Physical Optics: Interference of Light

 Introduction
• Principle of superposition
• Coherent sources
• Interference
 Analytical Treatment of Interference (Intensity Distribution)
 Young’s D ouble Slit Experiment (Interference by Wavefront
Division)
 Interference in Thin Film (Interference by Amplitude Division)
• Parallel Thin Film
• Wedge Shaped Thin Film (Variable Thickness Thin Film)
• Newton’s Rings
 Applications of Newtons Rings (Determination of Wavelength of
Monochromatic Light and Refractive Index of Liquid)
 Haidinger Fringes (Introduction)
 Interference of Light

Coherent Sources
Two sources are said to be coherent if they
emit light waves of same frequency and are in
same phase or constant phase difference.

Conditions for obtaining coherent sources:

 Coherent waves can be obtained from a single source.
 The source must emit mono-chromatic light.
 The path difference between light sources must be very small.
 Interference of Light
Coherent Waves
 Interference of Light
Why can not two sources behave as coherent sources?
Two different sources can never produce waves of same phase (or constant
phase difference) because each source of light contains infinite number of
atoms and the waves which are emitted by them will not be in same phase.
The atoms after absorbing energy go to excited states and emit radiations fall
back to ground state.
Superposition of waves
• When two or more waves overlap, the resultant of displacement at any
point and at any instant may be found adding the instantaneous
displacements that would be produced at the point by the individual
waves if each were present alone.
• For the interfering waves of displacements displacement 𝑦1 and 𝑦2, resultant
at any point 𝑦 is given by
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
 Interference of Light
Interference of light
The phenomenon of redistribution of light energy in a medium due to
superposition of light waves from two or more coherent sources is called
interference of light.
The combined effect at each point of region of superposition is obtained by
adding algebraically the amplitude of individual waves.
Types of interference:
i. Constructive Interference:
At certain points, the waves may be in phase, the amplitude of resultant
wave is greater than individual wave. The interference produced at these
points is called constructive interference.
Two waves of same amplitude A interfere constructively, the resultant
amplitude 𝐴𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 2𝐴
 Interference of Light
The resultant intensity
𝐼𝑅 ∝𝐴R2 = 22𝐴2 = 4𝐼
A stationary bright band of light is observed
at the point of constructive interference.
ii. Destructive interference:
At certain points, the waves may be in opposite phase, the amplitude of
resultant wave is less than individual wave. The interference produced at these
points is called destructive interference.
Two waves of same amplitude A interfere destructively,
Resultant amplitude, 𝐴𝑅 = 𝐴 − 𝐴 = 0
and resultant intensity, 𝐼𝑅 ∝ 𝐴2 = 0
A stationary dark band of light is observed
at the point of constructive interference.
 Interference of Light

Conditions for Interference

1. Two interfering waves should be coherent i.e the phase difference
between them must remain constant with time.
2. Two waves should have same frequency.
3. If interfering waves are polarized, they must be in same state of
polarization.
4. The separation between the light sources should be as small as
possible.
5. The distance of the screen from the source should be quite large.
6. The amplitude of the interfering waves should be equal or at least
very nearly equal.
7. Two sources should be narrow.
8. Two sources should give monochromatic or very nearly
monochromatic or else the path difference should be very small.
 Interference of Light
Analytical treatment of interference (Intensity Distribution)
• The phase difference between the waves passing through S1 and S2 be 𝛿.
• The displacements of waves from S1 and S2
be y1 and y2 given by
𝑦1 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 and 𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
• From principle of superposition,
resultant displacement is
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
or, 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴 (sin𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿)
or, 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿) + 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 ….(1)
• Let 𝐴 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿) = 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 … . (2)
and 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 …(3)
 Interference of Light
From eq. 1 resultant displacement,
𝑦 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
or, 𝑦 = 𝑅 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) ….(4)
To find resultant amplitude R, Squaring
and adding Eq. 2 and Eq. 3 we get
𝑅 2 = 𝐴2 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 2 +𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛿 = 2𝐴2(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿)
𝛿 𝛿
or, 𝑅2 = 2𝐴2 × 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 = 2
4𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
2 2
Intensity at that point, 2𝜋
𝛿 𝛿= 𝑥
𝐼= 𝑅2 = 2
4𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ….(5) 𝜆
2
When phase difference δ = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋, 6𝜋, … . . 𝑛(2𝜋)
or the path difference 𝑥 = 0, 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆, … … , 𝑛𝜆 where 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … … …
 Interference of Light
2𝑛𝜋
𝐼 = 𝑅2 = 4𝐴 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 = 4𝐴2 ….(6)
2
So, I = 4𝐼𝑜 𝐼𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
When phase difference δ = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋, … . . (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
or the path difference 𝑥 = , 3 , 5 , ………,(2n + 1)
2 2 2 2
where 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … … … . .
(2𝑛 + 1)𝜋
𝐼= 𝑅2 = 4𝐴2𝑐𝑜𝑠2 =0 ….(7)
2
Intensity is maximum when path difference equal to whole number
multiple of wavelength and intensity is minimum when path difference
equals to odd number multiple of half wavelength.
From conservation of energy, energy at dark points is not destroyed but
transferred from the points of minimum intensity to the points of
maximum intensity.
 Interference of Light
At points of maximumintensity 𝐼𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 = 4𝐴2 and at points of minimum
intensity 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.
The plot of intensity variation with phase difference

For N coherent sources

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑁2𝐼𝑜
Note: For different amplitudes 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 , 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝑅2 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 , 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 and 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2 𝐼1 𝐼2
 Interference of Light

Young’s Double Slit Experiment

(Interference by wave front Division)
• Famous experiment to demonstrates the wave nature of light.
• First demonstration (1801): Sunlight passed through a pin hole directed to
two pin holes. The light was received in screen.
• Due to superposition of spherical waves emerging through pin holes few
colored fringes were observed. The fringes were very faint and difficult
to observe.
• Later pin holes were replaced by narrow slits and sun light was replaced
with monochromatic light.
• Two narrow slits act as coherent sources.
 Interference of Light
Young’s Double Slit Experiment
Light waves from slits interfere to produce alternating maxima and minima in
the intensity.

• At some locations on the screen, light waves from the two slits arrive in
phase and interfere constructively.
• At other locations light waves arrive out of phase and interfere
destructively.
 Interference of Light
Optical path difference between the waves in Young’s Double Slit Interference
• Let P be any arbitrary point on the screen
at a distance y from O.
• The angle between MP and M O is 𝜃.
• The path difference between the waves
from the slits which meet at P is
𝑆2𝑁 = 𝑥 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ….(1)
𝑦
• From ∆𝑃𝑂𝑀, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝐷
• For small angle 𝜃 (𝑃 is near to O),
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝐷
• So the path difference between the waves from Eq. 1 is
𝑦
𝑥=𝑑 …(2)
𝐷
 Interference of Light
(i) Condition for Maxima:
• For bright fringes, path difference between the waves should be equal to
integral multiple of wavelength i.e
𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑦𝑑
or, = 𝑛𝜆
𝐷
• The distance of 𝑛 𝑡ℎ bright fringe (maxima) from
centre O is
𝑛𝜆𝐷
𝑦𝑛 = …(3)
𝑑
where 𝑛 = 0,1, 2, 3 … . .
• The distance between two consecutive maxima is called fringe width (𝜷)
given by
𝑛𝜆𝐷 (𝑛−1)𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛−1 = − = …(4)
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
• The path difference between waves reaching at O is zero. So centre
point O is bright.
 Interference of Light
(ii) Condition for Minima:
• For minima path difference between the waves should be equal to
odd number multiple of half of wavelength i.e.
𝜆
𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
𝑦𝑑 𝜆
or, = (2𝑛 + 1)
𝐷 2
• The distance of nth minima from centre O is
(2𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷
𝑦𝑛 = …(5) 𝑛 = 0,1, 2, 3 … . .
2𝑑

• The distance between two consecutive minima is called fringe width

(𝛽) given by
(2𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷 [2(𝑛−1)−1]𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛−1 = − = …(6)
2𝑑 2𝑑 𝑑
• The distance between consecutive bright fringes equal to distance
between two consecutive dark fringes. This shows alternate dark and
bright parallel fringes of same width are formed on the screen.
 Interference of Light
Q. A light source emits light of two wavelengths 430nm and 510nm. The two
sources are used in a double slit experiment. The distance between the
sources and screen is 1.5m and the distance between two slits is 0.025mm.
Calculate the separation between the third order bright fringes due to these
two wavelengths.
Solution:
Wavelengths 𝜆1 = 430𝑛𝑚 = 430 × 10−9𝑚
𝜆2 = 510𝑛𝑚 = 510 × 10−9𝑚
Distance between source and screen 𝐷 = 1.5𝑚
Distance between slits 𝑑 = 0.025𝑚𝑚 = 0.025 × 10−3𝑚
The separation between 3rd order bright fringes 𝑦3 𝜆2 − 𝑦3 𝜆1 =?
𝑛𝜆𝐷
We have the distance of nth order bright fringe from centre 𝑦𝑛 =
𝑑
3𝜆2 𝐷 3𝜆 𝐷 3𝐷
So, 𝑦3 𝜆2 − 𝑦3 𝜆1 = − 1 = (𝜆2 − 𝜆1 )
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
3×1.5
= 510 − 430 × 10−9 = 14.4𝑚𝑚
0.025×10−3
 Interference of Light
Interference by Thin Film:
Interference by Amplitude Division

• Thin film: An optical medium whose thick is in the order of one

wavelength of light. A film of thickness 0.5𝜇𝑚 to 10 𝜇𝑚 is considered as
a thin film.
• When a light is incident on the film, small part of light get reflected
from top surface and major part is transmitted into the film. Again, a
small part of transmitted light is reflected back into the film from the
bottom surface and rest of it emerges out of the film. A small portion of
light thus gets reflected partially several times in succession within the
film.
• In transparent thin film, there are strongly transmitted light and weakly
reflected light.
 Interference of Light
Parallel Thin Film:
A transparent thin film of uniform
thickness.
(a) Interference due to reflected light:
The optical path difference between
reflected waves from B and F is
∆= 𝜇(𝐵𝐹 + 𝐹𝐷) − 𝐵𝐻
or, ∆= 2𝜇 𝐵𝐹 − 𝐵𝐻 . ..(1)

From ∆𝐵𝐹𝐺,
𝐹𝐺
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 =
𝐵𝐹 So, 𝐵𝐷 = 2𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟
𝐹𝐺 𝑡 𝐵𝐻
or, 𝐵𝐹 = = ….(2) Now from ∆𝐵𝐷𝐻, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝐵𝐷
𝐵𝐺
Again, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟 = or, 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 2𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
𝐺𝐹
or, 𝐵𝐺 = 𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟
 Interference of Light
From Snell’s Law,
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
𝜇=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
∴ 𝐵𝐻 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
or, 𝐵𝐻 = 2𝜇𝑡 …(3)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
From Eq. 1, 2 and 3 path difference
2𝜇𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
∆= − 2𝜇𝑡 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 …(4)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟

When the ray is reflected at the boundary of rarer to denser medium, a

𝜆
phase change of 𝜋 (path change of occurs for the ray BC. But there
)
2
is no path change at D.
So the true path difference between reflected waves is
𝜆
∆ = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 − …(5)
2
Interference of Light
 Interference of Light
(i) Condition for Maxima:
Maxima occurs when optical path difference Δ = 𝑛𝜆
𝜆
So for bright fringes in thin film, 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 − = 𝑛𝜆
2
𝜆
or, 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1) …(6) 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … … … … .
2
(ii) Condition for Minima:
𝜆
Minima occurs when optical path difference Δ = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
So for dark fringes in thin film,
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 − = (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2
or, 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆
The phase relationship of the interfering waves does not change if one
full wave is added to or subtracted from any of the interfering wave.
Therefore (𝑛 + 1) can be replaced by 𝑛. Thus,
2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 …(7) 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … … … … .
 Interference of Light
(b) Interference due to Transmitted light:
Optical path difference between transmitted waves from B and C is
Δ = 𝜇 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 − 𝐵𝑁
or, Δ = 𝜇𝑃𝐷 − 𝐵𝑁 …(8)
𝐵𝑁
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝑁
From Snell’s Law, 𝜇 = = 𝑀𝐷 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟 𝑀𝐷
𝐵𝐷
or, 𝐵𝑁 = 𝜇𝑀𝐷 …(9)
Now,Δ = 𝜇𝑃𝐷 − 𝜇𝑀𝐷
= 𝜇 𝑃𝐷 − 𝑀𝐷 = 𝜇𝑃𝑀 …(10)
𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝑀
From Δ𝐵𝑃𝑀, cosr = =
𝐵𝑃 2𝑡
So, 𝑃𝑀 = 2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
Optical path difference transmitted waves,
Δ = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 …(11) (There is no 𝜋 −𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠)
 Interference of Light
(i) Condition for Maxima:
Maxima occurs when optical path difference Δ = 𝑛𝜆
So for bright fringes in thin film,
2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 ....(12)
(ii) Condition for Minima:
𝜆
Minima occurs when optical path difference Δ = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
So for dark fringes in thin film,
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1) ….(13)
2
From Eqs. 6, 7, 12 and 13, it is clearly found that conditions of bright and
dark for reflected and transmitted are just complementary to each other.
Note: In case of transmitted waves, fringes are less distinct since the amplitude
difference between interfering waves is large. When incident angle is 45o, fringes
become more distinct.
 Interference of Light
Wedge Shaped (Variable Thickness) Thin Film
A thin film having zero at one end and progressively increases to a certain thickness
at the other end is called Wedge Shaped Thin Film.
• The angle made by two plane surfaces at apex (at zero thickness) is called
wedge angle which is in the order of a fraction of a degree.
• When a parallel beam of monochromatic light falls on the wedge, due to
super position of reflected waves(or transmitted waves) from lower and
upper surface of film alternate dark and bright
fringes are formed on the top of its surface.
• In this case interference is due to
amplitude division of waves.
• Interference effects are entirely due to
wedge shaped air fil not by the glass
plates (thickness is very large in
comparison with wavelength of light).
 Interference of Light
Wedge Shaped Thin Film (Contd….)
• To observe localized fringe pattern, monochromatic light is fall on the film
perpendicularly as shown in figure.

• The optical path difference between reflected waves BC and DE is given

𝜆
by Δ = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 −
2
• At upper surface there is no 𝜋 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 but at lower surface of film there is
𝜆
𝜋 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒, hence extra path difference appears between reflected waves.
2
 Interference of Light
Wedge Shaped Thin Film: Conditions for Maxima and Minima
• Maxima occurs when path difference, Δ = 𝑛𝜆
𝜆
• So for maxima, 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 − 2 = 𝑛𝜆
𝜆
or, 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1) …(1)
2
𝜆
• Minima occurs when the path difference, Δ = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
𝜆 𝜆
• So for minima, 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 − 2 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2
or, 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 …(2)
Fringe Width
Let us consider at thickness 𝑡𝑛 nth dark
fringe is formed as shown in figure.
For normal incidence cos 𝑟 = 1, then
for nth dark fringe
2𝜇𝑡𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 ……(3)
 Interference of Light
If next dark fringe (n + 1)th occurs at thickness𝑡𝑛+1, then
2𝜇𝑡𝑛+1 = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆 ….(4)
Subtracting Eq. 3 from Eq. 4,
2𝜇(𝑡𝑛+1 − 𝑡 𝑛) = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆 − 𝑛𝜆
𝜆
or, 𝜇 (𝑡𝑛+1 − 𝑡𝑛) = …(5)
2

𝜆
For air film, 𝜇 = 1, 𝑡𝑛+1 − 𝑡𝑛 = …(6)
2
This indicates the next dark (or bright) fringe occurs where the thickness
𝜆
of the air film increases by .
2
From Δ𝑄𝑛 𝑀𝑄𝑛+1 ,
𝑄𝑛+1 𝑀 𝜆
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = =
𝑄𝑛 𝑀 2𝛽
 Interference of Light

For small angle, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃

𝜆
𝜃=
2𝛽
𝜆
or, 𝛽= …(7)
2𝜃

In case of thin film of refractive index 𝜇

𝜆
𝛽= …(8)
2𝜇𝜃

In Eq. 8, 𝛽 is fringe width and 𝜃 is wedge angle.

As the wedge angle is increased fringes get closer and closer.
 Interference of Light
Salient features of interference pattern in wedge shaped film
(a) Fringe at apex is dark: At apex 𝑡 = 0, path difference
𝜆 𝜆
Δ = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 − = − . So the fringe is dark.
2 2
(b) Fringes are straight and parallel: Each fringe is produced due to reflected
waves from same thickness of film and the locus of points of same
thickness lie along the lines parallel to the apex.
𝜆
(c) Fringes are at equidistant: Fringe width 𝛽 = is constant for a wedge.
2𝜇𝜃
So the fringes are at equidistant.
(d) Fringes are localized: The fringes form very close to top surface of the
film which can be seen by microscope.
(e) Fringes are of equal thickness: Thickness of the film in the order of 𝜆. The
waves from various parts of the film have almost same inclination. Each
fringe will be the locus of the points of the same thickness. So fringes are
of equal thickness.
 Interference of Light
Newton’s Rings
• Concentric circular interference fringes can be produced by enclosing a
very thin film of air or any other transparent medium of varying
thickness between a glass plate and a planoconvex lens of large radius of
curvature. Such fringes were first obtained by Newton and are called
Newton’s rings.
• In figure, the thickness of film at centre O is zero and uniformly
increases in all direction.
• So a circular thin film of variable thickness is formed between glass plate
and planoconvex lens.
• The locus of all points of equal thickness
of the film fall on a circle whose centre
is O.
• So the interference fringes are observed
in the form of series of alternate dark
and bright rings.
 Interference of Light
Newton’s Rings: Experimental Arrangement
• Monochromatic light from the source is
rendered parallel by convex lens.
• Light falls on glass plate inclined at 45o
and light get reflected normally on the
plano-convex lens.
• Light reflected from upper and lower
surface of the thin film superpose each
other and alternate dark and bright rings
are formed just above the thin film.
• The fringes are observed by travelling
microscope.
 Interference of Light
Newton’s Rings: Conditions for dark and bright rings
The optical path difference between reflected waves is
𝜆
Δ = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 +
2
For air film 𝜇 = 1 and for normal incidence cos 𝑟 = 1 .
𝜆
So the path difference, Δ = 2𝑡 + ….(1)
2
Maximum intensity occurs when the path difference ∆= 𝑛𝜆.
𝜆
Thus for bright rings, 2𝑡 + = 𝑛𝜆
2
𝜆
or, 2𝑡 = (2𝑛 − 1) …(2)
2
𝜆
Minimum intensity occurs when the path difference, Δ = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
Thus for dark rings,
𝜆 𝜆
2𝑡 + = (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2
or, 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 …(3)
 Interference of Light
Newton’s Rings: Radii of Dark and Bright Rings
• Let R is radius of curvature of lens.
• In figure, O Q = 𝑟𝑛 is radius of nth ring
and t is thickness of film.
• From Pythagorus theorem,
𝑃𝐶2 = 𝑃𝑁2 + 𝐶𝑁2
Or, 𝑅2 = 𝑟𝑛2 + 𝑅 − 𝑡 2

or, 𝑟𝑛2 = 2𝑅𝑡 − 𝑡 2

Here, 2𝑅𝑡 > > 𝑡 2
𝑟𝑛2 = 2𝑅𝑡 …(4)
 Interference of Light
Newton’s Rings: Radii of Dark and Bright Rings
• From Eq. 2 and Eq. 4, radius of nth bright ring
𝜆𝑅
• 2
𝑟𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2
𝜆𝑅
or, 𝑟𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1) …(5) Where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … …
2
• From Eq.5 radius or diameter of bright rings is directly proportional to
the square root of odd natural numbers, i.e, 𝑟𝑛 ∝ (2𝑛 − 1)
• From Eq. 3 and Eq. 4, radius of nth d a r k ring
• 𝑟𝑛2 = 𝑛𝜆𝑅
or, 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆𝑅 …(6) Where 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3 … …
• From Eq. 6 radius or diameter of dark rings is directly proportional to the
square root of natural numbers, i.e. 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
From Eq. 6, when 𝑛 = 0, in case of dark rings 𝑟𝑛 = 0. Thus centre is dark.
 Interference of Light
Why is centre dark due to reflected waves in Newton’s Rings?

The path difference between

reflected waves from upper and
lower surface of thin film is
𝜆
∆= 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 ± .
2
𝜆
At Centre 𝑡 = 0, ∆= ± which is
2
equivalent to phase difference
𝜋 − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 (180𝑜). The interfering
waves at the centre are in opposite
phase and the centre is always dark
spot.
 Interference of Light
• In Newton’s ring experiment, is it possible to obtain bright spot at
center due to reflected waves?

If refractive index of liquid film (𝜇) lies
between refractive index of lens (𝜇1) and
glass plate (𝜇2) and refractive index of lens is
more than glass plate there is no 𝜋- change
on the upper and lower surface of film. The
path difference between the waves is
Δ = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟
At centre 𝑡 = 0, Δ = 0
Thus constructive interference takes
place and centre becomes bright.
If refractive index of liquid film (𝜇) lies between
refractive index of lens (𝜇1) and glass plate (𝜇2)
and refractive index of lens is less than glass plate
there is 𝜋- change on the upper and lower surface
of film.
The path difference between the waves is
𝜆 𝜆
Δ = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2 + 2
At centre 𝑡 = 0, Δ = 𝜆
Thus constructive interference takes place
and centre becomes bright.
 Interference of Light
Newton’s Rings: Spacing between Rings
• The diameter of nth dark ring is
𝐷𝑛 = 2 𝑛𝜆𝑅 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4 … …
• Now diameter of first, fourth, nineth…. Dark rings
𝐷1 = 2 𝜆𝑅
𝐷4 = 4 𝜆𝑅
𝐷9 = 6 𝜆𝑅
𝐷16 = 8 𝜆𝑅 and so on
• Here 𝐷4 − 𝐷1 = 𝐷9 − 𝐷4 = 𝐷16 −𝐷9 = 2 𝜆𝑅.
• Thus rings get closer and closer as the order of rings increases.
• This is why the rings are not equally spaced.
 Interference of Light
Newton’s Rings: By Transmitted Waves
• The optical path difference between
transmitted waves from upper and lower
surface is Δ = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
• For air film 𝜇 = 1 and for normal incidence
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1, path difference, Δ = 2𝑡
• For the bright, 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
𝜆
• For dark rings, 2𝑡 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2
• Since 𝑟𝑛2 = 2𝑅𝑡,
• Radius of nth bright ring: 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆𝑅 ….(7) 𝑛 = 0,1 , 2, 3 … .
𝜆𝑅
• Radius of nth dark ring: 𝑟𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2
…(8) 𝑛 = 1 , 2, 3 … .
 Interference of Light
Thus due to interference of transmitted waves in Newton’s Ring Experiment
(i) Radius of bright ring is directly proportional to the square root of
natural numbers (i.e. 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛)
(ii) Radius of dark ring is directly proportional to the square
root of odd natural numbers (i.e. 𝑟𝑛 ∝ (2𝑛 − 1))
For 𝑛 = 0, radius of bright ring is 𝑟𝑛= 0. So the cente is bright spot.
 Interference of Light
Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light
The experimental set up is shown in figure.
Parallel beam of mono- chromatic light is
rendered to glass plate inclined at 45𝑜 . The
light falls on air film normally.
By using travelling microscope diameters of
dark rings can be measured.
Diameter of nth and mth dark rings are given by
𝐷n2= 4𝑛𝜆𝑅 and 𝐷m2= 4𝑚𝜆𝑅 where 𝑛 > 𝑚
On subtracting
𝐷𝑛2 − 𝐷𝑚
2
= 4(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜆𝑅
𝐷𝑛2 −𝐷𝑚
2
or,𝜆 = ….(9)
4(𝑛−𝑚)𝑅
 Interference of Light
Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light
• From Eq. 9 we can determine the wavelength of monochromatic
light. The radius of curvature of planoconvex lens can be measured
using spherometer.
• If we plot a graph between 𝐷𝑛2 − 𝐷𝑚
2 and (𝑛 − 𝑚) we get a straight line

passing through origin as shown in figure.

𝐷𝑛2 −𝐷𝑚
2
• Slope of line =
𝑛−𝑚
• Wavelength of monochromatic light
𝐷𝑛2 −𝐷𝑚
2 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝜆= = …(10)
4(𝑛−𝑚)𝑅 4𝑅
 Interference of Light
Determination of Refractive Index of liquid using Newton’s Rings
• The gap between plano-convex lens and glass plate is filled with liquid
whose refractive index (𝜇) is to be determined.
• The diameters of dark rings can be measured by travelling microscope.
• Diameters of nth and mth dark rings for air film are given by
𝐷𝑛2 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 4𝑛𝜆𝑅 and 𝐷𝑚 2
𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 4𝑚𝜆𝑅
• Now, 𝐷𝑛2 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝐷𝑚 2
𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 4(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜆𝑅 ….(11)
4𝑛𝜆𝑅 4𝑚𝜆𝑅
• For liquid film, 𝐷𝑛2 𝑙𝑖𝑞 =
𝜇
and 𝐷𝑚2
𝑙𝑖𝑞 =
𝜇
4𝜆𝑅
And 𝐷𝑛2 𝑙𝑖𝑞 − 𝐷𝑚
2
𝑙𝑖𝑞 = (𝑛 − 𝑚) …(12)
𝜇
• Dividing Eq. 11 by Eq. 12 we get
𝐷𝑛2 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝐷𝑚
2
𝜇= 𝑎𝑖𝑟
….(13)
𝐷𝑛2 𝑙𝑖𝑞 − 𝐷𝑚
2
𝑙𝑖𝑞
• From Eq. 13 refractive index of liquid can be determined.
 Interference of Light
Haidinger Fringes
• In thin films, path difference 𝑥 = 2𝜇t cosr
• Path difference 𝑥 changes appreciably with thickness.
• Let the light rays which are equally inclined fall on thick film from extended source.
• The reflected waves from upper and lower boundary become parallel and focused at
infinity. The fringes are formed at infinity. The fringes are known as fringes of equal
inclination. These fringes are called Haidinger fringes.
• The locus of points of equal inclination lie under a circle.
• So the fringe pattern formed at infinity are series of
concentric dark and bright circles with centre dark.

Conditions for Haidinger Fringes:

(a) Source must be extended,
(b) Thickness of film must be appreciably large and
(c) To observe, telescope is to be focused for parallel rays.
Haidinger fringes are shown in figure to obtain on the screen
 Interference of Light
Numerical 2:
A glass wedge of refractive index 1.5 and angle 0.01 radian is illuminated by
monochromatic light of 6000 𝑨. falling normally on it. At what distance from
the edge of the wedge, will the 10th fringe be observed by reflected light?
Solution:
Let the distance of 10th dark be 𝑥 at a thickness of film 𝑡.
We have for dark fringe, 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 … (1)
For normal incidence 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1
𝑡
From figure, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑥
𝑡
Since 𝜃 is small, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 =
𝑥
From Eq. 1,
2𝜇𝑥𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑛𝜆 10×6000×10−10
or, 𝑥= = = 2 × 10−4 𝑚 = 0.02 𝑐𝑚
2𝜇𝜃 2×1.5×0.01
 Interference of Light
Numerical 3:
A square piece of cellophone film with refractive index 1.5 has a wedge shaped
section such that its thickness at two opposite sides are 𝑡1 and 𝑡2. if with a
light of wavelength 600nm, the number of fringes appearing in the film is 10,
calculate the difference 𝑡2 − 𝑡1.
Solution:
We have for dark fringe, 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
For normal incidence 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1
2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 … (1)
For nth dark fringe at thickness 𝑡1 and (n+10)th dark fringe at 𝑡2
2𝜇𝑡1 = 𝑛𝜆 …(2)
10𝜆
2𝜇𝑡2 = (𝑛 + 10)𝜆 …(3) 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 =
2𝜇
From Eq.2 and Eq.3 10×10−9
= = 2 × 10−6 𝑚
2×1.33
2𝜇(𝑡2−𝑡1) = (𝑛 + 10)𝜆 − 𝑛𝜆
= 0.002𝑚𝑚
 Interference of Light
Numerical 4:
White light falls normally on a soap film of thickness 5 × 10−5𝑐𝑚. What
wavelength within the visible spectrum will be strongly reflected? Given:
refractive index of soap film is 1.33.
Solution:
𝜆
For constructive interference, 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1) , 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … .
2
For normal incidence, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2
4𝜇𝑡
or, 𝜆=
2𝑛−1
Now taking 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … we get corresponding values of 𝜆 as 26600𝐴,
8866𝐴, 5320𝐴, 3800𝐴 and so on.
Out of these wavelengths only 5320𝐴 lies within the visible range (4000𝐴
to 7000𝐴) which is strongly reflected.
 Interference of Light
Numerical 5: White light is reflected from an oil film of refractive index 1.40
and of thickness 0.02mm at an angle 45o. Calculate the number of dark bands
seen between 400 nm and 700 nm.
Solution:
For dark fringes 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 , 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … .
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
We have, μ =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 −1 𝑠𝑖𝑛45
𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 30.34𝑜
𝜇 1.4
For wavelength, 𝜆 1 = 400 × 10 −9 𝑚
2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 2×1.4×0.02×10−3×𝑐𝑜𝑠30.34
𝑛1 = = −9 ≈ 120
𝜆1 400×10
For wavelength, 𝜆 2 = 700 × 10 −9 𝑚
2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
𝑛2 =
𝜆2 So number of dark bands seen
2×1.4×0.02×10−3 ×𝑐𝑜𝑠30.34 between 400 nm and 700 nm is
= ≈ 69
700×10 −9 𝑛 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 = 120 − 69 = 51
 Interference of Light
Numerical 6:
−𝟏 𝟒
A thin film is illuminated by white light at an angle 𝒔𝒊𝒏. In reflected
𝟓
light two consecutive dark bands are overlapping due to corresponding
wavelengths 5400𝑨 and 4050𝑨. If the refractive index of film is 1.33, calculate
thickness of the film.
Solution:
−1 4 4
Angle of incidence 𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⟹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 =
5 5
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 4/5
From Snell’s law, 𝜇 = ⟹𝑟= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 = 36.87𝑜
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟 𝜇 1.33
Now for nth dark 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = n𝜆1 …(1)
for nth dark 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆2 …(2)
From Eq.1 and Eq. 2
From Eq. 1
(𝑛 + 1)𝜆2= n𝜆1 2 × 1.33 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠36.87𝑡 = 3 × 5400 × 10−10
or, (𝑛 + 1)× 4050 = n× 5400 ∴ 𝑡 = 7.6 × 10−7𝑚
or, n=3
 Interference of Light
Numerical 7:
Light containing two wavelengths 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 fall normally on a convex lens of radius
of curvature R, resting on a glass plate. If the nth dark ring due to 𝜆1 coincides with
𝜆 1 𝜆2 𝑅
(n + 1)th dark ring due to 𝜆2, prove that the radius of nth dark ring due to 𝜆1 is
𝜆1 −𝜆2
Solution:
Radius of dark ring: 𝑟𝑛 = 2 𝑛𝜆𝑅
For wavelength 𝜆1, 𝑟𝑛 = 2 𝑛𝜆1 𝑅 ….(1)
For wavelength 𝜆2, 𝑟𝑛+1 = 2 (𝑛 + 1)𝜆2 𝑅 ….(2)
Since 𝑛th dark ring due to 𝜆1 coincides with (𝑛 + 1)th dark ring due to 𝜆2,
(𝑛 + 1)𝜆2𝑅 = 𝑛𝜆1𝑅
𝜆2
or, 𝑛=
𝜆1 −𝜆2
𝜆1 𝜆2 𝑅
From Eq. 1, 𝑟𝑛 = 2 𝑛𝜆𝑅 =
𝜆1 −𝜆2
 Interference of Light
Numerical 8: Show that the diameters of Newton’s dark rings when two concave
1 1 4𝑛𝜆
surfaces of radii 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are placed in contact given by the relation − = 2
𝑅
1 𝑅 2𝐷 𝑛
Solution:
Two curved surfaces encloses a thin film of
thickness t = 𝑡1 − 𝑡2 is formed between two surfaces.
From figure, 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑄𝑇
𝑟2
We have 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑡1 =
2𝑅1
𝑟2
𝑄𝑇 = 𝑡2 =
2𝑅2
For dark rings, 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
For normal incidence 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1 and for air film 𝜇 = 1
2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 𝐷𝑛2 𝐷𝑛2 For Bright Fringes
or, 2 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝑛𝜆 or, − = 𝑛𝜆
4𝑅2 4𝑅1 1 1 2(2𝑛 + 1)𝜆
𝑟2 𝑟2 1 1 4𝑛𝜆 − =
or, 2 − = 𝑛𝜆 or, − = 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐷𝑛2
2𝑅2 2𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐷𝑛2
 Interference of Light
Numerical 9: Show that the diameters of Newton’s dark rings when two convex
1 1 4𝑛𝜆
surfaces of radii 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are placed in contact given by the relation + = 2
𝑅 𝑅
1 𝐷2 𝑛
Solution:
Two curved surfaces encloses a thin film of thickness t = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 is formed
between two surfaces.
From figure, 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑃𝑇 + 𝑄𝑇
𝑟2
We have 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑡1 =
2𝑅1
𝑟2
𝑄𝑇 = 𝑡2 =
2𝑅2
For dark rings, 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
For normal incidence 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1 and for air film 𝜇 = 1
2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 𝐷𝑛2 𝐷𝑛2 For Bright Fringes
or, 2 𝑡2 + 𝑡1 = 𝑛𝜆 or, + = 𝑛𝜆
4𝑅2 4𝑅1 1 1 2(2𝑛 + 1)𝜆
𝑟2 𝑟2 1 1 4𝑛𝜆 + =
or, 2 + = 𝑛𝜆 or, + = 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐷𝑛2
2𝑅2 2𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐷𝑛2