questionnaire. Make sure that the questions
are appropriate and relevant for the
population being studied, and consider
translating the survey or questionnaire into
different languages if necessary.
- Monitor for bias: Continuously monitor for
bias throughout the instrument’s planning,
construction, and validation.
Note: When conducting research, it is nearly
difficult to eliminate biases that can potentially
influence the data and, consequently, the
findings reached. Good researchers display
integrity by recognizing that biases may have
influenced their findings. In survey research, for
example, the percentages of those who
consented and refused to participate, such as
those who agreed and refused to be
interviewed or those who did not return
questionnaires, should always be mentioned
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2016). Upon completing
their study, the researchers must indicate such
concerns in the limitations section.
EXPERT VALIDATION
- Validation of research instruments in
educational research is performed by
experts (academics, practitioners, or
professionals) in the field of education or
the specific topic area being studied
(Beaton et al.,2000; DeVellis, 2017; Streiner
et al., 2014).
- This helps ensure that the results obtained
using the instrument are accurate and
reliable.
- The experts review the research
instrumentation for clarity, completeness,
and relevance to the research question and
may also provide feedback on the format
and structure of the instrument.
- If the research instrument is a test designed
to measure reading comprehension in
elementary school students, it would be
validated by experts in reading instruction,
such as literacy coaches or reading
specialists.
TOOLS
- Informed Consent
- Content Validity: Validation/ Confirmability
Tool
- Reliability Analysis (for quantitative)
- Consolidated Comments of the Experts
VALIDATION OF INSTRUMENTS
- Face Validity
- Content Validity
Face Validity
- Face validity, rather than a true
psychometrician assessment technique,
has been defined as validity conferred by
the lay person’s acceptance.
- It also includes validity by assumption and
validity by definition.
- It is not quantifiable.
Content Validity
- Content validity is the determination of the
content representativeness or content
relevance of the items of an instrument by
the application of two-stage process.
For individual items (Item-CVI):
▪ This formula is used to assess the agreement
among experts on the relevance (I-CVI(R)) or
clarity (I-CVI(C)) of each item in the instrument.
▪ I-CVI = Nr / N
Where:
* Nr is the number of experts who rated the
item as relevant/clear (typically a score of 3 or
4 on a 4-point scale).
 * N is the total number of experts involved in
the content validity assessment.

LESSON 4: ACTUAL DATA COLLECTION

DATA COLLECTION
- Data collection is the process of gathering
and measuring information on variables
of interest, in an established systematic
fashion that enables one to answer stated
research questions, test hypotheses, and
evaluate outcomes.
IMPORTANCE!
- Regardless of the field of study or
preference for defining data (quantitative,
qualitative), accurate data collection is
essential to maintaining the integrity of
research.
- Consequences from improperly collected
data include:
-inability to answer research questions
accurately.
-inability to repeat and validate the study.
-distorted findings resulting in wasted
resources.
-misleading other researchers to pursue
fruitless avenues of investigation.
-compromising decisions for public policy.
-causing harm to human participants and
animal subjects.
DIFFERENT DATA COLLECTION METHODS
1. Primary Data Collection
- direct interaction with the respondents. (e.g.
surveys and questionnaires, interviews,
observations, experiments, and focus groups.)
2. Secondary Data Collection
- using existing data collected by someone else for
a purpose different from the original intent. (e.g.
published sources, online databases, government
and institutional records, publicly available data,
past research studies).