NUMBER THEORY

MathEd 222
Workbook

LEORENCE C. TANDOG, Ph.D.

AUTHOR

GRADUATE SCHOOL
University of Southern Mindanao
Kabacan, Cotabato
SY 2022 - 2023
 PREFACE

Number theory is a major subject in college taken by BS Mathematics and

BSED major in Mathematics. Since few students are required to take this subject,
textbooks in Number Theory are scarcely available and expensive that very few
students can afford to own. Thus this workbook was prepared to provide students
with material resource to facilitate efficient learning of this major subject.

This workbook is specifically designed for students in the teacher education

who major in Mathematics. Number theory is considered as the “purest” among
the classical areas of mathematics, but it does have several bearings on topics in
basic mathematics. And so while this course train students in the rigorous study of
mathematics, topics are presented in a manner that students can find
applications and connections with mathematics competencies in the elementary
and high school level. One of its special features is the inclusion of some
strategies and activities that can be used in the teaching of basic mathematics.
Exercises are also provided to engage learners in reflective thinking and provide
them opportunities to “think outside the box” to deepen their understanding of
math concepts.

It is hoped that students, both in college and graduate levels, and teachers
as well will find this book valuable in their study and teaching of mathematics.

The Author

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 Table of Contents

Chapter 1: The Integers and Some Properties 1

Properties of Integers 1
Proof by Mathematical Induction 6
The Division Algorithm 8
The Greatest Integer in x 8

Chapter 2: Divisibility 9
Definition 9
Properties of Divisibility 12
Divisibility Tests 16
Divisibility Test for Large Integers 17

Chapter 3: Prime and Composite Numbers 19

Definition and Examples 19
Prime Number Generators 21
Some Theorems on Primes 24
Distribution of Primes 26
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 28
Prime Factorization 29

Chapter 4. The GCF and LCM 31

Techniques in Finding GCD 31
GCD of More than Two Integers 33
Relatively Prime Numbers 34
Linear Combination 35
Techniques in Finding LCM 36
GCD and LCM using Prime Factorization 39

Chapter 5. Number-Theoretic Multiplicative Functions 44

The Number of Divisors of an Integer 44
The Sum of Divisors of an Integer 48
The Euler’s Phi Function 51

Chapter 6. The Linear Diophantine Equation 55

Graph of a Linear Diophantine Equation 56
Solutions of a Linear Diophantine Equation 56

Chapter 7. Congruences 60
Definition and Examples 62
Residue System 62
Applications 63
Properties on Congruences 68
Special Congruences 70
Polynomial and Linear Congruences 72
Inverses 75
The Chinese Remainder Theorem 78

Chapter 7. Some Applications of Number Theory 84

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 Chapter 1
The Integers and Some Properties

Introduction

Mathematics is the queen of sciences and number theory is the queen of

mathematics. Number theory is a classical subject, one of the oldest branches of
mathematics, that has a reputation of the “purest” part of mathematics. Notable
number theorists include Fierre de Fermat, Leonard Euler, and Carl Friedrich
Gauss.

The ancient civilization as early as 5000 years ago had developed ways of
doing arithmetic with numbers. The ancient Greeks for instance used counting
numbers (1, 2, …) and unfolded several amazing properties of these numbers.
Greeks idea of numbers however is linked with geometry and hence their concept
of numbers was attached with geometric figures thus the concept of triangular,
square and rectangular numbers. For instance the integer 6 was associated with a
rectangle which dimension is 2 by 3. During those ancient times equations like 5
+ x = 5 and 7 + x = 3 were not solvable obviously because the concept of zero and
negative numbers were non-existent as Greeks had difficulty associating negative
numbers and zero with geometric figures. The concept of zero and negative
numbers flourished with the Eastern civilization, particularly in India whose
concept of numbers is detached from geometry.

In general, number theory is the study of numbers and their properties and
include broad such as elementary number theory and algebraic number theory.
This course will primarily deal with elementary number theory - the study of
integers. We will study amazing properties of integers and some tools by which
we can unfold and prove these properties.

Some Properties of Integers

Below are few of the amazing properties of integers. Study each pattern of
numbers below and come up with a mathematical model that describes the
pattern. We will be proving the mathematical statements you derived in the
succeeding section.

1. The Square Numbers

. a. 12 = 1
22 = 1 + 2 + 1
32 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 2 + 1
:
.
 n, n =
2

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 b. 12 = 1
22 = 1 + 3
32 = 1 + 3 + 5
.
.
.

 n, n2 =

2. Triangular Numbers
1
1+2=
1+2+3=
1+2+3+4=
:
.

1+2+3+…+n=

3. The Blackhole of Integers: 6174

This number was discovered by a famous mathematician from India,
Ramahnujan. Any four-digit number (excluding those whose digits are all the
same) when its digits are arranged from highest to least, then from least to
highest, their difference will fall to 6174 in less than 10 steps.

Example: 2 698  9862 7173  7731 6354  6543 …

 2689  1377  3456
7173 6354 3087

Practice: Determine the number of steps that your birth year will fall to 6174.

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The Integers

We shall begin our formal study of number theory with important tools
useful in proving properties of the set of integers.

 The Well-Ordering Property of Integers: Every non-empty set of positive

integers has a least element.

This property is vital in the proof of mathematical induction and simply

states that whenever we have a set whose elements are integers, one of those
elements must be the smallest.

 The Principle of Mathematical Induction: A set of positive integers that

contains the integer 1 and the integer n + 1 whenever it contains n must be
the set of all positive integers.

The principle of mathematical induction, on the other hand, is a valuable

tool for proving theorems about integers (and some theorems in other fields of
mathematics). This method of proof is analogous to an ordinary ladder with
indefinite number of steps and we want to prove that we can climb to any
designated step. To do this we have show that first, we can climb to the first
step and secondly, if we are on any step, we can climb to the next higher step.
Thus proofs using mathematical induction must show two things:

1. The statement one is trying to prove true for the smallest positive integer
for which the theorem is to hold (verification for a specific value);

2. The statement is true for the positive integer n + 1 whenever it is true for
the positive integer n.

Examples:

1. Let us prove one property we derived from a number pattern in the previous
section:
1 + 3 + 5 + … + 2n – 1 = n2  n  +

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Proof (by Mathematical Induction)

i. Show that the statement is true for n = 1 (the smallest element of

the set)

For n = 1, 2n – 1 = 1 = n2//
ii. Suppose the statement is true for n, we will show that the statement
is true for n+1. In particular , we must show that

1 + 3 + 5 + … + 2n – 1 + 2(n+1) = (n+1)2  n  +
Now we assume that we know the fact that
1 + 3 + 5 + … + 2n – 1 = n2

Adding 2n + 1 on both sides, we have

[1 + 3 + 5 + … + 2n – 1] + 2(n+1) = n2 + 2n+1 = (n + 1)2//

Since we have shown i and ii, we can conclude that the statement holds for all
positive integers n.

2. Show that 2n > n + 4 for n > 2

Proof (by Mathematical Induction)

i. Show the statement is true for n = 3 (the smallest element of

the set)

For n = 3, 23 = 8 > 3 + 4 = 7 //

ii. Suppose the statement is true for n, that is, 2 n > n + 4 for n >
2. We will show that the statement is true for n+1. In
particular, we must show that
2n+1 > (n + 1) + 4 = n + 5 for n > 2

Proof: We assume the fact that

2n > n + 4 for n > 2

Multiplying both sides of inequality by 2, we have

2(2n) = 2n+1 > 2(n + 4) = 2n + 8 > n + 5 for n > 2//

Since we have shown i and ii, we can conclude that the statement holds for all
positive integers n > 2.
Exercises
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Prove by mathematical induction:

1.  j = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n = for all positive values of n, j = 1, 2, …, n.

2.  ar j = a + ar + ar2 + … + arn = for all positive values of n, j = 1, 2, …, n.

Use this value to evaluate  2k.

3. 3n > n + 18 for n > 2

4.  j2 =

5.  j3 = [ ]2

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The Division Algorithm

If a and b are integers such that b > 0, then there are unique integers q and
r such that a = bq + r with 0 < r < b.

Examples:

1. If a = 133 and b = 21 then q = 6 and r = 7. That is we can express

133 as
133 = 21(6) + 7

2. If a = -69 and b = 8 then q = -9 and r = 3. Then we have

-69 = 8(-9) + 3

Practice: Write a in the a = bq + r if

1. a = 1 493; b = 17

2. a = -578 ; b = 25

The Greatest Integer in x

Definition: Let x be a real number. The greatest integer in x, denoted by [x], is

the largest integer less than or equal to x.

Examples:

1. [ 3.8 ] = 3

2. [ 7 ] = 7

3. [ - 2.5 ] = -3

A survey question that asks the respondent of his/her age in years as of last
birthday is an example of the greatest integer function. Hence a respondent
whose age is 39.25 years (39 years and 3 months) will indicate the age 39 in the
questionnaire so with the respondent whose age is 39.75 years (39 years and 9
months).

Practice: Prove or disprove: [ a ] + [ -a ] = 0 for any real number a

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 Chapter 2
Divisibility

Divisibility
An integer a is divisible by another integer b if the quotient of a and b is also
an integer.

Examples:

1. 26 is divisible by 13 since 26  13 = 2, an integer

2. 48 is divisible by -3 since 48  3 = -16, an integer

Non-examples:

1. 5 is not divisible by 2 since 5  2 = 2 ½ , not an integer.

2. 30 is not divisible by 4 since 30  7 = 4 , not an integer.

Gauss’ formal definition of divisibility given below is linked it with equality

that will allows us to prove many properties related to divisibility.

Definition: If a and b are integers, we say that a divides b if there is an integer c

such that b = ac. In symbols, we have

a  b   c  Z such that b = ac.

Remark: The symbol a  b means

 a is a divisor of b
 a is a factor of b
 b is a multiple of a
 b is divisible by a

Definition: The factors of a number m are two or more numbers whose product is
m. For instance, the factors of 6 are 2 and 3, 6 and 1.

Definition: A multiple of n is a product of n and any integer. The multiples of 8

are … 8(-1), 8(0), 8(1), 8(2), 8(3)…

Some Properties on Divisibility

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 Let a, b and c be integers. Then

1.  a  0, a  a (Reflexive Property), a  0 and 1  a.

Example: 3  3, 3  0 and 1  3.

Proof:  a  0, a = a1 = 1 a  a | a and 1 | a.

Also, 0 = a 0 = 0a  a | 0

2. If a  b and b  c then a  c (Transitive Property)

Example:
3 6 and 6  18 then 3  18
Proof:
a  b  b = ax for some x  Z.
b  c  c = by for some y  Z. By substitution,
c = axy, xy  Z
 a  c//

3. If a  b then  c  Z a  bc.
Example: Since 3  6 then 3  6(-21)

Proof:
a  b  b = ax for some x  Z.
By multiplication property for equality,  c  Z,
bc = axc, xc  Z
 a  bc

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 Exercises

I. The following are more properties of divisibility. Illustrate each by example

and prove.

1. If a  b and a  b + c then a  c

2. If a  b and a  c then a  b + c

3. If a  b and a  c then a  bx + cy

II. Modified True or False. Write True if the statement is true and explain by
citing a property or a theorem. If the statement is false, write False and explain
or disprove by a counterexample.

1. 8 divides 2.

2. If a|b and b|a then a=b.

3. For any c, if 7|c then 7|14 + c.

4. Every counting number has more multiples than factors.

5. Larger integers have more factors than smaller integers.

III. Disprove the following statement by giving a counter example:

For any integers a, b and c if a | bc then a| b and a | c.

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DIVISIBILITY TESTS

Divisibility by 2: A number is divisible by two if it is even.

Example: 46; 24 978; 100 321 074 are all divisible by 2

Divisibility by 3: A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by

3.

Example: 1. 1 341 is divisible by 3 since 1 + 3 + 4 + 1 = 9 is divisible by 3.

Practice: Show that 3 813 is divisible by 3.

Divisibility by 4: A number is divisible by four if its last two digits is divisible by

4.

Example: 1. 1 076 124 is divisible by 4 since 24 is divisible by 4.

Practice: Show that 214 528 is divisible by 4.

Divisibility by 5: A number is divisible by 5 if it ends in 0 or 5.

Example: 675 130 and 13 175 are both divisible by 5

Divisibility by 6: A number is divisible by 6 if it is divisible by 2 and 3, that is, if

it is
even and the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.

Example: 1. 13 242 is divisible by 6 because it is divisible by 2 (since it is

even)
and divisible by 3 ( since sum of the digits [12] is divisible by 3).

Practice: Determine if 23 584 is divisible by 6

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Divisibility by 7: Double the last digit of the number and subtract from the
remaining digits. If difference is divisible by 7, then the number is divisible by 7.
If the difference is large, repeat the procedure until you get one that is clearly
divisible by 7.

Example: 1. 266
Procedure: a. double the last digit: 2(6) = 12
b. Subtract the result from the remaining digit: 2612
= 14
and it is divisible by 7. Therefore, 266 is divisible
by 7.

2. 7 448

Procedure: a. 744  2(8) = 744 16 = 728

(still large, repeat the procedure with the
difference)

b. 72– 2(8) = 7216 = 56 and 56 is divisible by 7.

Therefore 7 448 is divisible by 7.

Practice: Show that 18 656 is divisible by 7.

Divisibility by 8:
A number is divisible by 8 if the last three digits is divisible by 8.

Examples: 1. 24 032 is divisible by 8 since 032 is divisible by 8.

2. 12 234 776 is divisible by 8 since 776 is divisible b 8.

Practice: Show that 1 153 112 is divisible by 8 while 17 130 is not.

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Divisibility by 9:
A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.

Examples: 1. 1 728 is divisible by 9 since 1+7+2+8 =18 is divisible by 9.

2. 4 539 114 is divisible by 9 since 4+5+3+9+1+1+4 = 27 is

divisible by 9.

Practice: Determine which of the numbers 12 474 and 214 133 is divisible by 9

Divisibility by 10: A number is divisible by 10 if it ends in 0.

Example: 230; 90 050; 67 490 are all divisible by 10

Divisibility by 11: A number is divisible by 11 if the difference between the sums

of odd-numbered digits and even-numbered digits is divisible by 11.

Example. 1) 23 716 is divisible by 11

1 2 3 4 5 (position of digits)

Procedure: a. sum of odd-numbered digits: 2 + 7 + 6 = 15

b. sum of even-numbered digits: 3 + 1 = 4
c. 15 – 4 = 11, divisible by 11. Therefore 11 | 23 716.

Practice: Determine which of the numbers 5 324 and 278 131 is divisible by 11.

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 Divisibility by 13: A number is divisible by 13 if the sum of four times the last
digit and
the remaining digits of the number is divisible by 13. Repeat the
process with the sum if it is large and not obviously divisible
by 13.

Examples: 1. 169 is divisible by 13.

Procedure: a. four times the last digit: 4(9) = 36

b. Add the result from the remaining digit: 16 + 36 = 52,

divisible by 13. Therefore, 13|169.

2. 1 521

a. 152 + 4(1) = 156 (large so repeat the test procedure

with the sum)

b. 15 + 4(6) = 39 and it is divisible by 13. Thus 13|1 521

Practice: Show that 1 092 is divisible by 13.

More Practice:
1. For each number below, determine which numbers from 2 to 13 are
divisors.

a. 1 716

b. 63 071

2. Solve for the digit a if

a. 3 | 7 20a 456

b. 5 | 3 49a

c. 8 | 1 347 06a

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 Exercises

I. For each number below, determine which numbers from 2 to 11, and 13 are
divisors. Write the divisors to the right of each number.

1. 443

2. 15 926

3. 195 518

4. 433 692

5. 2 865 716

II. Multiple Choice

1. Which of these numbers is NOT divisible by 6? Justify your answer.

A. 22 436 C. 23 482
B. 25 314 D. 26 463

2. Which of these numbers is divisible by 8? Why

A. 231 486 132 B. 231 569 076
B. 231 713 824 D. 231 264 180

3. Which is a leap year? Justify your answer.

A. 2014 C. 2012
B. 2000 D. 2008

4. A number is divisible by 15 if it is divisible by 3 and 5. Determine

whether the given number is divisible by 15 or not
A. 20 435 C. 21 153
B. 24 170 D. 20 315

5. If 3 | 976 67a which of the following could be the value of a?

A. 2 C. 4
B. 3 D. 5

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Divisibility Test for Large Integers

The divisibility test for bigger number M can be determined using

divisibility rules for the relatively prime factors of M.

Let M = P1P2P3 … Pk, Pis are pairwise relatively prime (that is, the common
divisor between any pair of factors of M is 1). Then M | N iff P i | N.

Examples:

1. since 8 | 1 656 and 9 | 1 656, then 72 | 1 656. Note that 8 and 9 are
relatively prime factors of 72.

2. 24 | N iff 3 | N and 8 | N.

3. If 15 | x7 02y then 3| x7 02y and 5| x7 02y. To determine the

number(s), we first solve for the digit y.

Solution: If 5| x7 02y  y = 0 or y=5

If y = 0  3| x7 020. Applying divisibility rule for 3,

 3| x + 9
 x = 3, 6, 9.
We exclude zero since x is a first-digit number. Thus the possible
numbers are 37 020, 67 020, 97 020.

If y = 5  3| x7 025. Applying divisibility rule for 3,

 3| x + 14
 x = 1, 4, 7
Thus the other possible numbers are 17 025, 47 025, 77 025.

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 Exercises

I. Modified True or False: Write T if the statement is true, explain by citing a

property or a theorem, or prove. If the statement is false, write F and explain or
give a counterexample.

1. 55| 8 195.

2. If 4|N and 6|N then 24|N.

3. If 24|N then 4|N and 6|N.

4. c∈Z, if 24|c then 6|c + 132.

5. If 56|34m 02n then n can take a value of 8.

6. If the sum of the digit of an even number is divisible by 9 the number is

divisible by 18.

II. Solve for a and/or b if

1. 9 | a42 791

2. 72 | 6a7 17b

3. 24 | a2 03m

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 Chapter 3
Prime and Composite Numbers

The study of prime is central in number theory since primes are considered
the building block of numbers.

Definition. A prime number is a counting number greater than 1 that is divisible

by
no positive integers other than 1 and itself. Examples: 2 (the smallest
prime), 3, 5, 7, …

Definition. A composite number is a counting number greater than 1 that has

more
than two factors that is, it has factors other than 1 and itself.
Examples are 4, 6, 8, 9, …

Remarks:

1. The integer 1 is considered a unit from which other rectangular numbers

are built up, and is NEITHER prime nor composite.

2. Prime and composite numbers partition the set of counting numbers

greater than 1 into exactly 2 subsets.

Divisibility tests are useful in determining if the given whole number is prime
or composite.

Examples:

1. 87 is composite because other than 1 and 87, it is also divisible by 3 (since

the
sum of its digit is divisible by 3).

2. 1 405 is composite since 5 | 1 405.

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Practice: Show that the following numbers are composite.

1. 3 118

2. 324

3. 519

4. 645

5. 183

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Prime Number Generators

1. Sieve of Eratosthenes
To generate prime numbers less than 100, the Sieve of Eratosthenes is one
interesting method to use. The procedure involves encircling prime numbers
from the smallest ( i.e. 2) up to 7 and then canceling all multiples of these
numbers. Numbers that remained uncancelled or not crossed out are all
primes. Skip 1 since it is neither prime nor composite.

Identify all prime numbers less 100 than using the following Sieve of
Eratosthenes.

The Sieve of Eratosthenes

1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61 67 73 79 85 91 97
2 8 14 20 26 32 38 44 50 56 62 68 74 80 86 92 98
3 9 15 21 27 33 39 45 51 57 63 69 75 81 87 93 99
4 10 16 22 28 34 40 46 52 58 64 70 76 82 88 94 100
5 11 17 23 29 35 41 47 53 59 65 71 77 83 89 95
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96

2. Prime Rich Formulas

a. x2 + x + 17

This formula produces a limited number of primes for a sequence of x with 15 as

the upper limit. Clearly x = 16 produces a composite number since

(16)2 + 16 + 17 = 16(16 + 1) + 17 = 16(17) + 17 = 17 (16 + 1) = 172

Complete the following table for the set of primes generated by the formula.

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Primes 17

b. x2 + x + 41
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This is Euler’s formula of prime number generator. It also produces a limited
number of primes for a sequence of integer x up to 40. Clearly x = 40 produces a
composite number since

(40)2 + 40 + 41 = 40(40 + 1) + 41 = 40(41) + 41 = 41 (40 + 1) = 412

Complete the following table for the primes generated by the formula.

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Primes
x 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 25 26 27
Primes
x 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Primes

3. The Mersenne Primes

Definition
If p is prime and Mp = 2p – 1 is also prime, then Mp is called a Mersenne prime.

The smallest Mersenne prime is M 2 = 22 – 1 = 3. Not all prime number p gives a

prime number. For example, for p = 11, M11 = 211 – 1 = 2 047 = 23(89) is composite
for which case it called a Mersenne number. Much activity has been directed
toward discovery of Mersenne primes since new discovered Mersenne prime has
become the largest reigning prime number. For instance, the Mersenne prime M 31
= 231 – 1 when discovered in 1772 reigned as the largest prime for more than a
century. In 1883, Lucas proved that M 127 is prime. The search continued for p =
157 using only pen and paper. Then computers took over. When p = 11 213 was
shown to produce a prime number M 11 213 at the University of Illinois 1n 1963, this
Mersenne prime appeared in the US stamp.

The number of digits of a Mersenne prime can be computed using the

logarithm of the number. Recall that log N = characteristic + mantissa where the
characteristic plus 1 tells the number of digits in the whole number part of N.
Now for a Mersenne prime

Mp = 2p – 1
 Mp + 1 = 2p.
Claim: Mp and Mp + 1 have the same digits since if Mp + 1 = 2p have more
than 1 digit than Mp , it must end in zero but not possible since any power
of 2 never ends in 0. Thus we can use M p + 1 = 2p to determine the number

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 of digits in Mp. So let N = Mp + 1 = 2p. Then log N = log 2 p = p log 2 (log 2
 .3010). The resulting characteristic + 1 represents the number of digits
in Mp. Since we are only interested in the integer part of the logarithm we
can modify the formula for any M p as follows using the greatest integer
function as follows:

Number of digits of Mp = [p log 2] + 1.

The largest reigning prime in 1985 was M 216 091. Using the above formula, the
number of digits of M216 091 is

Number of digits of M216 091 = [216 091 log 2] + 1 = 65 050 digits

The digits of M216 091 can fill up two pages of a standard newspaper. In July 21,
2006, a Mersenne prime for p = 30 402 457 was discovered and M 30 402 457 has over 9
million digits.

Computer search for largest primes still continues as the process requires
trillion of calculations and is used to test computer speed and accuracy. Try to
look up in the internet this year’s reigning largest prime and calculate the number
of its digits.

4. The Fermat’s Prime

Fermat’s Primes are of the form Fp = (22)p + 1, p > 0.

Examples:

F0 = (22)0 + 1 = 20 + 1 = 2

F1 = (22)1 + 1 = 22 + 1 = 5

F2 = (22)2 + 1 = 24 + 1 = 17

F3 =

F4 =

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Some Theorems on Primes

Theorem 1: Every positive integer greater than 1 has a prime divisor.

Proof by contradiction
Suppose there is a positive integer with no prime divisors. Let M be of
positive integers with no prime divisors. M therefore is non-empty. By
well-ordering property, M must contain a least integer m with no prime
divisor. Since m has no prime divisors and m|m, m is composite. Hence
we can write m = ab, 1 < a < m and 1 < b < m. Because a < m, a must have
a prime divisor, say p. Since p | a and a | m, then p | m which contradicts
the assumption that m has no prime divisor//

Theorem 2: There are infinitely many primes.

The most elegant proof for this theorem is Euclid’s proof by contradiction.

Euclid’s Proof
Let p1 = 2, p2 = 3, p3 = 5, p4 = 2, … be the primes in ascending order, and
suppose that there is a last prime, say, p n. Now consider the integer P =
p1p2…pn + 1. Since P > 1, by theorem 1, has a prime divisor p. But p 1, p2, …,
pn are the only primes so p must be equal to one of the p 1, p2, …, pn . Since
p| p1p2…pn with p|P, by divisibility property, p|P-p 1p2…pn or equivalently,
p|1. The only divisor of 1 is 1 that makes p = 1 and contradicts the fact
that p > 1.//

Theorem3.
If n is composite number than n has a prime divisor not exceeding .

Proof
Since n is composite, we can write n = ab, 1 < a < b < n. We must have a < since
otherwise b > a > and ab > =n, a contradiction.

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 Theorems 1 and 3 can be used to test if the given number is prime. We only
have to note that for any integer N greater than 1,

 If N is prime, its prime divisor is itself;

 If N is composite, it has a prime divisor not exceeding .

Examples:

1. Is 113 prime or composite?

Analysis: If 113 is composite, it has a prime divisor not exceeding  10. These
prime divisors are 2, 3, 5, and 7. Since none of these prime numbers divide
113, it is a prime number.

2. Is 1 101 prime? If 1 101 is prime, it must have a prime divisor not exceeding
 33. Since 3 | 1 101, it is composite.

Practice: Which of the following integers is prime?

1. 487

2. 157

3. 121

4. 107

5. 293

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Distribution of Primes
There are infinitely many primes but its distribution seems so
unpredictable. The integers 2 and 3 are the only consecutive integers that are
both primes. Then the pair of primes like 3 and 5, 5 and 7, 11 and 13 differs by 2.
These primes are called twin primes. There is conjecture that there are infinitely
many twin primes. However, there are arbitrarily long runs of integers containing
no primes. Example, the sequence of integers from 90 to 96 contains no prime.

The following proposition tells us that for any integer m > 2, we can find a
sequence of m consecutive integers that does not contain any prime number.

Proposition: For every positive integer m > 2, there are at least m consecutive
composite positive integers;

Proof by construction:

Consider (m + 1)! + 2, (m + 1)! + 3, (m + 1)! + 4, … (m + 1)! + (m+1).

This is a sequence of m consecutive integers. Now for m > 2,
2 | (m + 1)! + 2
3 | (m + 1)! + 3
:
(m+1) | (m + 1)! + (m+1).
Hence, these m consecutive integers are all composite.

Examples: 1. The 9 consecutive numbers from (9 + 1)! + 2 = 10! + 2 until 10! + 10

are all composite.

2. There exist 1 000 000 consecutive integers that contain no prime.

This series begins from 1 000 001! + 2 until 1 000 001! + 1 000 001.

Goldbach’s Conjecture

Every even positive integer greater than 2 can be written as the sum of two
primes.

Examples:
4=2+2
10 = 3 + 7
24 = 5 + 19
Exercises

29 | lctandog_Number Theory Workbook

 I. Modified True or False. Write T if the statement is true and explain by
citing a property or a theorem. If the statement is false, write F and explain
or disprove by a counterexample

1. The largest prime number less than 100 is 87.

2. The integer 953 is prime.

3. 17 is a Mersenne prime.

4. The integer 257 is a Fermat’sprime.

5. There exist at least one prime number in the sequence of 30

consecutive integers
31!+2, 31! + 3, 31! + 4, ... , 31! + 31.

6. A prime number has no prime divisor.

7. The largest prime divisor of any number less than or equal to 200 is 13.

II. One of the theorem of Fermat states that every prime integer of the form 4x +
1 is the sum of two squares. List the primes less that 50 of the form 4x + 1, x a
whole number. Express each of these primes as the sum of two squares.

30 | lctandog_Number Theory Workbook

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Every positive integer greater than 1 can be written uniquely as a product of

primes. The method of expressing these integers as product of primes is called
prime factorization. The factorization of integers in which the prime factors
are combined to form powers are called prime-power factorization with the
prime factors written in an increasing order.

Prime Factorization Methods:

There are three common ways of obtaining prime factorization of a whole
number.

I. Listing Method – done by listing the factors of a number and continue factoring
until all factors are prime then writing the same factors as
powers.

Examples: 1. 24 = 3 x 8 = 3 x 2 x 4 = 3 x 2 x 2x 2 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 = 23 x 3.

2. 60 = 2 x 30 = 2 x 3 x 10 = 2 x 3 x 2 x 5 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 = 22 x 3 x 5

II. Consecutive Division by Prime Number- done by consecutive division of a

number by a prime number until the last quotient obtained is prime.

Examples
1. 36
2| 36
2|18
3| 9
3 Therefore, 36 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 = 22 x 32

31 | lctandog_Number Theory Workbook

III. Factor Tree – the number branches out into factors and the process
continues until all factors are primes. Divisibility test is useful in
determining to which factor the tree will branch out.

48
Example: 48
6 8

2 3 2 4

2 2

Therefore 48 = 2 x 3 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 = 24 x 3

Practice: Give the prime factorization of the following numbers using any
method:
1. 429

2. 1 296

3. 748

4. 4 105

32 | lctandog_Number Theory Workbook

 Activity
Factor Me Out

1. Choose a game partner and toss a coin to determine who will be the first
player.

2. Player 1 chooses a number and this number is his score. Cross out this
number in the game chart below. Player 2 gains points by identifying the
uncrossed out factors of the number chosen by Player 1. Cross out all
factors identified in the game chart. Each player takes turns to choose a
number from the chart. Continue playing the game until no number in
chart remains uncrossed. The player with the highest score becomes the
winner.

3. Keep a record of your game and answer the questions below the game
chart.
Factor Me Out Game Chart
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 18 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

Questions:
1. What number did you choose first and why?

2. In the succeeding moves, which numbers did you choose and why?

3. If you are to play the game again, which numbers will you choose and why?

33 | lctandog_Number Theory Workbook

 What Makes Primes Interesting?

- Essentially prime has no divisor (other than 1 and itself).

- 2, being a divisor of even numbers automatically wipes out half of the entire set
of integers from the list of primes.

-yet, the set of prime number still remains infinite (this is proven!)

-the number line remains studded with primes since all integers can be expressed
as product of primes (the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic)

- prime have very special properties for factorization that makes it relevant in
other fields (computer science, abstract algebra, topology)

-prime becomes less frequent and difficult to find as the numbers gets bigger and
bigger.

-the task of finding the next prime has continuously challenged mathematicians
and computer capacity.

-the search for the larges primes requires trillion of calculations that has been
used to test computer speed and literacy.

-however, the task of finding large prime is relatively easier than factoring large
numbers back to primes (12 can be easily prime factored, what about 21 486
643 947? what about a number with 50 digits?)

-factoring large numbers has challenged mathematicians for centuries but there
seems no efficient way to prime factor large number.

-this fact made primes extremely important in communications

-modern computer cryptography works with the use of prime factors of large
numbers

-A file is encrypted using large number then made publicly known and available
(public key cryptography as used in bit coin mining and trading)

- the prime factors of the large number can be used to decrypt (or decode)
-finding the prime factors of a large number requires much much time that as of
this time is said cannot be done in one’s lifetime.

-currently, a super computer is working on 256-bit factorization problem for

longer than the current age of the universe, and still not get the answer.

-new mathematical strategies, new hardware like quantum computers is expected

are hoped to quicker prime factorization of numbers.
34 | lctandog_Number Theory Workbook
Primes are of the utmost importance to number theorists because
they are the building blocks of whole numbers, and important to the
world because their odd mathematical properties make them perfect
for our current uses. It’s possible that new mathematical strategies or
new hardware like quantum computers could lead to quicker prime
factorization of large numbers, which would effectively break modern
encryption. When researching prime numbers, mathematicians are
always being both prosaic and practical.

Source: Graham Templeton (2020). Why Should We Care About Prime Numbers?
Mashable SE Asia by REV Media Group

The search for largest reigning prime continues. With the advent of computers,
the reign of largest prime becomes shorter. But 2 continues to reign as the
smallest and the only even prime number. HURRAY

So how big is this number? A full 23,249,425 digits long — nearly 1 million digits
longer than the previous record holder. If someone started writing it down,
1,000 digits a day, today (Jan. 8), they would finish on Sept. 19, 2081, according
to some back-of-the-napkin calculations at Live Science.

How much is a prime is worth?

(If someone discovers a prime number of 100 million digits, the prize
is $150,000 from the Electronic Frontiers Foundation. The first 1 billion-digit prime is
worth $250,000.)Jan 8, 2018

Every time someone discovers a Mersenne prime, a perfect number is also

discovered.

Example: M2 = 22 – 1 = 3 is prime

22-1 M2 = 2 3 = 6 is a perfect number (sum of its proper divisors is also 6)

M3 = 23 – 1 = 7

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 23-1 M3 = 4 7 = 28 is a perfect number (sum of proper divisors is also 28)

In general, if Mn = 2n – 1 is prime

2n-1 Mn is a perfect number.

t turns out that 6 can also be written as 2^(2-1)x(2^2-1), 28 can be written as

2^(3-1)x(2^3-1), 494 equals 2^(5-1)x(2^5-1), and 8,128 is also 2^(7-1)x(2^7-1). See
the second chunk of those expressions? Those are all Mersenne primes.

 M77232917= 277 232 917 − 1, a number which has 24,862,048 digits - nearly
1 million digits longer than the previous record holder. It was found
via a computer volunteered by Patrick Laroche of the Great Internet
Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS) in December 2017. If someone
started writing the prime number down at 1,000 digits a day say
starting Jan. 8, 2018, it would be finished on Sept. 19, 2081,
according to some back-of-the-napkin calculations at Live Science.

The Mills’ Prime

Conjectures about Primes

Twin Primes

Twin primes are pairs of prime numbers that have just one number
between them: 5 and 7, 11 and 13, and 29 and 31.

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The twin primes conjecture is that there are infinitely many pairs of
twin primes among the infinitely many prime numbers.

Zhang (2013) invented a novel technique that showed that there are
infinitely many pairs of prime numbers with no more than 70,000,000
numbers between them. That's a huge number, but it was the first
such finite limit on distances between primes that had ever been
discovered. On the same year, a large group of mathematicians built
on Zhang's work and similar results and collaboratively found smaller
and smaller bounds, eventually proving that there are infinitely many
pairs of primes with at most 246 numbers between them.

2. Goldbach's Conjecture

Goldbach's Conjecture says that every even number larger than two
can be written as the sum of two prime numbers.

Example 4 = 2 + 2, 8 = 5 + 3, 20 = 13 + 7

But it hasn't been proven true for all even numbers.

Researchers armed with 21st century computers and well-designed

programs have verified the conjecture for even numbers up to
4,000,000,000,000,000,000.

Palindromic Primes

Palindromes in English are words or sentences that read the same

forwards and backwards, example the word "radar" and the phrase "A
man, a plan, a canal: Panama" are both palindromes.

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Similarly, palindromic prime numbers are primes whose decimal
expansions read the same forwards or backwards. 11, 101, and 16561,
etc.

It is currently unknown if there are infinitely many palindromic

primes.

4. The Riemann Hypothesis

The Riemann Hypothesis is one of the Millennium Prize Problems, a

set of the most important open problems in mathematics. Solving one
of these problems is worth a prize of $US1,000,000.

The Riemann Hypothesis involves an extension to the Prime Number

Theorem which gives a formula which is a rough estimate for how
many numbers smaller than the given number are prime. The
Riemann Hypothesis gives a more specific result, providing a formula
showing how accurate that estimate will be. Riemann connected this
accuracy to a special function on the complex number plane.

There is a good amount of numerical evidence for the Riemann

Hypothesis, and most mathematicians believe it to be true.
Mathematicians have tested billions of the zero points of the function
and found all of them to fall on that line.

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Any proof of conjectures related to prime such as the twin primes
conjecture, or of the Riemann Hypothesis, would likely involve radically
new mathematical techniques and insights, potentially leading to
entirely new avenues of research and ideas to explore.

39 | lctandog_Number Theory Workbook