Accepted Manuscript

Title: Patterns of façade system design for enhanced energy

performance of multistory buildings

Authors: Caroline Hachem PhD, Assist Prof. Mohanmed

Elsayed PhD

PII: S0378-7788(16)30748-4
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.08.051
Reference: ENB 6950

To appear in: ENB

Received date: 23-5-2016

Revised date: 14-8-2016
Accepted date: 17-8-2016

Please cite this article as: Caroline Hachem, Mohanmed Elsayed, Patterns of façade
system design for enhanced energy performance of multistory buildings, Energy and
Buildings http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.08.051

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Patterns of façade system design for enhanced energy performance of
multistory buildings
First author: Caroline Hachem, PhD, Assist Prof. at the University of Calgary, 2500 University Dr NW,
Second Author Mohanmed Elsayed, PhD student, University of Calgary, 2500 University Dr NW
Highlights:
 Effect of geometrical patterns of double-skin façade is investigated.
 Impact of design on heating, cooling and solar electricity generation is outlined.
 Folded geometries increase significantly the electrical yield of integrated PV panels.
 Folded geometries enable time spread of daily electricity generation

Abstract
The paper presents a study of the effect of geometric design of equatorial-facing, double skin façade on energy
performance of multi-story office buildings. The investigated parameters relate to the outer skin surface geometry and
to the associated air cavity depth between the two skins of this façade system. Two main geometrical design are
investigated. A simple folded plate geometry – saw-tooth that consists of a single fold, and a more complex folded-plate
units based on pyramids.
The results indicate that although deviation from the basic flat façade leads generally to an increase in heating load,
this is counterbalanced by a reduction in cooling load, and a considerable increase in energy generation potential from
façade integrated photovoltaic systems. The position of fold and the depth of the cavity have a significant effect on thermal
load and energy generation potential. Under the studied climatic conditions (Calgary, Alberta, Canada – 52° N), The total
annual electricity generation potential, by the multifold configurations can exceed that of the flat façade by up to 80%.
The increase in total electricity generation potential of some designed configurations is accompanied by an increase
in time spread of functional electricity over extended period of time. Multifold façade configurations that combine
east and west orientations can provide a peak spread of some 4 to 5 hours.

Keywords:
Building integrated photovoltaic; Double skin façade; Electricity generation; Geometrical design; Building envelope

1. Introduction
High-density conurbation has significant economic and environmental advantages, such as efficient land use, efficient
transportation and infrastructure and eventually reduced per capita energy consumption, leading consequently to
reduced levels of greenhouse gas emission [1, 2]. Multistory buildings offer a substantial solution to accommodate
increased density while maintaining energy efficiency. The associated disadvantages of such typologies include
increased heat gain and loss associated with highly glazed façade designs. In addition, multistory buildings have
inherently limited roof area per overall occupied floor area, resulting in reduced potential for solar electric and thermal
energy generation, relative to energy demands of the building [3].
Existing research conducted to assess the performance of multistory buildings, as a whole, concentrates primarily on
mapping the energy use of existing multistory residential buildings, focusing mainly on their energy use, as well as
outlining efficiency measures that can be implemented [4-6]. Regarding building envelope of such buildings, research
has been conducted on curtain wall systems and double skin facades, including study of heat flow and effect of shading
devices [7-9], as well as the effect of some geometrical configurations on the overall energy performance [10]. An
increasing number of studies are performed to optimize integration of solar panels in the building envelope, including
shading devices and light-shelves [11, 12].
Achieving high energy performance of building requires incorporating energy efficiency measures early in the design
process. Such measures include optimizing envelope shape and electricity generation potential by means of integrated
PV systems. Integration of PV technologies within the building envelope includes functional, structural and aesthetic
aspects and cooperation with building systems, such as HVAC/ electrical systems. This can enhance energy
performance and cost savings such as smaller HVAC systems associated with lower peak heating and cooling loads
[9, 13-16]. BIPV can be designed so as to provide air circulation behind the panels. This allows cooling of the PV
cells and thus increasing the overall efficiency of the system, while also collecting useful heat for space heating and
domestic water heating [17-21].
The optimal tilt angle for PV generated electricity by equatorial facing roof surfaces generally equals the latitude
(latitude -15o for summer, and latitude +15o for winter) [22]. This electricity generation potential is reduced by up to
40% for flat facades. Increasing electrical generation and solar potential of multistory buildings can be attained by
manipulation of the geometry and other design features of the facades, subject to visual and functional constraints,
such as window design and positioning.
The present study investigates the impact of the geometrical design of a double skin façade system on the energy
performance of a multistory building. The main objective of the study is to increase the surface area for potential
integration of PV and for solar capture of these surfaces without significantly compromising the thermal performance
(heating and cooling loads) of the perimeter zone of the building. Additional objectives include the demonstration of
the large spectrum of available geometries of varying complexity, and to suggest a methodology for assessing their
energy performance.

2. Approach and parametric investigation

The investigation presented in this paper focuses on a perimeter located, single office space. This focus area is situated
within the south oriented perimeter zone, in the mid-section of a twelve-story office building of floor plan 42m by
35m. The study is carried out under the climatic conditions of Calgary (Canada, 52° N), representing a northern cold
climate zone (ASHRAE zone 7). Since the study is performed for the northern hemisphere, the term “south facing” is
equivalent to “equatorial facing” facades.
Although several factors such as site conditions, geographical location, surrounding context, and others can affect
building envelope design, those are not directly dealt with in this investigation. Instead t h e purpose is to demonstrate the
feasibility of matching architectural design flexibility with high energy performance design, to create a façade system
that uses its geometry in combination with advanced building technology to gain overall energy efficiency.
Building envelope assumptions
The proposed facade design assumes a repetitive module based double skin façade system. This type of façade
construction consists usually of two translucent surfaces separated by an air cavity (termed “Channel “or “corridor”),
which allows the movement of interior or exterior air through the system [23]. The system uses the internal façade skin
and the air cavity to provide a buffer zone between the interior and the exterior environment. The main benefits of the
double-skin façade are thermal insulation, acoustic insulation and natural ventilation capabilities [8, 9]. In case the outer
skin is PV integrated for electricity generation, air circulation through the cavity allows cooling of the PV panels while
providing heat for space heating and domestic hot water. There are several sub-categories of double-skin facades,
categorized by the way that the air gap is divided, both vertically and horizontally.
This research adopts a system similar to the “box window” category, where the two skins are continuous over the
building face and divided both horizontally at each floor plate and vertically between specific façade modules, creating
isolated sections of the air cavity [8]. The advantage of the box window is the control that each unit has over their own
environment. The downside of this design is associated with reduced efficiency of ventilation due to the increased
number of divisions.
Building-Integrated Photovoltaic Panels
The basic principle applied in this study is the utilization of near-south facing opaque plates, of the outer skin of the
façade system described above, as building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV). Incorporating photovoltaics into the
construction assembly is associated with multiple benefits. In addition to the on-site renewable electricity generation,
such approach can reduce the cost of manufacturing and installation by means of combining different elements within
a single integrated component [24]. From an aesthetics perspective, the integrated panels allow designers to seamlessly
integrate photovoltaics into the design of the façade system.
The developed designs of the façade system are conceptual. Technical considerations relating to PV technologies are
not addressed. The photovoltaic system is assumed to cover the total area of selected façade plates. In practice, a small
percentage of these surfaces is used for the mounting structure, for framing and for other technical considerations. It
is further assumed that, given the dynamic nature of current PV technology development, any future technology will
be capable of accommodating any specific requirements raised by proposed facade designs including PV modules of
varying shapes and sizes.
Parametric Investigation
Base case
The base case façade module consists of south facing flat surface, comprising an opaque area and glazing for the outer
skin, and glazing constituting the entire inner skin. Each façade module component covers a square area of one story
height ̶ 3x3 m2. The base case façade module is designed based on optimization of various thermal characteristics, as
described below. Those characteristics are then used in all other configurations. The base case acts as a control against
which all other configurations are compared. PV panels are assumed to cover all the opaque, i.e. non-glazed, surfaces
of the facade.
To determine the base case, a sensitivity analysis was carried out as a first stage. The values of insulation studied range
from that prescribed by ASHRAE standards [25] to very high insulation level (about 10m2.k/W). The assemblies of
windows studied include a number of market available assemblies [26]. A number of cavity widths are also studied,
to determine a near optimal double skin façade. The air cavity, between the outer and inner skin, is assumed as airtight
and separated vertically and horizontally from the adjacent units. Figure 1 shows a schematic illustration of the base
case alongside one of the developed geometrical configurations (rectangular pyramid, see below).
Geometrical Designs
The design is based on the notion that solar panels are more efficient when they are tilted relative to the vertical plan
(as compared to a vertical façade). This principle leads to the introduction of a faceted design strategy, achieved by
creating multiple folded planar surfaces. Folded plate geometries of increasing complexity are presented in Figure 2,
A-H.
The simplest folded plate geometry, termed saw-tooth hereunder, consists of a single fold, the plate on one side of
which consists of glazing and the plate on the other side is a BIPV panel. Two saw-tooth configurations are
considered ̶– horizontal saw-tooth (HST), in which the fold is horizontal ̶ Fig. 2A, and vertical saw-tooth (VST), in
which the fold is vertical ̶ Fig. 2B. A modified saw-tooth configuration consists of splitting the façade module into
two HST sub-units with rotated orientations – one sub-unit towards east and the other towards west – Fig. 2C. This
configuration, labeled DST (dual saw-tooth) consists of two opaque and two glazed plates. The different orientation
of the two sub-units enable spread of peak electricity generation time, as peak generation is shifted towards morning
in the eastward oriented sub-unit and towards afternoon in the westward oriented sub-unit.
More complex folded-plate units are based on pyramids, with downwards-tilted faces consisting of glazing. Triangular
pyramid unit (TP), rectangular pyramid unit (RP), and hexagonal pyramid unit (HP) are shown in Fig 2 D, E, G,
respectively. Variations of selected geometries are also designed to study the effect of truncation on the performance
(Fig. 2 F, H).
Glazing, in all variations, except for the VST, is assumed on the down facing plates (See Figure 2). For VST,
depending on the location of PV areas, glazing is integrated on east or west orientation of the Saw-tooth. In the
truncated design, glazing is integrated, in addition to the downward oriented plates, on the truncated faces.
More complex configurations are obtained by dividing the façade module into multiple folded plate units – Fig. 2 G,
H.
Design parameters
The two main façade parameters affecting energy performance are: the position of the ridge fold or peak of the folded
unit, and the maximum depth of the cavity. The position of the fold determines the glazing size and the maximum
cavity depth represents the total depth of the folded unit. The peak or fold position is the distance relative to the base
of the glazed plate of the folded plate unit (except in truncated units, where this parameter is not relevant). The
maximum depth of the cavity is measured from the inner façade skin to the peak/ridge of the folded shape. The cavity
depth at the bottom (valley) of folded configurations is kept to a minimum. These two parameters determine the
relative areas of glazed and opaque surfaces and the tilt and orientation angles of different surfaces. Tilt and orientation
angles are the angles between the normal to the surface and the vertical and south directions, respectively.
Parameter values
Cavity depth is studied at four values: 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 1.0 m. The fold position is measured as the distance to the
base of the glazing as portion of the folded unit dimension perpendicular to the glazing base. Since in all configurations
other than vertical saw-tooth (VST) the glazing plate tilts downwards, the three values of fold position are termed
Low, Mid, and High, indicating the level of the ridge/peak in the module. For the VST configuration the corresponding
terms are narrow, Mid, and Wide, respectively, indicating the width of the glazed plate. If the folded unit base
dimension is a, the three fold position values are: Low (Narrow) = 1/3a; Mid = 1/2a; High (Wide) = 2/3a (See Fig. 2
C).
Dividing the façade module into multiple folded plate units (Fig. 2 G, H) generates configurations that are
geometrically complex and costly to implement, but they are included in order to demonstrate the range of possibilities,
including aesthetic effects. In this study the peak/ridge position in multiple unit configuration is kept constant at the
mid value, for simplicity.
Simulations
This study investigates the effect of geometric design of the facade on the energy performance of high-rise office
buildings, with the aim of determining those geometries that can increase the electricity generation potential of
facades, without significantly compromising heating and cooling loads. The thermal zoning for the office building
consists of 5 zones per floor: one main office zone on each of the four major orientations and a core zone that accounts
for 57% of the floor space. The studied office space is assumed to be situated within the south perimeter zone,
associated with the optimal façade orientation for the studied location (in the northern hemisphere). To study the
isolated effect of the designed geometries on heating and cooling of the specified zone, all surfaces, other than the
studied envelope, are assumed adiabatic (no heat exchange with the surrounding, through these boundaries).
The design optimization of this double skin modular system employs several iteration cycles of simulations for each
geometrical configuration. Grasshopper3D [27] in conjunction with Rhinoceros are employed as the parametric
modeling platform. Honeybee [28] acts as a link between the Grasshopper3D/Rhinoceros interface [29] and the
EnergyPlus simulation engine [30]. The dimensions of the test office space and its position in the building are constant
in all iterations. EnergyPlus determines, at each iteration, the heating and cooling loads of the studied zone as well
as, the potential electricity generation by BIPV systems of the opaque surfaces of the façade.
Building façade geometry is controlled within Grasshopper by numeric input data. This data is translated into surface
coordinates in EnergyPlus. This allows automated and relatively fast modification of parameters in an iterative
process, to test several geometrical dimensions, orientations, tilt angles and configurations. The model takes into
account the effect of mutual shading of adjacent façade modules. The iterative methodology is explained in the flow
chart of Figure 3 [31]).
The weather files of EnergyPlus are used for the simulations (EnergyPlus, Weather Data Sources). The weather data
file, which is based on CWEC – Canadian Weather for Energy Calculations [32], provides hourly weather
observations. These observations represent a virtual one-year period, specifically intended for building energy
calculations. The data collected for this year includes hourly values for solar radiation, ambient temperature, wet bulb
temperature, wind speed, wind direction and cloud cover. This whole year weather data set is used to estimate the
annual electricity generation as well as the annual heating and cooling loads of the studied office space. Two design
days, a sunny cold winter day (in January) - WDD, and a sunny hot summer design day (in July) - SDD, are used to
represent two sunny days with extreme temperatures, to study the incident solar radiation on the developed façade
systems. This data is used to compute electricity generation time curves for these days.
The computation of solar radiation is based on the ASHRAE model of clear sky [33] applied to Calgary (52ºN). This
model is the default model used by EnergyPlus to estimate the hourly clear-day solar radiation for any month of the
year. The solar radiation accounts for the direct beam and diffuse radiation, as well as for radiation reflected from the
ground and adjacent surfaces. The shading algorithm handles shade that may be cast by adjacent façade modules.
The Equivalent One-Diode Model (or“TRNSYS PV” model) employed in EnergyPlus is selected to perform electricity
generation simulations of the BIPV systems. The TRNSYS model employs a four-parameter empirical model to
predict the electrical performance of PV modules [34]. The current-voltage characteristics of the diode depend on the
PV cell’s temperature. The model automatically calculates parameter values from input data, including short-circuit
current, open-circuit voltage, current at maximum power, and others. For this study, the PV array is selected from
EnergyPlus database to provide approximately 15% efficiency, under standard conditions. The electrical conversion
efficiency decreases by some 0.45% for each °C increase of cell temperature from the temperature under standard
conditions.

3. Results
This section presents an analysis of the results of simulations of selected configurations. The results focus on the effect
of the designs on the annual heating and cooling loads, and on the total energy generation per module, as well as per
unit area of BIPV surface. Analysis of electricity generation time curves during the two design days is presented for
selected configurations, as well. Comparisons of folded configurations to the base case are included in section 3.2.
3.1 Effects of Facade geometry design
Base case
A large number of simulations were conducted in order to select a high performance base case scenario. Parameters
of the assembly analyzed include insulation level, glazing type, glazing assemblies and window to wall area ratio.
Based on the results, a high performance base case is achieved assuming an insulation value of 6m2K/W for the opaque
area of the enclosure, a glazing assembly with triple panes, low-e, high SHGC, and argon fill (U-value of 1.1356, and
SHGC of 0.41). A window to wall area ratio (WWR) of 40% is selected for the outer skin, based on an optimal thermal
load performance (combined heating and cooling loads). The flat inner skin is a single glazing, whose main role is to
seal the cavity between the outer surface and the indoor space. PV panels cover the entire opaque area.
A systematic analysis of the effect of the cavity depth on heating and cooling load of the studied zone was carried out.
A cavity depth of 0.3m is adopted for the high performance, double skin base case facade module. This cavity depth
is associated with the lowest annual combined heating and cooling loads, for the studied zone. Annual heating and
cooling loads, total annual PV generation and PV annual generation rate per unit area of BIPV surface are presented
in Table 1.

Saw-tooth designs
Simulations of horizontal and vertical saw-tooth (HST and VST) façade are performed using the same thermal
characteristics as the optimized base case, presented above (e.g. glazing type, insulation level). The design parameters
are the position of the ridge fold, the cavity depth and the number of folds (number of saw-tooth units) per the studied
façade module (1 or 2). The effects of these parameters on the response variables (heating/cooling loads and electricity
generation) are presented below.
HST Configurations
The HST configurations integrate PV panels on the upper facing side of the folded plates. Annual cooling and heating
loads, associated with various cavity depth/tilt angle values, are plotted in Figure 4a against the three fold positions.
Total annual PV generation and generation rate per meter squared of BIPV surface for the same scenarios are displayed
in Figure 4b. It should be noted that the cavity depth controls the tilt angle of the saw-tooth panels. A smaller cavity
depth is associated with a higher tilt angle, approaching in some configurations (e.g. the low configurations, Fig 4a)
the vertical (with tilt angle of 90°).
Effect of fold position: The results indicate that, in general, heating load increases for lower fold configurations as
compared to the mid and high fold positions. This is mainly due to the reduced area of glazing, which consequently
decreases the potential of solar heat gain. The effect on cooling load is small and in opposite trend (load increasing
with increasing fold position).
The PV electricity yields per unit area increases with increasing fold position due to reduction in tilt angle. This
increase is however affected by the cavity depth as discussed below. Low position of the fold, allows, on the other
hand, a larger area for PV integration, resulting in a significantly higher total annual generation than all other
configurations (30% more than the mid position, and 260% more than the high position).
Effect of cavity depth: Increasing the cavity depth increases the heating load, independently of the fold position.
Beyond a cavity depth of 0.7m, there is a sharp increase in heating load for the assumed closed cavity design. This
increase is especially noted for the narrow fold position. Cooling load is slightly reduced, with a larger cavity depth.
The cavity depth affects the electricity generation, due to the associated change in tilt angle and area of the PV
integrated surfaces. Figure 4b shows that, up to 0.7 m depth the effect of fold position on electricity generation per
unit area is variable – stable for narrow, increasing for mid and decreasing slightly for high position, but beyond 0.7
depth generation decreases for all fold positions. This is partially due to the shading effect from the rows above, but
also in some cases (e.g. the high fold configuration) due to a non- optimal tilt angle. The annual generation generally
increases with a larger cavity, due to increased PV area.
Effect of number of folds within the façade module: Increasing the number of folds (i.e. saw-tooth units), increases
the surface area for PV integration. The general trend in PV electricity generation is the increase in generation for low
cavity depths and decrease for higher depths. This is due to the combined result of increasing surface area, reducing
tilt and shading by adjacent units.
VST Configurations
The PV modules can be integrated in the west oriented plates, or in east oriented plates or can be alternated between
east and west orientation. The plate orientation – east or west – does not affect significantly the total energy production,
but it affects the timing of peak production. East orientation shifts peak generation towards the morning whereas west
orientation shifts it towards the afternoon [22]. Combining east and west orientations enables spread of peak generation
timing. In this study all PV integrated plates are assumed oriented towards east or towards west, for simplicity.
Effect of fold position: The effects are similar to the HST configuration. Heating load increases for narrower fold
configurations, due to reduced glazing. Cooling load behaves in opposite trend, increasing significantly with a wider
fold position (Fig. 5a).
PV electricity yield per unit area is similar for the narrow and mid fold position, and decreases somewhat for the wide
position (by up to 30% for larger cavity, as discussed below). The total energy generation reaches its highest values
for the narrow fold position, associated with higher PV surface area.
Effect of cavity depth: Similarly to the HST, increasing the cavity depth increases the heating load. Cooling load is
slightly reduced, with increasing cavity depth. The cavity depth affects electricity generation, due to the associated
change in the orientation angle of the PV integrated panels. Figure 5b shows that, on per unit area basis, the electricity
generation decreases with increased cavity depth, associated with an increased angle of orientation from south (which
is the optimal orientation). The generation per m2 is reduced by 30% as compared to the base case, for a cavity depth
of 1 m, and a wide fold position.
Effect of number of folds within the façade module: Similarly to the HST, increasing the number of folds increases
slightly the surface area for PV, but concurrently, it reduces the energy generation potential, due to increased shading
effect.
Advanced folded geometries
This section presents the results of simulations conducted for multifold configurations. Due to the similarity in the
general trends of the results among these configurations, selected results and graphs are shown below. The results first
discuss the effects of the studied parameters, and then highlight the general energy performance across all
configurations.
Effects of the design parameters
The analysis is presented in terms of annual heating and cooling loads, and PV electricity generation for different
cavity depths and fold positions. Following are the main results.
Effect of fold position: For all multifold configurations, the impact of fold positions on both heating and cooling
loads follows the same trend observed for saw-tooth configurations. Heating load is higher for lower fold positions,
due to the reduced area of glazing, and of the resulting reduction in passive heat gain. Cooling load displays an increase
with a higher fold position, due to increase in passive heat gain. These trends are illustrated in Fig.6a for the rectangular
pyramid configurations.
Analysis of the PV electricity generation rate per unit area shows that the mid fold position is the most advantageous
for electricity generation, especially when combined with a cavity depth of 0.5m-0.7m. Figure 6b displays an example
of the electricity generation per unit area and per total area of PV for the rectangular pyramid (RP) configuration.
Effect of cavity depth: Increasing the cavity depth leads to an increase in heating load, across all configurations. In
contrast, cooling load is slightly reduced, with a larger cavity depth. The cavity depth affects as well the electricity
generation, due to the associated changes in orientation and tilt angles. In addition, the depth of the cavity can affect
the surface area available for PV integration. For instance, the electricity generation per unit area increases with a
larger cavity, at each fold position, except for the high position where the shade becomes more significant with a larger
cavity (>0.5m, in most cases).
Effect of number of folded units within the façade module: Increasing the number of multifold units in the studied
façade module, increases both heating and cooling loads. Heating loads can increase significantly with larger number
of units, as shown in the chart of Figure 7 for the HP configuration. This increase is especially associated with larger
cavity depth. The increase in cooling load is not significant.
The surface area for PV integration is significantly increased with increasing number of folded units per facade
module. However, the energy generation per unit surface area may be reduced with increasing number of units, as
indicated in Figure 8, due to the increase in mutual shading by units. Annual PV generation associated with various
number of folded units, is presented in Figure 8 for the hexagonal pyramid (HP) configurations.
Observations across multifold configurations
A brief comparison between various configurations indicates that, from a point of view of heating and cooling loads,
all studied configurations have similar trends. Truncated designs (for the RP and HP) show in general lower heating
load as compared to the regular configurations, reaching up to 20% reduction. Cooling load is however significantly
higher for such configurations. This effect is due to the additional glazing of the truncated face and resulting passive
heating.
Considering the energy generation potential of the integrated PV system, the triangular pyramid (TP), displays the
highest total annual energy yield. This is mainly due to the large surface area produced in this configuration by the
combination of ridge and valley folds (see Figures 2D, 9b). Rectangular pyramid (RP) has the second large PV area
among configurations, while the hexagonal pyramid (HP) has the least overall cumulative PV integrated surface area.
Electricity generation per unit area is in general similar among the studied configurations, with the highest value
corresponding to the rectangular prism (RPM).
The energy generation potential by the façade module of the studied zone is compared to the combined heating and
cooling energy use, for this specific zone. The comparison shows that, depending on the fold position, the two
configurations TP and RP are the best performing configurations, due to the larger PV integrated areas (Fig. 9a). This
can offer some solutions in terms of increasing the available areas for PV integration, while not significantly
compromising heating and cooling loads of the perimeter zone.
Electricity generation time spread
The orientation of the BIPV system affects not only the value of the electricity generation, but also the time of peak
generation. For a south facing system, the peak generation is at noon. Rotation of the BIPV system towards the west
results in shifting the peak generation to the afternoon and east rotation shifts it towards morning [30].
Figure 10 presents the hourly electricity generation by various configurations, including the base case (flat façade),
for the two design days (21 December – Winter Day and 21 July – Summer Day). The results presented are associated
with a cavity depth of 0.5m, and mid fold position. The analyzed configurations include the base case, the two saw-
tooth configurations (HST and VST), as well as the rectangular pyramid and double saw-tooth (DST) configurations.
The graph shows a considerable amount of energy produced during late morning and afternoon hours, for all folded
plate configurations, and particularly the RP, as compared to the base case. This is basically due to the design of folded
geometries, which combines orientations towards both east and west. In addition, configurations like the vertical saw-
tooth which integrate PV systems on the east and/or west orientations enable large shift in the time of peak electricity
generation, relative to solar noon. For instance, for the summer design day, the east oriented PV system generates its
peak electricity between 10 and 11 am, while the west oriented PV system has a peak production at around 3pm.
Combining the two orientations would provide a peak spread of some 4-5 hours.
This effect of spreading functional levels of electricity generation over longer hours is a key issue to address. In some
cases, return on annual energy produced may be a more important object than the total energy produced, particularly
in locations where prices of electricity vary with time of day. For a net-zero energy building or community the annual
net income becomes an important variable to optimize, as the value of the electricity produced may be higher than
that consumed. This involves consideration of orienting the BIPV systems to match peak generation with high
electricity demand, enabling thus higher returns on selling excess electricity to the grid.

3.2 Comparison to base case

This section compares the trends in energy performance of the studied configurations to the performance of the base
case façade module (flat façade). In general, heating load increases for all folded designs, while cooling load decreases.
Electricity generation, both total and per unit BIPV surface area, are significantly higher than the generation of the
flat façade. The comparisons of selected configurations are presented below.
Saw‐tooth design
Energy performance, as compared to the base case is strongly affected by the fold position of the horizontal saw-tooth
(high, mid or low) and by the depth of the cavity. With lower amount of glass, heating load is increased substantially
(by up to 250%, for a cavity of 0.7m), while cooling is reduced, by up to 50%. Electricity generation both per unit
area basis and total per façade module is increased. Mid fold configurations combine moderate increase in heating
while also increasing the total energy generation by up to 20%. This generation potential is similar on per unit area
basis. High fold position, allowing a more favorable tilt angle for the panels, produces the most electricity on per unit
area basis, but the area of the PV is very limited as compared to the base case, resulting in reduced total generation.
The VST configurations performs similarly to the HST concerning heating and cooling loads, as compared to base
case, however electricity generation is reduced, both total and on per unit area basis. This is mostly due to the deviation
from the optimal south orientation.
Multifold geometries
The analysis of multifold geometries indicates similar energy performance, in terms of heating and cooling loads
relative to the base case, as the HST. These geometries however provide larger areas for the integration of PV modules,
in addition to enabling various tilt and orientation angles, within a single folded unit. These characteristics allow an
increase of the total energy generation by up to 80% for a configuration with low glass and 1 m air cavity depth. Figure
11 shows some advantageous configurations, in terms of annual electricity generation as compared to the base case.

4. Discussion
This study is a component in the development of a methodology for optimized building envelope designs, which can
be applied to double skin façade or curtain wall systems of multistory buildings. Such buildings often suffer from
inadequacy of considerations regarding both the aesthetics and energy efficiency of their envelope. This research
systematically explores the energy performance of a large number of double skin modular façade systems, aiming
ultimately at demonstrating the flexibility of the architectural design of high-energy performance envelope. Designed
and analyzed folded plate configurations include simple geometries such as Saw-tooth, and more complex geometries
based on multifold geometries, including pyramidal units with triangular, rectangular and hexagonal bases. These
geometries are designed with the view of increasing the surface area for potential PV integration without significantly
compromising heating and cooling loads of the perimeter zone.
Based on extensive simulations and result analysis, the folded plate façade geometries outperform the overall energy
performance of the base case flat facade module, while offering a wide scope for aesthetic effects. The main
conclusions of this study are discussed in the following.
Energy performance. Deviation from the basic flat façade leads generally to an increase in heating load. This however
is counterbalanced by a reduction in cooling load, and a considerable increase in the energy generation potential from
BIPV systems. This increase is observed on per unit are basis, as well as per total façade area. While the generation
potential on per unit area rises by up to 20% as compared to the base case, the total generation can escalate by up to
80%, depending on the extent of glazing. Increased surface for the integration of PV panels can be a crucial step
towards achieving a net zero energy multi-story building. Energy performance in terms of demand (heating and
cooling loads) and supply (electricity generation) is governed by the relative opaque and glazed surface areas and the
orientation and tilt angles of the BIPV surfaces. These parameters, in turn, are determined by two geometric
parameters ̶ the depth of the folded module (which determines the cavity depth) and the position of folds between
glazed and opaque surfaces, relative to the façade module boundaries.
Peak electricity generation. While a flat south facing façade generates its peak electricity at noon, the design of folded
geometries allows a more even distribution of electricity generation, throughout the day. Shifting peak generation to
times of high demand is advantageous for grid optimization. The overall generation of multifold geometries is higher
and therefore a larger amount of electricity is produced over extended period. The spread of useful generation could
be further enhanced by configurations that possess a wider range of orientations such as VST configurations that
combine east and west oriented opaque surfaces.
Architectural/aesthetical aspect. The impact of this investigation goes beyond a mere conceptual design of energy
efficient facades. Even though such benefits are important from an environmental standpoint, it is paramount that
architectural designs advance past the efficiency of only employing solar techniques over a facade or building form.
A holistic design approach that integrates such advanced building envelope designs with building systems, to increase
the overall solar potential of the building, is called for. This includes designing floor plans, sections, interior
mechanical systems, and other systems in such a way that they all work in unison and do not counteract one another.
Cost. Designs must consider the complexity and cost of manufacturing and installation alongside the energy
performance of these designs. A customized building envelope may be the most efficient and aesthetically pleasing,
but the cost should be considered on a long term basis (e.g. long term savings in energy compensating for short term
construction costs). A facade system that combines energy efficiency, aesthetically pleasing modular design, ease of
implementation together with possibility of mass customization, have the potential to foster implementation in the
construction market. Additionally, the cost rise can be offset by an increased potential of BIPV system which results
in two potential benefits: 1) increasing the revenue of the system as compared to a regular flat façade, 2) shifting and
spreading the timing of useful PV electricity generation which can increase substantially the system value (by up to
20%, [35]).

Concluding Remarks
The research presented in this paper addresses the gap in existing research concerning design options and guidelines
for multi-story facades. It demonstrates an innovative approach to the design of high-energy performance modular
façade systems, while maintaining maximum design flexibility that can accommodate functional and other
considerations not related to energy efficiency. The significance of the study lies in highlighting the role of facade
geometrical design in controlling, capture and utilization of solar energy, as compared to a regular flat façade module,
as well as enabling spread of useful electricity generation time using BIPV systems. The study identifies a variety of
high energy performance, double skin façade patterns, of varying complexity.
The integrated workflow employed in this research, provides architects, engineers and building professionals with a
set of tools enabling them to model the energy performance of their designs early in the design process. Future
application of this developed multi-objective optimization methodology can assist in the production of optimized
solutions and guidelines for multistory building envelope design.
While this simulation study is conducted under a northern mid-high latitude climatic zone, similar to the climate of
Calgary, Canada (52°N), the methodology implemented in the study can be applied to different locations and climates,
with few modifications. Moreover, this double skin based building envelope can be modified to fit other types of
buildings such as residential buildings to include various architectural features.
Acknowledgement
This research is partially funded by NSERC Discovery grant and by NSERC Smart Net-zero Energy Buildings
Research Network (SNEBRN).

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Figure 1, schematic illustration of the double skin façade. (a) Base case; (b) Rectangular Pyramid
configuration (studied below).
 Low position Mid position High position

A: HST

Narrow position Mid position Wide position

B: VST

Low position Mid position High position

2/3a
1/2a
1/3a
a

C: DST
Low position Mid position High position

D: TP
Low position Mid position High position

E: RP

Low position Mid position High position

F: TRP
Single folded unit Two folded units Multiple folded units

G: HP
Single folded unit Two folded units Multiple folded units
a
a

H: THP

Figure 2, illustrations of the main categories of studied configurations: Front view (left) and axonometric
view (right). A: Horizontal Saw-tooth; B: Vertical Saw-tooth; C: Dual saw-tooth; D: Rectangular pyramid;
E: Truncated rectangular pyramid; F: Triangular pyramid; G: Hexagonal pyramid; H: Truncated hexagonal
pyramid.
 Figure 3, flowchart of the simulations.

Low Config Mid Config High Config

Annual heating and cooling load

850 1800
1600
Annual PV generation (kWh)

750
1400
650 1200
550 Base case 1000
(kWh)

450 800
load 600
350
400
250 200
150 0
0.3/83°0.5/79°0.7/74°1/68° 0.3/79°0.5/72°0.7/65°1/56° 0.3/59°0.5/45°0.7/36°1/27°
Cavity depth/ Tilt angle Base case generation
Annual Heating Loads (KWh) Annual Cooling Loads (KWh) Annual PV generation Total (KWh)
(a)
Annual electrity genration per

Low Config Mid Config HighConfig

250 10

PV surface are (m2)

230 8
m2 (kWh/m2)

210 6
190 Base case 4
170
generation 2
150 0
0.3/83°0.5/79°0.7/74° 1/68° 0.3/79°0.5/72°0.7/65° 1/56° 0.3/59°0.5/45°0.7/36° 1/27°
Cavity depth/tilt angle
Annual PV generation Rate (KWh/m2) Area of PV panels
(b)
Figure 4: results of energy performance of the HST configurations. a) Annual heating and cooling loads,
and annual PV generation; b) PV electricty genration per unit area, and total area of PV for the studied
zone.
 600 1600
1400
Annual heating and cooling

500

Annual PV electricity
Base case load 1200

genration (kWh)
400 1000
300 800
load (kWh)

200 600
400
100 200
0 0
0.3/7° 0.5/11°0.7/16° 1/22° 0.3/11°0.5/18°0.7/25° 1/34° 0.3/31°0.5/45°0.7/54° 1/63°
Low Med
Mid High
Depth/orientation angle
Annual Heating Loads (KWh) Annual Cooling Loads (KWh) Annual PV generation Total (KWh)

(a)
200 Annual PV generation Rate (KWh/m2) Area of PV panels 9

Surface area of PV (m2)

Annual electricity generation per

8
150 Base case 7
generation 6
5
m2 (kWh/m2)

100
4
3
50 2
1
0 0
0.3/7° 0.5/11°0.7/16° 1/22° 0.3/11°0.5/18°0.7/25° 1/34° 0.3/31°0.5/45°0.7/54° 1/63°
Low
Narrow Med
Mid High
Wide
Dept/Orientation angle

(b)

Figure 5, results of energy performance of the VST configurations. a) Annual heating and cooling loads, and
annual PV generation; b) PV electricty generation per unit area, and total area of PV for the studied zone.

500 Annual Heating Loads (KWh) Annual PV generation Rate (KWh/m2)

Annual Cooling Loads (KWh) 210 Area of PV panels 10
Annual heating and cooling

400
Annual electiricity generation

PV surface are (m2)

205 8
300
load (kWh)

200
per m2 (kWh/m2)

6
200 195
Base case 4
190
100 genration
185 2
0 180 0
0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1
low Mid High low Mid High
(a) (b)
Cavity depth and fold position Cavity depth and fold position

Figure 6, results of energy performance of the RP configurations. a) Annual heating and cooling loads, and
annual PV generation; b) PV electricty genration per unit area, and total area of PV for the studied zone.
 Annual Heating Loads (KWh) Annual Cooling Loads (KWh)
1000
Annual heating and coolingn

800
600
loads (kWh)

400
200
0
0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1
1x1 2x2 4x4
Cavity depth and number of folded units

Figure 7, heating and cooling load for the hexagonal pyramid configuration (HP), featuring different numbers
of folded units, associated with a mid-fold position.
Annual PV generation Total (KWh) Annual PV generation Rate (KWh/m2)
2500 250

Annual electricity generation per unit

Annual electricty generation (kWh)

2000 200

1500 150

are (kWh/m2)
1000 100

500 50

0 0
0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1
1x1 2x2 4x4
Cavity depth and number of folded units

Figure 8, Electricity generation for the HP configuration, as total annual generation and annual generation
per unit area.

14
4
3.5 12
Ratio of performance

10
PV area (m2)

3
2.5 8
2 6
1.5 4
1 2
0.5
0
0
0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1
0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1
Low Mid High
Low Mid High
PV RP
RP PV RPM
DST PV
TPTP PV
HPHP RPRP
PV PV RPM
DST PV
TPTP PV HP
(a)
Cavity depth and fold position Cavity depth and fold position (b)

Figure 9, Comparison between various configurations. (a) Energy performance in terms of ratio of annual
generation of facade module to the total combined heating and cooling energy consumption; (b) Available
PV integrated surface area.
 Base Case Horizontal Folded Plates (1 fold)
Vertical Folded Plates (1 fold SE) Vertical Folded Plates (1 fold SW)
Rectangular Pyramids Triangular Pyramids
four plane fold
1
0.9
Hourly Generation [KW]

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour [h]
(a)

Base Case Horizontal Folded Plates (1 fold)

Vertical Folded Plates (1 fold SE) Vertical Folded Plates (1 fold SW)
Rectangular Pyramids Triangular Pyramids

0.9
0.8
Hourly Generation [KW]

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour [h]
(b)
Figure 10, Design days' electricity generation profiles of selected configurations. (a) Winter Design Day, (b)
Summer Design Day.
 1.8 Annual PV generation Total (KWh) Annual PV generation Rate (KWh/m2) 1.16

Ratio of the Annual PV generation per

Ratio of the annual PV generation to

1.6 1.14
1.4 1.12

unit area to the base case

1.2
1.1
1
the base case

1.08
0.8
1.06
0.6
0.4 1.04

0.2 1.02
0 1
0.5 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.7
Low Mid High Low Mid High
RP RPM
DST

Figure 11, Total and per m2 annual electricity generation for the RP and DST configurations, associated with
cavity depths of 0.5m and 0.7m.

Table1: main results of the high performance base case façade module

WWR Annual Heating Annual Cooling Total Annual PV Per m2 Annual PV

(window/wall load (KWh) load (KWh) generation (KWh) generation (KWh)/m2
ratio)

40% (0.4) 199 217 1017.69 188