Network Analysis and Simulation Laboratory

NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION
LABORATORY
LAB MANUAL
(23A04201P)
B.TECH (I YEAR – II SEM)
R23 REGULATION
Prepared by
Mrs.U.Sudha Rani
Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering
JNTUA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KALIKIRI
(23A04201P) NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION LABORATORY
(ECE & allied branches)

Course Objectives:
 To gain hands on experience in verifying Kirchoff’s laws and network theorems
 To analyze transient behavior of circuits
 To study resonance characteristics
 To determine 2-port network parameters
Course Outcomes:
CO1: Verify Kirchoff’s laws and network theorems.
CO2: Measure time constants of RL & RC circuits.
CO3: Analyze behavior of RLC circuit for different cases.
CO4: Design resonant circuit for given specifications.
CO5: Characterize and model the network in terms of all network parameters.
The following experiments need to be performed using both Hardware and simulation
Software.
The experiments need to be simulated using software and the same need to be verified using
the hardware.
1. Study of components of a circuit and Verification of KCL and KVL.
2. Verification of mesh and nodal analysis for AC circuits
3. Verification of Superposition, Thevenin’s & Norton theorems for AC circuits
4. Verification of maximum power transfer theorem for AC circuits
5. Verification of Tellegen’s theorem for two networks of the same topology.
6. Study of DC transients in RL, RC and RLC circuits
7. To study frequency response of various 1st order RL & RC networks
8. To study the transient and steady state response of a 2nd order circuit by varying its
various parameters and studying their effects on responses
9. Find the Q Factor and Bandwidth of a Series and Parallel Resonance circuit.
10. Determination of open circuit (Z) and short circuit (Y) parameters
11. Determination of hybrid (H) and transmission (ABCD) parameters
12. To measure two port parameters of a twin-T network and study its frequency
response.
Hardware Requirements:
Regulated Power supplies, Analog/Digital Function Generators, Digital Multimeters, Decade
Resistance Boxes/Rheostats, Decade Capacitance Boxes, Ammeters (Analog or Digital),
Voltmeters (Analog or Digital), Active & Passive Electronic Components
Software requirements:
Multisim/ Pspice/Equivalent simulation software tool, Computer Systems with required
specifications
References:
1. Network Analysis – ME Van Valkenburg, Prentice Hall of India, revised 3rd Edition,
2019.
2. Engineering Circuit Analysis by William H. Hayt, Jack Kemmerly, Jamie Phillips,
Steven M. Durbin, 9th Edition 2020.
Experiment No: 1. Study of components of a circuit and Verification of KCL and KVL.
AIM: To Verify KCL & KVL from the given circuit
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO. Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity
1 Bread Board - 1
2 Resistor 1 KΩ 3
3 Ammeter 0-25 mA 3
4 Voltmeter 0-30 V 2
5 RPS 0-30 V 1
Software Requirements:
PC ,Google account in tinkercad Autodesk
THEORY: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all branch voltages around any closed path in a
circuit is always zero at all instants of time. In the figure 1.1, if KVL is applied then the equation is
Vs = V1+V2+V3
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the sum of the currents entering into any node/point/junction is equal to the sum
of the currents leaving that node/point/junction. If KCL is applied, then the equation is
IT = I1 + I2 + I3
CIRCUIT:
KVL KCL
SIMULATION PROCEDURE:
1. After signing in to Tinkercad, you’ll find a dashboard of your recent designs.

2. You can find Circuits, by clicking Designs in the left side.
3. While on your dashboard, you can scroll through your existing 3D, Codeblocks or
Circuits designs.
4. You can also create a new design by clicking the blue + New button in the upper right
hand corner of the dashboard and selecting the editor you'd like to open.
5. Tinkercad’s Circuits editor has a similar layout to its 3D design editor. You’ll find a
large window on the left for creating your design.
6. On the right side you’ll see a panel filled with components you can drag and drop into
the workspace to create your circuit.
7. Save the circuit and run simulation to observe reading in multimeter.
HARDWARE PROCEDURE:
a. Verification of KCL
1. Give the connection according to circuit
2. Vary the supply voltage and take the corresponding readings of IL, I1 & I2 from the ammeter.
3. Verify the reading.
b. Verification of KVL
1. Connection are made as per the circuit diagram
2. Vary the supply voltage and take the corresponding readings V1 & V2 from the voltmeter.
3. Verify the reading.
Tabulation:
Table 1(for KCL):
Vin I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) IL = I1 + I2 + I3

(v) (mA)
Theoretica Practical Theoretic Practical Theoretic Practical Theoretic Practical
l al al al
Table 2 (for KVL):
Vin V1 (v) V2 (v) V3(v) Vin = V1 +V2 +V3 (v)

(v) Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical
RESULT :
Experiment 2: Verification of mesh and nodal analysis for AC circuits

Experiment 3: Experiment No: 3. Verification of Superposition, Thevenin’s & Norton theorems for AC circuits
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
AIM:
To verify the superposition theorem in the given network.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1 Bread Board - 1
2 Resistor 1 KΩ 2
3 Resistor 2.2 KΩ 2
4 Ammeter 0-25 mA 1
6 RPS 0-30 V 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
WHEN BOTH SOURCES ARE ACTING
WHEN VS1 is acting
WHEN VS2 is acting
THEORY:
The superposition theorem states that in any linear network containing two or more sources,
the response in any element is equal to the algebraic sum of the responses caused by
individual sources acting alone, while the other sources are non- operative; that is, while
considering the effect of individual sources, other ideal voltage sources and ideal current
sources in the network are replaced by short circuit and open circuit across their terminals.

Circuits designs.
HARDWARE PROCEDURE:
1. Connection are made as per the circuit diagram shown in figure 4.1
2. Vary the supply voltage VS1 & VS2 and take the corresponding reading I2 from the
ammeter.
3. Now VS2 is short circuited. Vary VS1 & take the corresponding reading I21 from the
ammeter as shown in figure 4.2
4. Now VS1 is short circuited. Vary VS2 & take the corresponding reading I211 from the
ammeter as shown in figure 4.3
5. Finally Verify whether I2 = I21 + I211
Tabulation:
Table 1(for I2):
VS1 VS2 I2 (mA)
(v) (v) Theoretical Practical
Table 2 (for I 1 & 2I 11 ):

VS1 acting alone, VS2 VS2 acting alone, VS1 Total I2 (mA)
replaced by internal Resistance replaced by internal Resistance I2 = I 21 + I 211
(v) (v)
1 11
VS1(v) I2 (mA) VS2(v) I2 (mA) Theoretical Practical
Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical
RESULT :
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
AIM:
To find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit from the given circuit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1 Bread Board - 1
2 Resistor 1 KΩ 3
5 Ammeter 0-100 mA 1
7 RPS 0-30 V 1
THEORY:
Thevenin’s theorem states that any two terminal linear network having a number of voltage
current sources and resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a
single voltage source in series with a resistance, where the value of the voltage source is
equal to the open circuit voltage across the two terminals of the network, and resistance is
equal to the equivalent resistance measured between the terminals with all the energy sources
are replaced by their internal resistances.
PROCEDURE:
2. Vary the supply voltage V1 and take the corresponding reading I3 from the ammeter.
3. Now connect the circuit diagram in figure 2.2 in bread board (Removing the load
resistor R6).
4. Vary the supply voltage V1 in the same way as done in step 2 and note down the
corresponding VAB or VTH from the voltmeter.
5. Find out the RTH and draw the Thevenin equivalent ciruit.
Now connect the circuit diagram in figure 2.3 in bread board and note down the IL value by
varying VTH (fix the values of VTH got from step 4).

Circuits designs.
Tabulation:
Table 1(for I3 & VTH or VAB):
I3 (mA) VTH (v)
V1 (v)
Table 2 (for IL):

VTH (v) IL (mA)
(practical) Theoretical Practical
RESULT :
NORTONS THEOREM
AIM:
To find the Norton’s equivalent circuit from the given circuit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1 Bread Board - 1
2 Resistor 1 KΩ 3
5 Ammeter 0-100 mA 1
7 RPS 0-30 V 1
THEORY:
Norton’s theorem states that any two terminal linear network with current sources, voltage
sources and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source
in parallel with a resistance. The value of the current source is the short circuit current
between the two terminals of the network and the resistance is equal to the equivalent
resistance measured between the terminals with all the energy sources are replaced by their
internal resistances.

Circuits designs.
PROCEDURE:
2. Vary the supply voltage V1 and take the corresponding reading I3 from the ammeter.
3. Now connect the circuit diagram in figure 3.2 in bread board (Removing the load
resistor R6 and shorting the terminals).
4. Vary the supply voltage V1 in the same way as done in step 2 and note down the
corresponding IN from the ammeter.
5. Find out the RN and draw the Norton’s Equivalent circuit
6. Now apply source transformation in the circuit diagram as shown in figure
3.3 and obtain the circuit as shown in figure 3.4.
7. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 3.4 in bread board and vary the supply voltage
and note down the corresponding IL from the ammeter.
Tabulation:
Table 1(for I3 & IN):
I3 (mA) IN (mA)
V1 (v)
Table 2 (for IL):

Vo (v) IL (mA)
Theoretical Practical
RESULT :
EXPERIMENT 4: Verification of maximum power transfer theorem for AC circuits
AIM:
To verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1 Bread Board - 1
2 Resistors 1KΩ 2
3 Resistors 2.2K Ω , 330Ω 1 Each
4 Ammeter 0-10 mA 1
6 RPS 0-30 V 1
7 DRB - 1
THEORY:
Maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum power is delivered from a source
to a load when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance. Depending upon the
conditions of the circuit, there are three cases:
CASE 1: (Purely Resistive circuit & Load resistance is variable) - “Maximum power is
delivered from a source to a load when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance”.
(RL = RS)
CASE 2: (Reactants present & load resistance and reactance can be independently varied) -
“Maximum power is delivered from a source to a load when the load impedance is the
complex conjugate of source impedance”. (XL = -XS & RL = RS) CASE 3: (Reactants present
but only the magnitude of the load resistance can be varied) - “Maximum power is
delivered from a source to a load when the magnitude of the load impedance is equal to the
magnitude of source impedance”.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. First find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for circuit shown in figure 7.1.
2. After finding RTH & VTH, vary the load resistance RL (DRB) from the minimum value to
maximum value (shown in figure 7.2).
3. Plot the graph between RL & Power (IL2RL) where, theoretical IL = [VTH/(RTH+RL)]
4. Finally verify that when RL = RTH, maximum power is delivered or not.

Circuits designs.
Model Graph:
Tabulation:
Table 1:
Tabulation:
Table 1:
IL P = IL2RL (mW)
RL (Ω)
(mA)
RESULT :
EXPERIMENT 5. Verification of Tellegen’s theorem for two networks of the same topology.
AIM : To verify TELLEGEN’S THEOREM
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Theory:
For any given time, the sum of power delivered to each branch of any electric network is zero. Thus for Kth branch,
this theorem states that, 𝑛
Σ 𝑣𝑘𝑖𝑘 = 0
𝑘=1

Circuits designs.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Component IL (mA) V(V) P = VI

Source
R1
R2
R3
R4
RESULT:
Experiment 6: Study of DC transients in RL, RC and RLC circuits
Aim: To study the transient response of a series RL,RC and RLC circuit and understand the time constant concept with DC
Power Supply
Apparatus required:
S.No Apparatus Range Quantity

1. Digital Storage Oscilloscope(DSO) 1No
2. DC Power Supply 5V, 2A 1 No
3. Resistor 1 kΩ 1 No
4. Resistor 220kΩ 1 No
5. Inductor 0.1mH 1 No
6. Capacitor 0.1µF 1 No
7. Bread board 1 No
8. Connecting wires Required
9. CRO Probes 2 Nos
Theory:
When a circuit is switched from one condition to another either by a change

in the applied voltage or a change in one of the circuit elements, there is a
transitional period during which the branch currents and voltage drops change
from their former values to new ones. After this transition interval called the
transient, the circuit is said to be in the steady state.
Time Constant (τ): It is a measure of time required for certain changes in
voltages and currents in RC and RL circuits. Generally, when the elapsed time
exceeds five time constants (5τ) after switching has occurred, the currents and
voltages have reached their final value, which is also called steady-state
response. The time constant of an RL circuit is the equivalent inductance
divided by the Thévenin resistance as viewed from the terminals of the
equivalent inductor.
τ=L/R
The time constant of an RC circuit is the product of equivalent capacitance and
the Thévenin resistance as viewed from the terminals of the equivalent capacitor.
τ = R*C
When a circuit is switched from one condition to another either by a change
in the applied voltage or a change in one of the circuit elements, there is a
transitional period during which the branch currents and voltage drops change
from their former values to new ones. After this transition interval called the
transient, the circuit is said to be in the steady state.Let us consider the R-L-C
circuit as shown below:
Applying KVL, we obtain
Taking Laplace transform on both sides of the above equation,
Now as all initial conditions set equal to zero, i.e. i(0 _)  0 and vc (0 _)  , so the equation
becomes,
Here, v(t)  u(t) V(s)=1/S
Circuit Diagrams :
RL Circuit:
RC Circuit:
RLC Circuit
Calculations:
RL Circuit:
Theoretically,
Time Constant, TC = L/R.....................= where
L = 1H, R =1k, f=100Hz
Practically (on DSOscreen),
In the charging circuit, Time Constant is the time by which the capacitor attains
the 63.2% of steady state voltage or final value (in our case, +5 V).
Time Constant or Time required to rise to 63.2% of 5 V (i.e. 3.16 V) =…………
In the discharging circuit, Time Constant is time by which the capacitor
discharges to 36.8% of its initial steady state voltage (in our case, +5 V).
Time Constant or Time required to decay to 36.8% of 5V (i.e. 1.84 V) = ………….
1. Similarly, 2TC is the time required to achieve 86.5% of final or initial value of
voltage. Practically, 2TC = ………. Theoretically, 2TC =……...
2. After 5TC, the voltage reach their final values which is also called steady state response.
Practically, 5TC = ………. Theoretically, 5TC

=……... RC Circuit:
Theoretically,
Time Constant, TC = R C =.............where R = 1k, C = 0.1 μF.
Practically ,
In the charging circuit, Time Constant is the time by which the capacitor attains
the 63.2% of steady state voltage or final value (in our case, +5 V).
Time Constant or Time required to rise to 63.2% of 5 V (i.e. 3.16 V) =…………
In the discharging circuit, Time Constant is time by which the capacitor

discharges to 36.8% of its initial steady state voltage (in our case, +5 V).
Time Constant or Time required to decay to 36.8% of 5V (i.e. 1.84 V) = …………. Similarly,
2TC is the time required to achieve 86.5% of final or initial value ofvoltage. Practically, 2TC
=……
Theoretically, 2TC =…….
After 5TC, the voltage reach their final values which is also called steady stateresponse
Practically, 5TC = ……….
Theoretically, 5TC =……...
RLC Circuit
To obtain transient response of a series RLC circuit, excited by a unit step input, where
L=10mH
and C=1μF and for the following conditions:
1. , under damped case where R=100
2. , critically damped case where R=200
3. , over damped case where R=300
[
Therefore, 1/S= I(S) R+sL+ ] or
The roots of the denominator polynomial of the above equation
are,
Or
and
Let, and
Now,
Case - 1:-
i.e
Case - 2: -
i.e.,
The network is then said to be Critically Damped.

Case -3:-
i.e.,
The network is then said to be Over Damped.
Case 1:-
Case 2:-
Case 3:-
Result :
To study frequency response of various 1st order RL & RC networks
8. To study the transient and steady state response of a 2nd order circuit by varying its
various parameters and studying their effects on responses
Objective: i) Observe the time response of 2nd order circuit.
Calculate time constant, τ , of 1st order circuit.
Calculate damping constant, ζ , of 2nd order circuit under different conditions (under/over/critically damped) and obtain
voltage expression.
Theory:
Transfer function: It is the ratio of O/P by I/P of any system represented in laplace domain. It fully describes a control system. The
order, type and frequency response can be derived from the open loop T/F (OLTF). They are used to determine the stability of the
system. From the denominator of T/F, roots of the system can be obtained.
R
sL
Vin Vo
C
1/sC
2
2nd order equation can be compared with: 𝑊𝑛
𝑠2+2𝜁𝑊 2
𝑛𝑠+𝑊𝑛
where, ζ=damping factor
𝑊𝑛 = 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
comparing the transfer function with the generalized form we obtain:
𝑊𝑛 =
√𝐿𝐶
𝜁= √𝐶/𝐿
2
Thus by varying pot we can obtain different ζ
ζ=0 Undamped system (oscillatory)
0<ζ<1 Underdamped System
ζ=1 Critically Damped System
ζ>1 Overdamped System
Figure : System under different dampings
For critically damped system roots are real & equal.

For underdamped system roots are complex and for overdamped roots are real and equal.
Procedure:
Setup 1: i) Setup the circuit in a bread board, provide input, ground and oscilloscope connections from
Analog discovery 2 device.
Vary the POT and for a fixed value of R measure the settling time from the output window.
Measure the respective R and compare it with the calculated R from Ts=5τ
Setup 2: For underdamped and overdamped:
Setup the circuit in a breadboard, providing required connections from Analog discovery 2
device.
Vary the pot and obtain underdamped condition. Measure R of POT.
Repeat step (ii) for overdamped condition.
For critically damped:
𝑅
Calculate value of R from the equation : 𝜁 = √𝐶/𝐿
Adjust POT to that value. iii)Setup circuit and observe output.
Obtained Parameter value:
2nd order system: Over damped R= C= L=
Under damped R= C= L=
Critical damped R= C= L=
9. Find the Q Factor and Bandwidth of a Series and Parallel Resonance circuit.
Objective: To find Q factor and Bandwisth of a series and parallel Resonant circuit.
Apparatus Required:
The Q, or quality, factor of a resonant circuit is a measure of the “goodness” or

quality of a resonant circuit. A higher value for this figure of merit corresponds
to a more narrow bandwidth, which is desirable in many applications. More
formally, Q is the ratio of power stored to power dissipated in the circuit
reactance and resistance, respectively The Q, or quality, factor of a resonant
circuit is a measure of the “goodness” or quality of a resonant circuit. A higher
value for this figure of merit corresponds to a more narrow bandwidth, which
is desirable in many applications. More formally, Q is the ratio of power stored
to power dissipated in the circuit reactance and resistance, respectively:
Q = Pstored/Pdissipated = I2X/I2R Q = X/R where: X = Capacitive or

Inductive reactance at resonance R = Series resistance.
This formula is applicable to series resonant circuits, and also parallel resonant
circuits if the resistance is in series with the inductor. This is the case in
practical applications, as we are mostly concerned with the resistance of the
inductor limiting the Q.
Note: Some text may show X and R interchanged in the “Q” formula for a
parallel resonant circuit. This is correct for a large value of R in parallel with C
and L. Our formula is correct for a small R in series with L.
A practical application of “Q” is that voltage across L or C in a series resonant
circuit is Q times total applied voltage. In a parallel resonant circuit, current
through L or C is Q times the total applied current.
Series Resonant Circuits

A series resonant circuit looks like a resistance at the resonant frequency.
Since the definition of resonance is X L=XC, the reactive components cancel,
leaving only the resistance to contribute to the impedance.
The impedance is also at a minimum at resonance. Below the resonant
frequency, the series resonant circuit looks capacitive since the impedance of
the capacitor increases to a value greater than the decreasing inductive
reactance, leaving a net capacitive value.
Above resonance, the inductive reactance increases, capacitive reactance
decreases, leaving a net inductive component.
Q = Pstored/Pdissipated = I2X/I2R Q = X/R where: X = Capacitive or

Inductive reactance at resonance R = Series resistance.
This formula is applicable to series resonant circuits, and also parallel resonant
circuits if the resistance is in series with the inductor. This is the case in
practical applications, as we are mostly concerned with the resistance of the
inductor limiting the Q.
Note: Some text may show X and R interchanged in the “Q” formula for a
parallel resonant circuit. This is correct for a large value of R in parallel with C
and L. Our formula is correct for a small R in series with L.
A practical application of “Q” is that voltage across L or C in a series resonant
circuit is Q times total applied voltage. In a parallel resonant circuit, current
through L or C is Q times the total applied current.
Series Resonant Circuits

A series resonant circuit looks like a resistance at the resonant frequency.
Since the definition of resonance is X L=XC, the reactive components cancel,
leaving only the resistance to contribute to the impedance.
The impedance is also at a minimum at resonance. Below the resonant
frequency, the series resonant circuit looks capacitive since the impedance of
the capacitor increases to a value greater than the decreasing inductive
reactance, leaving a net capacitive value.
Above resonance, the inductive reactance increases, capacitive reactance
decreases, leaving a net inductive component.

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NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION

Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering

JNTUA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KALIKIRI

(23A04201P) NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION LABORATORY

(ECE & allied branches)

 To analyze transient behavior of circuits

 To study resonance characteristics

 To determine 2-port network parameters

CO1: Verify Kirchoff’s laws and network theorems.

CO2: Measure time constants of RL & RC circuits.

CO3: Analyze behavior of RLC circuit for different cases.

CO4: Design resonant circuit for given specifications.

1. Study of components of a circuit and Verification of KCL and KVL.

2. Verification of mesh and nodal analysis for AC circuits

3. Verification of Superposition, Thevenin’s & Norton theorems for AC circuits

4. Verification of maximum power transfer theorem for AC circuits

5. Verification of Tellegen’s theorem for two networks of the same topology.

6. Study of DC transients in RL, RC and RLC circuits

7. To study frequency response of various 1st order RL & RC networks

various parameters and studying their effects on responses

11. Determination of hybrid (H) and transmission (ABCD) parameters

Resistance Boxes/Rheostats, Decade Capacitance Boxes, Ammeters (Analog or Digital),

Voltmeters (Analog or Digital), Active & Passive Electronic Components

Multisim/ Pspice/Equivalent simulation software tool, Computer Systems with required

2. Engineering Circuit Analysis by William H. Hayt, Jack Kemmerly, Jamie Phillips,

Steven M. Durbin, 9th Edition 2020.

AIM: To Verify KCL & KVL from the given circuit

S.NO. Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

1. After signing in to Tinkercad, you’ll find a dashboard of your recent designs.

1. Give the connection according to circuit

3. Verify the reading.

3. Verify the reading.

Table 1(for KCL):

Vin I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) IL = I1 + I2 + I3

Table 2 (for KVL):

Vin V1 (v) V2 (v) V3(v) Vin = V1 +V2 +V3 (v)

Experiment 2: Verification of mesh and nodal analysis for AC circuits

To verify the superposition theorem in the given network.

WHEN BOTH SOURCES ARE ACTING

WHEN VS1 is acting

WHEN VS2 is acting

1. After signing in to Tinkercad, you’ll find a dashboard of your recent designs.

Table 2 (for I 1 & 2I 11 ):

To find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit from the given circuit.

1. After signing in to Tinkercad, you’ll find a dashboard of your recent designs.

Table 2 (for IL):

1. After signing in to Tinkercad, you’ll find a dashboard of your recent designs.

Table 2 (for IL):

EXPERIMENT 4: Verification of maximum power transfer theorem for AC circuits

To verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.

1. After signing in to Tinkercad, you’ll find a dashboard of your recent designs.

AIM : To verify TELLEGEN’S THEOREM

1. After signing in to Tinkercad, you’ll find a dashboard of your recent designs.

Component IL (mA) V(V) P = VI

S.No Apparatus Range Quantity

When a circuit is switched from one condition to another either by a change

Taking Laplace transform on both sides of the above equation,

Here, v(t)  u(t) V(s)=1/S