CLO2 Unit 3

Topics of this Unit

• Formal and Informal groups

• Group roles and norms

• Group development process

• Difference between teams and groups

• Team players and Free riders

• Team composition
Individual inputs and processes influence individual outcomes which have a direct effect on the
organization’s effectiveness.

Team inputs influence team processes which then affect team performance and other outcomes.

Team processes and outcomes affect individual processes and outcomes.

Organizational inputs and processes have macro-level influence on both teams and individuals.

Organizational Inputs and Processes are organizational structure, culture, technology, change and
strategy, as well as human resource practices.

Individual Inputs and Processes include personality, values, competencies, self-concept,

perceptions, mindset, emotions, attitudes, self-leadership.

Team, Interpersonal Inputs and Processes include the same as individual ones: personality,
values, competencies, self-concept, perceptions, mindset, emotions, attitudes, self-leadership.

The Individual Outcomes from Individual Inputs and Processes are behavior, performance,
organizational citizenship, well-being (low distress), and decisions or creativity.

The Team or Interpersonal Outcomes from Team or Interpersonal Inputs and Processes are team
performance, team decisions, collaboration or mutual support, and social networks.

Both Individual and Team or Interpersonal Outcomes lead to Organizational Outcomes

(Effectiveness), which are an open systems fit, organizational learning, human capital
development (H P W Ps), and satisfied stakeholders and or ethical conduct.

Groups

Two or more freely interacting individuals who share norms and goals and have a common
identity. Formal or informal; can overlap.

1. Formal Groups.

• Assigned by organization to accomplish specific goals.

• Fulfill two basic functions:

1. Organizational functions.

2. Individual functions.

2. Informal Groups.

Overriding purpose for meeting is friendship or common interest.

Group: two or more freely interacting people with shared norms, goals and a common identity.

The size of a group is limited by the potential for mutual interaction and mutual awareness.

People form groups for many reasons, including the fact that groups usually accomplish more
than individuals.

Formal group: assigned by organizations or their managers to accomplish specific goals.

Example: Insurance claims department.

Informal group: the members’ overriding purpose of getting together is friendship or a common
interest.

Example: Social club at the university.

Group Roles and Norms

Norms are the attitudes, opinions, feelings, or actions shared by two or more people that guide
behavior. These are generally unwritten but holds tremendous power to influence others.

For example – Marketing department has a norm that everyone should be present 5 minutes
before the meeting time.

Roles.

• At the individual level.

• Pertain to a specific job or situation.

Norms.

• Shared phenomena

• Apply to group, team, or organization

Norm: shared attitudes, opinions, feelings, or actions that guide social behavior.

• Norms help create order and allow groups to function more efficiently.
 • Norms are typically unwritten and seldom discussed openly, but they have a powerful
influence on group and organizational behavior.

• Another way to think about roles and norms is as peer pressure, which is simply the
influence of the group on the individual, and the expectations of associated roles and
norms are the means of this influence.

Group Norms

Norms are reinforced for many purposes.

• Group or organization survival.

• Clarification of behavioral expectations.

• Avoidance of embarrassment.

• Clarification of central values or unique identity.

Creation of norms.

• Can emerge on their own.

• Can be purposefully created.

Groups Develop in Stages 1

Stage 1: Forming.

• “Ice-breaking” stage.

• Group members uncertain about their role.

• Mutual trust is low.

• Good deal of holding back to see who is in charge.

• Conflict is beneficial and leads to increased creativity.

(In simple words, in Forming stage, members meet other group members for the firs time. As
they don’t know each other, they interact less and do not trust others much. They are also not
aware of their role within the group.)

Stage 2: Storming.

• Time of testing.

• Testing leader’s policies and assumptions and how they fit into the power structure.

• Subgroups take shape.

• Subtle forms of rebellion occur.

(In simple words, in Storming stage, group interaction starts, members try to lead or influence
the group, conflict increases, sub-groups are formed, and members play politics to achieve their
objectives.)

Groups and teams go through a development process.

Some groups go through a specific series of stages.

Other groups progress in a stable manner for a while, but then respond to an event by radically
changing their approach.

Two models of group development are Tuckman’s five-stage theory of group development and
punctuated equilibrium.

Tuckman's Five-Stage Model of Group Development:

Tuckman’s five-stage theory of group development presented in Figure 8-3 is one oft-cited
model of the group stages.

The stages are not necessarily of the same duration or intensity for each group, and they may be
impacted by the goal clarity and the commitment and maturity of the members.

Stage 1: Forming.
In this ice-breaking stage, group members tend to be uncertain and anxious about such things as
their roles, who is in charge, and the group’s goals.

Mutual trust is low, and there is a good deal of holding back to see who takes charge and how.

Stage 2: Storming.

Individuals test the leader’s policies and assumptions as they try to determine how they fit into
the power structure.

Subgroups take shape, and subtle forms of resistance occur.

Many groups stall in Stage 2 because power and politics erupt into open rebellion.

Groups Develop in Stages 2

Stage 3: Norming.

• Group more cohesive.

• Less conflict with increasing team member interactions and interdependence of work tasks.

(In simple words, in Norming stage, group members get to know each other better,
communication increases, conflicts reduces, and group members set some unwritten rules and
expected behaviours).

Groups making it this far usually do so thanks to a respected member, other than the leader,
challenging the group to resolve its power struggles so something can be accomplished.

A feeling of team spirit is sometimes experienced during this stage because members believe
they have found their proper roles.

By-product of this stage is group cohesiveness: a “we feeling” binding group members together.

Stage 4: Performing.

• Activity focused on problem solving.

• Work done without hampering others.

• Climate of open communication and cooperation.

• Great deal of helping behavior.

Activity is focused on solving task problems.

There is a climate of open communication, strong cooperation, and lots of helping behavior.

Conflicts and job boundary disputes are handled constructively and efficiently.

(In simple words, in Performing stage, group focuses on performing the task, trust other
members, focus on solving the problems and helping each other. This is the stage where conflicts
are negligible and performance is at peak.)

Teamwork in the U.S. Army

Instilled into every U.S. Army soldier and staff member is the deeply held belief that success
occurs through teamwork.

Instilled into every U.S. Army soldier and staff member is the deeply held belief that success
occurs through teamwork.

• By observing terrorist insurgents, U.S. Army leaders learned to transform the

organization from a rigid hierarchy to a “team of teams.”

• Teamwork isn’t just about depending on others; it requires development of shared mental
models (“players must be able to read one another’s every move and intent.”)

Teams: The Power of Common Purpose

What is a team?

• A small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common
purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually
accountable
 Team: a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common
purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves collectively
accountable.

• Teams are a central component of the Organizing Framework and a cornerstone of work
life.

• Practically all employees need to develop their skills related to building effective teams,
and leaders need to be able to cultivate the level of trust necessary to foster constructive
teamwork.

How Are Teams Different from Groups?

A group becomes a team when:

• Leadership becomes a shared activity.

• Accountability shifts from strictly individual to both individual and collective.

• The group develops its own purpose or mission.

• Problem solving becomes a way of life, not a part-time activity.

• Effectiveness is measured by the group’s collective outcomes and products.

It is a mistake to use the terms “group” and “team” interchangeably; a group becomes a team
when the following criteria are met:

Leadership becomes a shared activity.

Accountability shifts from strictly individual to both individual and collective.

The group develops its own purpose or mission.

Problem solving becomes a way of life, not a part-time activity.

Effectiveness is measured by the group’s collective outcomes and products.

Team Players Versus Free Riders

Team Players.

Are:

• Committed.

• Collaborative.

• Competent.

They:

• Contribute to the work.

• Constructively interact with team members.

• Keep team on track.

• Expect quality work.

• Possess relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) for team’s responsibilities.

Free Riders.

Social loafing leads to:

• Lower quality work.

• Others being forced to work harder.

• Disruption for the team.

Counter social loafing by:

• Limiting group size.

• Assuring equity of effort.

Holding people accountable

Social loafing: tendency for individual effort to decline as group size increases.

Social loafers, also referred to as free riders, produce not only low-quality work, which causes
others to work harder to compensate, but they also often distract or disrupt the work of other
team members.

To reduce loafing, managers should limit group size, assure equity of effort, and hold people
accountable.

Team Composition

• Team members must engage in task work and teamwork.

• Task work:

• Behaviors that complete the assigned tasks.

• Teamwork:

• 5Cs behaviors that support the team.

Effective team members must engage in task work and teamwork.

Taskwork — behaviors that complete the assigned tasks.

• They have the motivation, ability, and role perceptions (MARS model internal elements)
to do their job.

Teamwork — behaviors that support the team — effective team member behaviors (5 Cs):

• Cooperating — willing and able to work together (i.e. sharing resources and being
flexible to accommodate others).

• Coordinating — actively manage the team’s work so it is performed efficiently and

harmoniously (i.e. keep the team on track and align work with others).

• Communicating — transmit information freely (vs. hoarding), efficiently, and

respectfully; listen actively to co-workers.

• Comforting — help co-workers maintain a positive and healthy psychological state (i.e.
show empathy, provide psychological comfort, and build co-worker feelings of
confidence and self-worth).

• Conflict handling — have skills and motivation to resolve dysfunctional disagreements

(i.e. effective diagnostic skills and use various conflict-handling skills effectively).

Groups and Teams: Putting It All in Context

CLO2 Unit 4

In this Unit, we will learn:

• Types of teams

• Virtual teams

• Group decision making

• Group think

• Practical problem-solving techniques

• Creative team structures

Individual inputs and processes influence individual outcomes which have a direct effect on the
organization’s effectiveness.

Team inputs influence team processes which then affect team performance and other outcomes.

Team processes and outcomes affect individual processes and outcomes.

Organizational inputs and processes have macro-level influence on both teams and individuals.

Organizational Inputs and Processes are organizational structure, culture, technology, change and
strategy, as well as human resource practices.

Individual Inputs and Processes include personality, values, competencies, self-concept,

perceptions, mindset, emotions, attitudes, self-leadership.
Team, Interpersonal Inputs and Processes include the same as individual ones: personality,
values, competencies, self-concept, perceptions, mindset, emotions, attitudes, self-leadership.

The Individual Outcomes from Individual Inputs and Processes are behavior, performance,
organizational citizenship, well-being (low distress), and decisions or creativity.

The Team or Interpersonal Outcomes from Team or Interpersonal Inputs and Processes are team
performance, team decisions, collaboration or mutual support, and social networks.

Both Individual and Team or Interpersonal Outcomes lead to Organizational Outcomes

(Effectiveness), which are an open systems fit, organizational learning, human capital
development (H P W Ps), and satisfied stakeholders and or ethical conduct.

Team Types 1

Teams can be differentiated by purpose, duration, and level of member commitment.

Work teams

• Well-defined purpose, typically permanent, and usually require full commitment from
members.

Project teams

• Assembled to address specific problem, task, or project.

• Usually exist for duration to compete purpose.

• Members usually divide time between primary job and various project teams.

Types of teams differ with respect to the purpose of the team, the duration of the team's
existence, and the level of member commitment.

• Work teams have a well-defined and common purpose, are more or less permanent, and
require complete commitment of their members.

• Project teams are assembled to tackle a particular problem, task, or project, and their
duration can vary from one meeting to many years.
 • Members of project teams most often divide their time between the team and their
primary jobs and responsibilities.

Team Types 2

Self-managed teams.

• Groups of workers who are given administrative oversight for their task domains such as
planning, scheduling, monitoring, and staffing.

• Involves a revolutionary change in management philosophy, structure, staffing and

training practices as well as reward systems.

• are groups of workers granted administrative oversight for their task domains.

• Administrative oversight involves delegated activities such as planning, scheduling,

monitoring, and staffing.

• Accountability is maintained indirectly by outside managers, and leaders and leadership

responsibilities often are shared.

• Revolutionary changes in management philosophy, structure, staffing and training

practices, and reward systems are needed for self-managed teams to be successful

Cross-functional teams.

• Occurs when specialists from different areas are put on the same team.

• teams are created with members from different disciplines within an organization, such
as finance, operations, and R&D.

• Cross-functional teams can be used for any purpose. They can be work or project teams,
and they may have a short or indefinite duration.

• New-product development is an area in which many organizations utilize cross-functional

teams.

Virtual teams.
 • Teams that work together over time and distance via electronic media to combine effort
and achieve common goals.

• work together over time and distance via electronic media to combine effort and achieve
common goals.

Pros and Cons of Virtual Teams

Pros

• Reduced real estate costs.

• Ability to leverage diverse KSAs (knowledge, skills and abilities) over geography and
time.

• Ability to share knowledge of diverse markets.

• Reduced commuting and travel expenses.

• Reduced work–life conflicts

• Ability to attract and retain talent.

Cons

• Difficult to establish cohesion, work satisfaction, trust, cooperative behavior, and

commitment to team goals.

• Cultural differences.

• Differences in local laws and customs.

• Lack of nonverbal cues.

• Lack of face-to-face interaction.

• Communication is limited.

• Decision-making might have biases and perceived inequities.

 • May be difficult to build rich relationships.

• Diversity - Differences are difficult to appreciate.

Group Decision Making

Advantages.

• Large knowledge pool.

• Diversity in approaches.

• Commitment to decision.

• Better understanding of decision rationale.

• Visible role modeling.

Disadvantage.

• Social pressures.

• Potential for few participants to be dominant.

• Goal displacement (secondary goals).

• Groupthink

Advantages of Group Decision Making

• A group possesses more information and knowledge than one individual acting alone.

• Individuals with different backgrounds and experiences bring varied perspectives to

diagnosing and solving problems.

• Participation and a voice in decision making are more likely to result in commitment to a
decision.

• Participating in a decision increases group members’ understanding about why a decision

is being made and what must occur to implement it.
 • Less experienced group members learn about group dynamics and how to solve
problems.

Disadvantages of Group Decision Making

• The desire to look good in front of others leads to conformity and stifles creativity.

• The quality of a group’s decision can be influenced by a few vocal people who dominate
the discussion.

• Goal displacement can occur when the group’s primary goal is overridden by a secondary
goal such as winning an argument, getting back at a rival, or trying to impress the boss.

• Groups can become victims of groupthink when members’ strivings for unanimity
override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action.

Groupthink

Groupthink occurs when:

• Members become deeply involved in a cohesive in-group.

• Striving for unanimity overrides motivation to realistically appraise alternative

courses of action.

Symptoms

• Invulnerability: an illusion that breeds excessive optimism and risk taking.

• Inherent morality: a belief that encourages the group to ignore ethical implications.

• Rationalization: protects pet assumptions.

• Stereotyped views of opposition: cause groups to underestimate opponents.

• Self-censorship: stifles critical debate.

• Illusion of unanimity: silence interpreted to mean consent.

• Peer pressure: loyalty of dissenters is questioned.

 • Mindguards: self-appointed protectors against adverse information.

Practical Problem-Solving Techniques 1

Brainstorming.

Rules for brainstorming:

• Defer judgment

• Build on the ideas of others

• Encourage wild ideas

• Go for quantity or quality

• Be visual

• Stay focused on the topic

• One conversation at a time

Brainstorming: used to help groups generate multiple ideas and alternatives for solving
problems.

• Brainstorming begins by asking group members to silently generate ideas/alternatives for

solving the problem.

• These ideas/alternatives are solicited and shared in writing. It is recommended that this
stage be conducted anonymously if the issue is emotional or political.

• A second session is generally used to critique and evaluate the alternatives.

The Delphi technique.

Group process that anonymously generates ideas or judgments from physically dispersed experts.

group process that anonymously generates ideas or judgments from physically dispersed experts.
The Delphi technique is useful in several situations, such as when face-to-face discussions are
impractical, when disagreements and conflict are likely to impair communication, when certain
individuals might severely dominate group discussion, and when groupthink is a probable
outcome of the group process.

Use when:

• Face-to-face discussions are impractical.

• Disagreements and conflict may occur.

• Group domination is an issue.

• Groupthink is likely.

Decision support systems (DSS): computer-based interactive systems that help decision makers
to use data and models to solve unstructured problems.

The increased globalization of organizations, the existence of big data, and the advancement of
information technology have led to the development of decision support systems.

Team structure in which participants try to think up as many ideas as possible.

Four brainstorming rules:

• Speak freely — describe even the craziest ideas.

• Don’t criticize others or their ideas.

• Provide as many ideas as possible — quality increases with quantity.

• Build on others’ ideas.

Lab studies (with students) dismiss effectiveness of brainstorming due to:

• Production blocking — ideas forgotten while listening to others.

• Evaluation apprehension — crazy ideas held back to maintain self-presentation.

• Social loafing — lack of involvement of some participants.

Field studies and successful creative firms support effectiveness of brainstorming.

• Skilled facilitators (not inexperienced students) run brainstorming sessions.

• Employees are confident and have psychological safety to provide crazy ideas (whereas
student labs lack these conditions) — i.e. lower evaluation apprehension in professional
firm teams than in student lab teams.

• Brainstorming goal is to produce the most creative ideas, not the largest number of ideas.

Brainstorming limitations:

• Production blocking.

Fixation/conformity effect — initial ideas restrict variety of subsequent ideas

Other Creative Team Structures

Brainwriting:

• Brainstorming that does not use conversation (in a face-to-face setting).

• Individuals write down and distribute their ideas to others, who develop further ideas.

• There is less production blocking than brainstorming.

Electronic Brainstorming:

• Brainwriting using computer technology (participants often in same room, but may be
dispersed).

• Computer documents and distributes ideas anonymously to other participants.

• Anonymously vote electronically on the ideas presented.

• Face-to-face discussion usually follows.

• Strengths: less production blocking, evaluation apprehension, and conformity problems

than brainstorming or brainwriting.
 • Limitations: considered too structured and technology-bound.

Nominal Group Technique:

• Variation of face-to-face brainwriting but includes a verbal stage for description of ideas.

• Three-stage process:

1. Individuals silently write and independently document their ideas (possible

solutions).

2. Participants collectively describe these ideas to the other team members (usually
round-robin format) — no criticism or debate, however clarification of ideas is
encouraged.

3. Participants silently and independently evaluate the ideas presented.

• Effectiveness of Nominal Group Technique —

1. It creates high task orientation, low potential for conflict.

2. Production blocking and evaluation apprehension still occur.