Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237

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Tourism Management
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Case study

Applying the resilience principles for sustainable ecotourism development:

A case study of the Nakdong Estuary, South Korea
Yun Eui Choi a, Chi-Ok Oh b, Jinhyung Chon c, *
a
OJeong Resilience Institute (OJERI), Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
b
Graduate School of Culture, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
c
Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: When studying sustainable ecotourism, the ecotourism system can be better understood as a complex association
Ecotourism resources of various elements that affects the local society and wildlife habitats. The purpose of this study is to plan an
Estuarine wetland ecotourism system for the wise ecotourism resource management of estuary wetlands by using a resilience
Social-ecological system
principle-based systems thinking approach. This study suggests an integrated management plan that considers
Role of stakeholders
diversity, connectivity, learning, participation, and polycentric governance to solve universal and important
Systems thinking
Resilience issues, such as estuary dam removal, urbanization, and natural resource use in the estuary’s social-ecological
Planning system. The ecotourism system plans suggested in this study include minimizing ecological conflict and load
through an improved sense of responsibility among stakeholders and strengthened protective activities. The
results of this study suggest appropriate roles for various stakeholders in the management of tourism resources
that can be used to establish new guidelines for ecotourism destination planning.

1. Introduction ecological factors that occur in a specific system, such as an estuary

For years, estuarine wetlands distributed worldwide have been
treated as nonproductive land that needs to be reclaimed for national
development and expansion (Kennish, 2002). This has resulted in the
damage of rare and unique estuarine ecosystems such as tidal marshes,
salt marshes, mangrove swamps, river deltas and mudflats around the
world, resulting in biodiversity loss (Thrush, Halliday, Hewitt, & Lohrer,
2008). In practice, estuarine wetlands produce a variety of ecosystem
services, such as providing biological habitats, supporting fisheries,
purifying water, providing buffer zones to mitigate natural disasters,
allowing ecological exploration and supporting education (Barbier et al.,
2011). In accordance with the importance of estuarine wetlands, 50
estuarine wetlands have been designated protected areas by the Ramsar
Convention, an intergovernmental treaty that provides a framework for
international cooperation for the preservation and wise use of wetlands
and their resources. However, there are still many estuarine wetlands
that have not been systematically protected because they lack this
designation. Unprotected estuary wetlands exposed to development
pressure require a plan based on an understanding of social-ecological
systems such that they can be used wisely to preserve the ecosystem.
Social-ecological systems include feedback from both social and
wetland system. Previous studies have not reflected actual policies and
practices due to insufficient consideration of the interrelationship be­
tween the social and ecological elements that constitute the estuary
wetland system.
This study focuses on ecotourism as a social-ecological system to
manage estuarine wetlands. Ecotourism considers community, eco­
nomic and ecological interactions through the lens of sustainable
development and prioritizes the conservation of the ecosystem (Orams,
2012; Scheyvens, 1999). However, in some cities, the area surrounding
estuary wetlands is being developed into industrial and residential
complexes, and policies that promote ecotourism are being implemented
in the hopes of diluting any negative image generated by this develop­
ment (Choi, Song, Kim, & Lee, 2017). In such cases where ecotourism is
activated based on negative intentions, policies supporting the devel­
opment of man-made resources that will generate profits, such as
infrastructure or leisure sports facilities, are being prioritized over pol­
icies aiming to conserve ecological resources (Choi, Doh, Park, & Chon,
2017). Although it is important to improve quality of life by ensuring
local revenue generation through ecotourism, the excessive develop­
ment of man-made resources has direct and indirect adverse effects on
the conservation of ecological resources (Fennell, 2014). Because

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: choiuni313@korea.ac.kr (Y.E. Choi), chiokoh@jnu.ac.kr (C.-O. Oh), jchon@korea.ac.kr (J. Chon).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104237
Received 11 December 2018; Received in revised form 22 September 2020; Accepted 26 September 2020
Available online 7 October 2020
0261-5177/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y.E. Choi et al.
damage to ecological resources is essentially the same as destroying the
foundation of ecotourism, development-oriented estuarine ecotourism
needs to be deeply concerned about the conservation and wise use of
ecological resources. Therefore, a balanced management plan for
ecological and man-made tourism resources is needed for sustainable
ecotourism in estuarine wetlands. One good way to establish an
ecotourism resource management plan for this purpose is through
resilience principles-based systems thinking.
Resilience principles consist of the following five principles: (1) di­
versity and (2) the connectivity of elements that form social-ecological
systems, encouraging stakeholder (3) learning and (4) participation
while (5) building multiplicity governance (Biggs, Schlüter, & Schoon,
2015). The five principles of resilience provide the necessary criteria for
managing the main components of a system and overcome the problems
typically experienced by a particular type of social-ecological system
(Biggs et al., 2015). In this study, we apply the five principles of resil­
ience as a strategy to alleviate damage to ecological resources and the
excessive supply of man-made tourism resources presented in the
ecotourism system of estuary wetlands. Before applying the five resil­
ience principles to the estuary ecotourism system, we make use of sys­
tems thinking as an approach to analyzing the structure and behavior of
the case study system. Systems thinking provides a framework for
decision-making based on a feedback structure to solve problems related
to the entire system (Maani & Maharaj, 2004). We apply resilience
principles-based systems thinking to the management of ecotourism
resources and thereby provide an important guide to transforming
ecotourism into a sustainable system.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to plan an ecotourism system
(i.e., a social-ecological system in an ecotourism destination) for the
wise ecotourism resource management of estuary wetlands by using a
resilience principles-based systems thinking approach. In particular, we
apply this approach to the development of ecotourism in an estuary area
located in South Korea (the Nakdong Estuary), which we expected will
contribute to creating a more desirable ecotourism system. This study
will show that resilience principles can be effectively applied to promote
the wise management of ecotourism resources and, in particular, to
create ecotourism system plans that emphasize the roles and re­
sponsibilities of various tourism stakeholders. We apply these principles
because various stakeholders (such as policymakers, tour suppliers and
tour demanders) want to continue to grow the ecotourism system by
developing the positive and overcoming the negative factors.
2. The 5 resilience principles for estuarine wetland ecotourism
2.1. Diversity
Diversity means that there are many options to solve a problem. If a
system has diversity, it can cope with disturbances in a suitable way by
choosing among various available methods (Leslie et al., 2013). Di­
versity also means it is possible to cope with disturbances in other ways
if one method fails (Low, Ostrom, Simon, & Wilson, 2003). To ensure
diversity in estuarine ecotourism systems, (1) various types of habitats
should be created for wildlife with different habitat conditions (Choi,
Song, et al., 2017). Healthy estuaries where fresh and saltwater mix are
made up of many different types of habitats, which can include sand­
banks, halophyte vegetation, marshes, and mangroves. Additionally,
different animals live in each of these different habitats. These various
habitats and animals offer different and unique scenery every season.
Various ecotourism resources can accommodate the needs of visitors of
different tastes and can be supported by other resources when one
resource fails. In addition, (2) incentives to diversify the means of
livelihood for local residents should be promoted (Low et al., 2003). For
example, if fishing and bird watching are not possible due to population
decline, epidemic outbreaks, or environmental pollution, local govern­
ments should operate alternative programs, such as ecological education
and experiences, using other natural resources and local cultural
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Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237
interpretation.
2.2. Connectivity
Connectivity refers to the network between social-ecological com­
ponents in a system. A systematic network of components improves the
system’s resilience by exchanging the energy, materials, and informa­
tion needed to maintain and develop the system on its own (Biggs et al.,
2015). Connectivity between components includes both connections
between the same types (connections between habitats or relationships
between stakeholders) and between different types (connections be­
tween habitats and stakeholders). Connectivity in the estuary ecosystem
is described as animal movement and the cycling of material through the
connection of different habitats. It also includes the link between pol­
icies, institutions and stakeholders for managing this ecosystem. How­
ever, unnecessary or excessive connectivity can produce confusion or
damage. A fragmented wetland patch can avoid water pollution, but
highly connected mangroves may suffer from pests or the spread of
disease (Sheaves, 2009). A closely connected social network may pro­
mote the governance of ecological resources, but incorrect management
strategies can hinder resilience (Biggs et al., 2015). Therefore, it is
necessary to consider modularity, which prevents negative conse­
quences, when planning the connectivity of social-ecological systems.
To maintain connectivity in estuarine ecotourism systems, the interac­
tion between critical elements (core species of ecological resources,
habitats with nested connections, isolated habitat patches, etc.) should
be identified through monitoring. Continuous monitoring activates in­
formation sharing among stakeholders by providing predictable data on
disturbances at the estuary. Monitoring can also prevent distractions
from spreading by enabling an immediate response to problems between
connected components.
2.3. Learning
Learning is the process of modifying and creating knowledge.
Learning includes interpreting and understanding reality in different
ways by acquiring information, enhancing knowledge, memorizing
critical facts, acquiring techniques and methods, understanding mean­
ing, and reinterpreting knowledge (Biggs et al., 2015). Learning in the
ecotourism system emphasizes education and interpretation that can
enrich the environmental responsibility of tourism providers and tour­
ists. Tourists should also evaluate the rationality and fairness of
ecotourism, and operators should improve ecotourism by reflecting on
the results of that evaluation (Wood, 2002). To encourage learning in
estuarine ecotourism systems, knowledge of the biological processes of
estuary ecosystems should be accumulated through continuous research
and monitoring of the site, and information should be provided for the
development of habitat management measures that take into account
diversity and connectivity. A group of researchers can experiment with
and verify various ideas for ecosystem management. Ecotourism experts
should provide consulting to increase their sense of responsibility for the
environment of tourism operators and residents (Choi, Doh, et al.,
2017). Operators and local residents who wish to develop estuary wet­
lands should be made aware that education and interpretation of the
natural environment will be more beneficial to sustaining estuary
ecosystem services and ecotourism than developing tourism facilities.
This approach also improves the ability of educators and guides the
delivery of the estuary ecosystem to ecotourists. Ecotourism operators
should provide information and education that will give tourists a sense
of environmental responsibility (Timothy, 2012). An Internet
technology-based platform for estuary wetlands using an online website
or mobile app should be developed that contains information about the
tradition, culture, ecological resources and conservation activities of the
ecotourism site. Ecotourism operators should promote the platform to
tourists and keep the information updated. In addition, tourists should
be provided with pre-education and various ecotourism programs to
Y.E. Choi et al.
prevent tourism activities from damaging the ecotourism area (Choi,
Doh, et al., 2017).
2.4. Participation
Participation means the active engagement of a stakeholder in an
activity related to the management and governance process (Stringer
et al., 2006). Participation occurs at every step or at every few steps of
ecotourism system management, from realizing monitoring and evalu­
ation to implementing policy, operating tourism services, and providing
ecological education. The participants involved in these steps are
various stakeholders who can contribute to ecotourism system man­
agement by providing services such as political support, funding, in­
formation, monitoring, and management practices. The participation of
various stakeholders forms trust in the decision-making process and
builds the legitimacy of the knowledge base. In addition, it supports the
interpretation and detection of impact and disorder by enhancing the
ability of the management system (Folke, 2006). In particular, the
participation of local residents with anecdotal or experimental knowl­
edge can enhance the understanding of the dynamism of the ecotourism
system by offering ecological, social, and political traditional knowledge
that cannot be learned through the scientific process (Folke, Hahn,
Olsson, & Norberg, 2005). To expand participation in estuarine
ecotourism systems, stakeholder groups should establish methods, goals,
roles, and processes for appropriate engagement by each group (Biggs
et al., 2015). The central government must provide comprehensively
planned and specific guidelines for ecotourism and organize appropriate
laws and regulations. The local government should play a mediating role
between local residents and tourism operators and support marketing
for ecotourism vitality. Tourism operators must provide for tourists by
maintaining tourism services and managing tourism resources. In
particular, ecotourists and tourism operators with enhanced re­
sponsibility should independently readjust the ecotourism system so
that ecotourism continues based on their understanding of the impor­
tance of the conservation of natural resources in ecotourism sites.
2.5. Polycentric governance
Governance is a way to realize an integrated approach to policy-
making; it is the system that adjusts the strategic goals and interests of
the government, the private sector, civil society, and NGOs through
official and unofficial communication (Hall, 2012). A polycentric
governance system operates through a network of diverse stakeholder
communications occurring at different scales of space and time. Poly­
centric governance produces the ability to make decisions and solve
collective dilemmas when the social-ecological system faces problems
from dynamism and feedback at multiple temporal and aerial scales. The
degree of cooperation in polycentric governance ranges from informa­
tion sharing to coordination, problem solving and internal conflict res­
olution. Polycentric governance should be organized in conjunction
with the four other resilience principles (Biggs et al., 2015). Cooperation
between residents of estuary villages, experts, and state units should be
supported by providing improved learning and experimental opportu­
nities. In addition, a wide range of actors should be gathered, and sci­
entific knowledge should be integrated with the tradition of estuary
wetlands by expanding participation beyond scale (Murtinho & Hayes,
2012). If it is difficult to preserve the estuary ecosystem at the regional
level, it should be possible to provide functional redundancy by pro­
tecting the ecosystem through conservation measures such as designa­
tion as a Ramsar site or within the East Asian-Australian Flyway
Partnership at the national and international level. Finally, the con­
nectivity of governance should be improved through nested cross-scale
links with other levels of governance (Biggs et al., 2015).
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Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237
3. Methods
Systems thinking is a research methodology that identifies diverse
problems in a system based on correlation and a feedback analysis of the
variables that form the system; it aims to find strategic points that can
effectively transform the system to solve problems (Maani & Maharaj,
2004). Thus, systems thinking is useful for analyzing systems where
social and ecological issues form diverse and complex influence re­
lationships, such as estuary wetland ecotourism. Systems thinking is
utilized not only to understand the system but also to discover strategies
that can favorably change it. Strategies are discovered through whole
system analysis, discussion of the principal elements of the strategy, the
derivation of strategic points, and transformation planning. Some
studies that use systems thinking for system transformation planning
control key variables that affect strategic points (Nguyen & Bosch,
2013). However, as with most estuary wetland ecotourism systems, if
changes continue and new issues arise, simply adjusting the variables in
the existing system may not create an effective transformation plan. To
overcome this situation, one idea is to attempt a structural trans­
formation of the system by adding new appropriate variables (Choi,
Song, et al., 2017). Yet, this proposal raises a reasonable question: how
can we find new variables? Although there is no guided method for
finding new variables in systems thinking, this study attempts to apply
resilience principles to the stage of transformation planning. The resil­
ience principles include securing diversity, managing connectivity,
encouraging learning, expanding participation, and building a poly­
centric governance system (Biggs et al., 2015). The resilience principles
not only include ecotourism principles related to the environment, so­
ciocultural issues, and the economy (Buckley, 2009) but also provide
detailed guidelines for sustaining ecotourism.
The resilience principle-based systems thinking approach for
ecotourism resource planning was applied to the Nakdong Estuary based
on the following five steps (Mella, 2012). The first step is selecting
variables that can simply explain the diverse phenomena that exist and
identifying ecological and socioeconomic issues in the Nakdong Estuary
ecotourism destination (Maani & Maharaj, 2004). We explored ecolog­
ical and socioeconomic issues in the Nakdong Estuary ecotourism
destination through a gray literature review. Research papers and
Internet articles were used to explore this issue.
The second step is to confirm the characteristics of the relationship
between variables through a literature review and the state of the case
site. A causal relationship between variables is indicated using an arrow
(→) for the direction and plus (+) and minus (− ) signs for the charac­
teristics (Richardson, 1991). A plus (+) is marked on the head of an
arrow when the causal relationship between two variables runs in the
same direction (i.e., the independent variable increases (decreases) as
the dependent variable increases (decreases)). A minus (− ) is used if the
relationship between variables runs in different directions, such as if the
independent variable increases (decreases) when the dependent variable
decreases (increases).
The third step is building and analyzing a causal-loop diagram of
ecotourism systems. A causal-loop diagram is made by combining the
relationships between two or more variables confirmed in the second
step. In building a causal-loop diagram, we focus on whether direct or
indirect relationships between variables eventually form feedback loops.
Each feedback loop is also combined into one causal-loop diagram based
on the associated variables. Causal-loop diagrams can be drawn easily
using computer simulation software, such as Vensim, STELLA, or Edraw.
Among these, Vensim software provides a graphical modeling interface
with casual-loop diagrams and confirmation of feedback loops in the
causal-loop diagram. We built a causal-loop diagram based on the var­
iables and relationships of ecotourism destinations using Vensim PLE
version 6.3 (Ventana Systems, Harvard, MA, USA). Causal-loop dia­
grams are analyzed to interpret the dynamics of the system, such as the
form in which the feedback loops of the ecotourism system operate,
which loop predominates, and whether the identity of the predominant
Y.E. Choi et al. Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237

feedback loop changes over time. The types of feedback loops that
should be considered when analyzing feedback include reinforcing loops
and balancing loops (Meadows, 2008). In a reinforcing loop, all variable
values of the loop change in the same direction. This loop has the
characteristics of either a ‘virtuous circle’ or a ‘vicious circle’ (Meadows,
2008); a virtuous circle heads towards the direction of the policy goal,
while a vicious circle heads in an unintentional direction away from the
policy goal. In contrast, a balancing loop shows a decrease or increase
when the value of one variable in the loop is changed based on the
values of the other variables in the loop (Mella, 2012). This loop has the
characteristics of either a ‘stabilized loop’ or a ‘stagnated loop’
(Meadows, 2008). A stabilized loop is stabilized towards the policy goal,
while a stagnated loop is stabilized in the opposite direction of the policy
goal. The causal-loop diagram of the ecotourism system can show
various behaviors depending on the combination of reinforcing loops
and balancing loops.
Fourth, if a problem is found through the feedback analysis of the
ecotourism system, the strategic point at which the problem can be
solved with the least effort and cost should be selected. The strategic
points are the variables related to the bottleneck, time delay, and tipping
point (Choi, Doh, et al., 2017), and they can produce considerable
change with low effort and effectively transform the system.
Fifth, to manage the strategic points, transformation planning of the
ecotourism system based on resilience principles is first established.
Transformation strategies are then applied to the current ecotourism
system. Transformation strategies can be applied by, for example, de­
leting or adjusting the value of the strategic point in the current system
directly, controlling the existing variables that affect the strategic point
or introducing a new policy variable and changing the dominant feed­
back loop (Choi, Doh, et al., 2017). We enabled a characteristic change

Fig. 1. A shows a regional map of the locations of the Nakdong Estuary (red square). B shows a satellite map of the Nakdong Estuary. C shows the Nakdong Estuary
Eco-center. D shows the Nakdong Estuary Bank. E shows a new western town in Busan Metropolitan City. F shows jet-skiing activity. G shows birdwatching tourists.
H shows a whooper swan. I shows Eulsukdo Island. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of
this article.)

4
Y.E. Choi et al.
for the dominant feedback loop by including a transformation strategy
variable into an existing variable that affects the strategic point.
The five steps of resilience principle-based systems thinking need to
be sequentially conducted through the feedback process (Choi, Song,
et al., 2017). This research proceeded through each step of the feedback
process, and the confirmed results are described in this paper.
4. The case of the Nakdong Estuary
4.1. Nakdong Estuary as an ecotourism destination
The Nakdong Estuary is the estuarine wetland that is deposited from
the mainstream of the Nakdong River and the West Nakdong River
(Fig. 1). Because the Nakdong Estuary is located at the main passing
tracks of migratory birds traveling from East Asia and Australia, it is one
of the world’s most important ecological bases as a way station for
wintering and migrating birds. Approximately 163,389 birds, including
migratory birds and endangered species, visit the area each year (Yeo
et al., 2019). In particular, it is the largest domestic wintering habitat for
swan species such as the whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus), black swan
(Cygnus atratus) and tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus). The swan spe­
cies are designated a Korean natural monument, use wide tidelands and
many sandbanks at the estuary as resting places, and feed on the benthos
and macrophytes that live throughout the estuary (Yeo, Oh, et al., 2017).
The scenery of the Nakdong Estuary, which is composed of migratory
birds and wetland geographical features, is quite unique and attractive.
To preserve it as a migratory bird habitat, Korean government agencies
have designated the Nakdong Estuary as various types of protected
areas. However, the environment for habitats has been damaged
because of the Nakdong Estuary Bank construction in 1987 and waste
landfill construction at the southernmost of Eulsukdo Island in 1993 and
1995 (Yeo et al., 2019). To restore the ecosystem at the Nakdong Es­
tuary, the Ministry of Environment designated the Nakdong Estuary a
Wetland Preservation Area in 1999. Busan Metropolitan City created the
Nakdonggang Bird Sanctuary after abolishing illegal farmlands and
waste landfill in Eulsukdo Island. The Nakdonggang Bird Sanctuary is
classified as a district for education and utilization, a buffer zone, and a
core conservation district (Yeo, Oh, et al., 2017). Most ecotourism ac­
tivities in the Nakdong Estuary are conducted in the area of education
and utilization. The number of visitors per year increased consistently
from 2007 (74,398 visitors) until 2013 (141,048 visitors) (Yu, 2020). It
then declined from 2014 (115,500 visitors) to 2016 (113,939 visitors)
due to the highly pathogenic bird flu. In 2017, the total number of vis­
itors increased (225,781 visitors), with a significant increase in the
number of adult visitors (96,378 visitors) compared to other years (52,
690 visitors, previous five-year average). The increase in the number of
visitors continued in 2018 (276,969 visitors) and 2019 (558,970 visi­
tors) (Yu, 2020). The explosive increase in visitors in 2019 is due to the
increase in the number of elderly visitors (63,038 visitors, previous
five-year average 8808 visitors) and children visitors (176,870 visitors,
previous five-year average 51,685 visitors). It is predicted that visitors of
different ages have an increased interest in ecotourism, and it is neces­
sary to examine whether this phenomenon represents the energizing of
ecotourism in the Nakdong Estuary.
4.2. Ecotourism system of the Nakdong Estuary
4.2.1. Variable selection for Nakdong Estuary ecotourism
The ecological, social, and economic issues in the Nakdong Estuary
provide the basis for the main variables that form ecotourism systems.
We set the data collection period from June 2007 to August 2020
because ecotourism at the Nakdong Estuary began when the Nakdong
Estuary Eco-center of Eulsukdo Island opened in June 2007. Research
reports are published by Busan Metropolitan City, which is located in the
Nakdong Estuary, and include annual ecological monitoring data (e.g.,
number of birds, water quality, and ecological conservation activities)
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Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237
and annual tourism trends (e.g., number of visitors, tourism facilities,
and ecotourism programs) (Yeo et al., 2019; Yeo, Oh, et al., 2017; Yu,
2020). Internet articles were collected from BIGKinds (BIGKinds, 2020),
a big data analysis system operated by the Korea Press Foundation.
Searches were conducted using 9 major newspapers with 1721 articles
identified covering political, social, economic and ecological issues in
the Nakdong Estuary.
The main tourism resources in the Nakdong Estuary are ecological
resources such as waterfowl and their habitats (Choi, Song, et al., 2017).
The Nakdong Estuary ecosystem preservation and restoration project
(Yeo et al., 2019; Yeo, Oh, et al., 2017; Yu, 2020) was intended to
enhance the biodiversity of birds and habitats. However, biodiversity is
threatened by illegal activities, such as jet skiing, drones, fishing, and
bright flashes from night photography (Hong, 2017; Park, 2020). At the
same time, more routine activities such as noise generation, artificial
erosion and sedimentation, urbanization of the western area of Busan
and the operation of ecological tour ships also damage habitats (Lee,
2020; Son, 2016). A policy to open the Nakdong Estuary Bank’s flood­
gate was planned as an activity to preserve the integrity of Nakdong
Estuary’s ecological system (Hwang, 2020; Kim, Park, & Park, 2016;
Ryu, 2020). This plan aims to restore the brackish water zone by opening
a waterway that was blocked by the Nakdong Estuary Bank. These
ecological issues are categorized into the following variables: ecological
resources, ecosystem conservation and restoration efforts, environ­
mental load and ecological disturbance, western area urbanization de­
mand, and Nakdong Estuary Bank opening plan.
Local residents in the Nakdong Estuary are working as natural
environment interpreters and cultural tourism interpreters to operate
ecotourism interpretation and education programs for ecotourists
(Jeong, 2020). Several public hearings were held during the develop­
ment of the ecotourism destination and the governance system for
environmental management (Park & Lee, 2018). Such social ecotourism
activities can improve the environmental awareness of stakeholders.
However, it is rare for local residents to earn income through social
ecotourism activities, and as a result, local residents want to generate
greater economic benefits through ecotourism. This demand is leading
to the expansion of artificial tourism infrastructure such as lodging,
dining and leisure facilities in natural areas of the Nakdong Estuary. The
government and private enterprises, not local residents, have invested
financial capital to expand the tourism infrastructure (Yeo, Oh, et al.,
2017), which will contribute to job and revenue improvement for local
residents, but large profits will go to private companies. This results in
unbalanced profit sharing within local society, disturbs the positive
change in the economic system, and causes negative effects to residents’
standard of living (Choi, Song, et al., 2017). These socioeconomic issues
are categorized into the following variables: man-made tourism re­
sources, tourism attractiveness, the number of tourists, tourism revenue,
natural resource utilization, population and local community, job and
revenue-making opportunities, and development pressure.
4.2.2. Confirming the characteristics of the relationship between variables
Causal relationships between the ecological, social and economic
variables of the Nakdong Estuary ecotourism system were reviewed
based on prior research. The causal relationships of the variables are
described in Table 1.
4.2.3. Building and analyzing a causal-loop diagram of the ecotourism
system
A causal-loop diagram of the ecotourism system in the Nakdong
Estuary that structures the causal relationships among the variables is
shown in Fig. 2. At the stage where ecotourism begins, there is the
preservation and restoration of ecological resources that attract the in­
terest of tourists (Fig. 2, R1). Alternately, there is development pressure
to increase or sustain tourism revenue through the development of man-
made tourism resources (Fig. 2, R2). R1 and R2 explain the gradual
increase in the number of tourists through the steady efforts of local
Y.E. Choi et al. Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237

Table 1
The causal relationships between the main variables and a description of Nakdong Estuary ecotourism.
Main variables Causal Description References
link mark
Independent variable Dependent variable

Ecological resources Tourism attractiveness + Ecological resource is the main tourism resource for ecotourism. Nguyen and Bosch (2013)
Superior ecological resource improves tourism attractiveness.
Tourism attractiveness The number of tourists + Tourism attractiveness generated by ecological resources and man- Gunn and Var (2002), Mai and
made tourism resources increase the number of tourists by causing Smith (2015) and Nguyen and
interest and concern among tourists. Bosch (2013)
The number of tourists Tourism revenue + Ecotourists are willing to pay a higher price to create tourism profit that Nguyen and Bosch (2013)
returns to ecotourism regional residents. They are also interested in
purchasing tourism products with the unique characteristics of the
ecotourist destination.
Tourism revenue Ecological conservation + The revenue from ecotourism operation increases ecological Jeon and Chon (2014) and Mai
and restoration effort preservation and restoration effort. and Smith (2015)
Ecological conservation Ecological resources + Ongoing ecological preservation and restoration of the ecological Boley and Green (2016) and
and restoration effort tourism destination is the most direct way to healthily sustain natural Stem, Lassoie, Lee, Deshler, and
resources and services. Encouraging local residents and NGOs to Schelhas (2003)
participate in preservation activity, reinforcing tourists’ sense of
responsibility through the interpretation, and restoring wild animal
populations by experts are powerful ways to engage in ecological
preservation and restoration.
Man-made tourism Tourism attractiveness + Man-made tourism resources apply education, interpretation, Mai and Smith (2015)
resources experience programs, transportation, accommodation, restaurants,
convenience facilities, recreational facilities, and tourism infrastructure
to make tourism destination more attractive.
Tourism revenue Development pressure + Revenue from ecotourism operations is used to increase tourism Jeon and Chon (2014)
destination development pressure to raise the attractiveness of natural
and man-made tourism resources.
Development pressure Natural resource + Development pressures in ecotourism destination premises the Jeon and Chon (2014) and
utilization utilization of natural resources. Nguyen and Bosch (2013)
Natural resource Man-made tourism + Man-made tourism resources are developed through the use of natural Berry and Ladkin (1997)
utilization resources resources.
Man-made tourism Job and revenue-making + If the man-made tourism resource operated by the local residents or Gunn and Var (2002) and Mai
resources opportunity private company resources increases, there will be more opportunities and Smith (2015)
for jobs and revenues.
Jobs and revenue-making Population and local + Stable jobs and revenue-making opportunities encourage people to Stem et al. (2003)
opportunity community settle in the region and strengthen the local community.
Population and local The western area + There is consistent demand for urbanization in ecotourism destinations Higham and Lück (2002) and
community urbanization demand from the national government, the local government, and private Wu, Wang, and Ho (2010)
companies. Local residents working in ecotourism also demand
urbanization for purposes like property value increases or a better
organized living environment.
Population and local Environmental load and + The residents, merchants, and travel agents engaged in the ecotourism Jeon and Chon (2014), Mai and
community ecological disturbance destination increase environmental load and ecological disturbance by Smith (2015) and Nguyen and
releasing waste and pollutants. Bosch (2013)
The western area Development pressure + Demand for urbanization by the government, the local government, and Wu et al. (2010)
urbanization demand the private company increase the development pressure on the natural
area.
The number of tourists Environmental load and + Tourists without a sense of responsibility towards nature create an Budeanu (2007) and Mai and
ecological disturbance environmental load and ecological confusion. Tourism by those who Smith (2015)
are concerned about the environment also create environmental
impact.
Environmental load and Ecological resources – An ecological load beyond the capacity to receive and ecological Brown, Turner, Hameed, and
ecological disturbance disturbance decrease the quality of ecological resources and services. Bateman (1997) and Budeanu
(2007)
Natural resource Ecological resources – The excessive use of natural resources beyond the capacity to receive at Brown et al. (1997) and
utilization the ecotourism destination degenerates ecological resources and Budeanu (2007)
services.
Nakdong Estuary Bank Ecological conservation ? There has been much discussion of opening the bank for ecological Branch et al. (1985)
opening plan and restoration effort preservation and restoration in many estuarine wetlands worldwide.

residents and the local government to expand the infrastructure (Hovi­
nen, 1982) and manage the ecological resources for tourists (Crompton
& Hensarling, 1978). Actually, the number of ecotourists in Nakdong
Estuary gradually increased. The preservation and restoration of
ecological resources and the development of man-made tourism re­
sources are continuing.
Busan Metropolitan City, which is the local government that operates
and manages ecotourism in the Nakdong Estuary, established a plan to
develop the western area of Busan and expand tourism resources. It
began receiving investments from outside of the region, such as from the
central government, to energize ecotourism (Fig. 2, R3). When the
ecotourism system enters the development stage, gradual
commercialization may occur, with a decrease in contact frequency with
residents based on their clear separation from tourist attractions and the
development of the tourist market (Buckley, 2009; Hovinen, 1982). This
could weaken the virtuous cycle of R1 and strengthen the vicious cycles
of R2 and R3. Additionally, excessive increases in the number of tourists
may increase the environmental load and cause ecological disturbances.
In this case, the inflow of tourists may be affected by the decrease in
tourism attractiveness after the decline in the quality of ecological re­
sources (Fig. 2, B1). When natural resource utilization increases with
aggravated development pressure, it may decrease the quality of the
natural resource (Fig. 2, B2). When predominantly B1 and B2 are
operating, it may no longer increase the number of tourists.

6
Y.E. Choi et al.
Fig. 2. Nakdong Estuary ecotourism system. R1 is a virtuous reinforcing loop of 1-2-3-4-5-1. R2 is a vicious reinforcing loop of 6-2-3-4-7-8-6. R3 is a vicious
reinforcing loop of 6-9-10-11-7-8-6. B1 is a stagnant balancing loop of 1-2-3-12-1. B2 is a stagnant balancing loop of 1-2-3-4-7-8-1.
Additionally, the main tourism resource may change from ecological
resources to man-made tourism resources (Butler, 1980).
4.2.4. Selection of strategic points
The circulation of fresh water and seawater through the Nakdong
Estuary opening changes the water level and salinity (Isola, Colwell,
Taft, & Safran, 2000). The changes could have an enormous impact on
the vegetation, which plays a role as a food resource and a hiding place
for waterfowl (Yi, Yeo, Oh, & Sung, 2011). Meanwhile, ongoing con­
struction in the western area of Busan causes many types of noise that
disturb the roosting of the waterfowl, which increases the emigration
rate of the waterfowl (Choi, You, Kang, Choi, & Chon, 2015). Therefore,
the opening of Nakdong Estuary Bank’s floodgate and development
pressure should be considered to sustain Nakdong Estuary’s consistent
ecological resources. Ecotourism operation in the Nakdong Estuary de­
pends on the local government’s budget and support from the govern­
ment authority. During the process of preparing to enter the
development stage, qualitative and quantitative improvements in edu­
cation and interpretation programs and tourism infrastructure can be
supported by immediate budget allocations and active support from the
government (Choi, Doh, et al., 2017). However, when there is a budget
cut due to a policy change by the local government or the government
authority, a vicious circle can be strengthened, which may consistently
decrease tourism attractiveness. Meanwhile, due to consistent demands
on tourism facilities, several facilities are being extended into neigh­
boring regions beyond the Nakdong Estuary Conservation Area. The
phenomenon surrounding man-made tourism resources can lead an
ecotourism system into immediate decline. To stop the collapse of the
ecotourism system, it is necessary to manage the consistent preservation
and restoration of ecological resources rather than the development of
man-made tourism resources. Therefore, we select ecological resources
and man-made tourism resources as our strategic points.
4.3. Transformation planning based on resilience principles
To manage the strategic points, the Nakdong Estuary ecotourism
system required comprehensive action for the brackish water based on
plans to open the Nakdong Estuary Bank’s floodgate, supporting ur­
banization, constructing infrastructure, and operating government ini­
tiatives. Hence, this study developed resilience strategies that manage
ecological resources and man-made tourism resources by applying the 5
resilience principles (diversity, connectivity, learning, participation and
polycentric governance). The system’s feedback structure and
7
Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237
behavioral change were analyzed by applying established trans­
formation planning.
4.3.1. Resilience strategy for ecological resources
To sustain proper salinity after the opening of the Nakdong Estuary
Bank floodgate, it is necessary to be prepared for an extreme increase in
salinity. New habitats should be created for diverse functions. Fresh­
water wetlands can control the salinity and water level of the Nakdong
Estuary. Freshwater wetlands also provide drinking water and food re­
sources to waterfowl, which is a habitat function differentiated from that
of the brackish water area. When there is a disturbance in the brackish
water area, the freshwater area, which is separated by the water gate,
can prevent the spread of that damage and function as a substitute
habitat. As in the case of America’s salt marsh wildlife protection area in
the state of Louisiana, freshwater areas and brackish water areas have
established a mosaic pattern through the construction of an artificial
freshwater lake to secure the diversity of landscape patches (Choi et al.,
2015). Meanwhile, to provide different forage resources for waterfowl,
substitute forage resources should be cultivated to prepare for the
decrease in vegetation. Therefore, new substitutes for foraging resources
should be provided. Substitute foraging resources in the brackish water
area include horned pondweed (Zannichellia palustris), common eelgrass
(Zostera marina), and beaked tasselweed (Ruppia maritima) (Laubek,
1995). Substitute foraging resources in the freshwater area include
Manchurian wild rice (Zizania latifolia) and sacred lotus (Nelumbo nuci­
fera) (Choi et al., 2015). When diverse substitute foraging resources are
planted, a poor harvest of one plant will not have a crucial impact on the
food supply because plants manage disturbances differently (Biggs et al.,
2015).
To manage the connectivity of the waterfowl habitats, it is necessary
to build a system for the real-time monitoring of environmental factors,
such as the water level, salinity, water quality, erosion, and sedimen­
tation. A monitoring system enables quick action by detecting any rapid
environmental change that exceeds the optimum level (Biggs et al.,
2015). For the newly created habitats to be managed effectively, it is
necessary to have a proper network built and modularized at different
scales and locations. One efficient way is to build ecological corridors
with the least-cost path (Lee, Ellis, Choi, You, & Chon, 2015). A network
between freshwater areas can be formed through waterway construc­
tion. However, a network with high density can promote the spread of
damage. The introduction of a modularized system is necessary to avoid
the spread of a dominant species (e.g., reeds) that could threaten sub­
stitute foraging resources, the spread of pollutants, or the spread of
Y.E. Choi et al. Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237

brackish water in freshwater wetlands (Choi et al., 2015). conduct green marketing to promote soft tourism that minimizes
To encourage learning, expand participation and build a polycentric adverse environmental and cultural effects (Perkins & Grace, 2009).
governance system for managing ecological resources, it is first neces­ Additionally, it is necessary to build a platform to train resident moni­
sary to understand the stakeholder groups. The stakeholders of the tors to suppress illegal recreation and provide advanced information to
Nakdong Estuary include residents (fishermen, farmers and normal tourists. As such, various types of stakeholder participation and
residents), environmental organizations (Green Busan Unite and extended learning opportunities through networks of polycentric
Wetland and Friends of Birds), research institutes (Busan Development governance can reduce ecological conflict and development pressure by
Institute, learned societies and universities), local governments (Busan increasing a sense of responsibility for the environment among local
Metropolitan City, Gimhae City, Yangsan City and Ulsan City), and residents, operators, and tourists. Additionally, these forms of partici­
government authorities (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Trans­ pation can provide an opportunity for change in ecological governance
portation, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, systems from a top-down approach to a bottom-up approach.
and Korea Water Resource Corporation). These groups should improve
their mutual understanding through workshops and must decide on a 4.3.3. Transformation planning for the ecotourism system
plan for managing ecological resources. The resilience strategy, as previously discussed, was categorized into
strategic points (Table 2) for inclusion at the strategic point of the
4.3.2. Resilience strategy for man-made tourism resources ecotourism system in the Nakdong Estuary (Fig. 2). A resilience strategy
To secure diversity in the management of man-made resources, built on key variables was planned to enable a change in the dominant
designation as a Ramsar Protected Area must be strongly promoted. The feedback loop by adjusting the existing variables that impact the stra­
establishment of national-level protected areas does not reach the in­ tegic points to transform the Nakdong Estuary’s ecotourism system into
ternational level of environmental regulation. In the case of the Nakdong a desirable system (Fig. 3).
Estuary, demand for the deregulation of state-designated protected areas To strengthen the virtuous circle of R1, the plan will apply the
are increasing due to the urbanization surrounding them. In response, transformation strategy for waterfowl habitat management to the Nak­
benefits to future generations should be guaranteed by creating redun­ dong Estuary opening plan. This plan includes the establishment of an
dant devices that can protect estuary wetlands internationally (Choi, ecosystem monitoring system (Fig. 3, 1), the construction of freshwater
Song, et al., 2017). There is another way to ensure diversity. Improve­ wetlands (Fig. 3, 2), the creation of substitute waterfowl food resource
ments to increase attractiveness to tourists should be replaced by habitats (Fig. 3, 3), the construction of habitat networks (Fig. 3, 4), and
ensuring the quality and quantity of ecological education and inter­ the delegation of environmental observer roles to stakeholders (Fig. 3,
pretation programs rather than by building commercial recreation fa­ 5). The work done in this study changes the causal relationships in the
cilities. Current education in the Nakdong Estuary has a tendency to Nakdong Estuary Bank opening plan and ecological preservation and
place an excessive weight on winter bird watching. To improve this restoration efforts from a ‘question mark (?)’ in the current ecotourism
situation, resources should be developed for various forms of ecological system (Fig. 2) to a ‘plus mark (+)’ in the ecotourism system plan
education and interpretation that can be operated according to seasonal (Fig. 3).
characteristics, age range and the aim of the activities. Examples include The plan to transform the feedback loop of R2 from a vicious cycle to
(1) the introduction of plants and animals living in the Nakdong Estuary, a virtuous circle involves managing the excessive development pressure
(2) a tideland marsh experience, and (3) the introduction of a local through a land use change monitoring system (Fig. 3, 6). Additionally,
culture-connected lifestyle. The development of such substitute educa­ instead of tourism infrastructure, the original purpose of ecotourism
tion programs will provide functional redundancy that can respond to should be reinvigorated by increasing tourism attractiveness by
disturbances such as a decrease in the number of birds or the spread of extending the quantity and quality of environmental education and
bird influenza.
To maintain connectivity, ecological resources and man-made re­
sources should be networked by considering convenience in the man­ Table 2
agement of ecotourism operators and for tourist use (Lee, Chon, Kim, Transformation planning based on resilience principles in the Nakdong Estuary
ecotourism site.
You, & Choi, 2017). Examples include (1) a food source program to
preserve migratory bird habitats; (2) making and selling souvenirs using Strategic points Transformation planning Resilience principles
representative species such as whooper swans; (3) food cultural sharing Ecological 1. Establishment of ecosystem Connectivity, Learning
events using local specialties; and (4) exploring various types of habitats resources monitoring system
(such as reed beds, mudflats, wetlands, and rivers). The network of 2. Construction of freshwater Diversity
wetland
ecological resources and man-made tourism resources extends the
3. Creation of substitute waterfowl Diversity
length of tourist visits and leads to diverse consumption activities. To food resource habitats
control excessive networking, the separation of space can be an option, 4. Construction of habitat network Connectivity
such as a core area for ecological conservation, a buffer zone for con­ 5. Delegation of environmental Learning, Participation,
servation and utilization, and an area for human utilization. It is also observer role to stakeholders Polycentric governance
Man-made 6. Establishment of land use Connectivity, Learning
necessary to build a land use transformation monitoring system to tourism monitoring system
monitor development pressure. resources 7. Enhancement of the quantity and Diversity, Learning
It is necessary to encourage learning, expand participation and build quality of education and
a polycentric governance system for managing man-made resources. interpretation
8. Development of a sense of Learning
Regional-level stakeholders (i.e., residents, tourism operators, tourists,
responsibility among tourists
local NGOs, experts, and local government) should meet with national- 9. Support from task force team by Participation,
level stakeholders (research institutes, environmental groups, and cen­ multi-stakeholders Polycentric governance
tral government). The central government or local government should 10. Creation of guide program for Participation,
plan and implement public consultation techniques and procedures to residents and tourism operators Polycentric governance
11. Development of a sense of Learning
engage all stakeholders in making decisions regarding ecotourism. The responsibility among residents and
role of the government may also be to implement education and operators
awareness programs that allow people to detect sustainable tourism 12. The quality of the information Learning
development issues (Choi, Jin, Chang, Jang, & Chon, 2018). Tourism platform
13. Designation as Ramsar Wetland Diversity
operators should educate tourists on the impact of their visits and

8
Y.E. Choi et al.
Fig. 3. Transformation planning of the ecotourism system in the Nakdong Estuary.
interpretation programs (Fig. 3, 7). These programs produce a sense of
responsibility for nature among tourists (Fig. 3, 8), and therefore, it is
possible to encourage tourists to practice responsible tourism even as
they increase in number.
Meanwhile, the plan that controls B1, which limits growth that
damages ecological resources, involves decreasing ecosystem conflict
and environmental load through stakeholders’ social and economic ac­
tivities. The task force team should involve a group of experts and
develop ecotourism guide programs to increase the sense of re­
sponsibility among local residents and the local government towards
ecotourism in the Nakdong Estuary (Fig. 3, 9–11). The platform, which
provides advanced information about tourism destinations constructed
by responsible residents and tourism operators, can also boost tourists’
sense of responsibility (Fig. 3, 12). In this way, the environmental load
and ecological conflict generated by the tourism activities engaged in by
tourism operators and tourists can be minimized.
To control the stagnation that occurs in B2, Ramsar Wetland desig­
nation is promoted as a response to the demand that ecological preser­
vation sanctions be relaxed (Fig. 3, 13). A protected area designation
followed by an international agreement can contribute to preserving
natural resources, which can forcibly relax development activity that
damages natural resources by contradicting the development logic and
relaxing the need to protect the area.
The plans to transform ecotourism systems into desirable systems
will lead to stable development stages starting at the involvement stage
within the tourism life cycle. Additionally, they enable gradual reduced
growth or rejuvenation after the stagnation stage is overcome, which is
the next stage of development.
5. Conclusions
Most estuarine wetlands in the world are important social-ecological
systems with many coexisting issues related to estuary bank opening,
complex industrial and residential development, and preservation ef­
forts for wetland and bird sanctuaries. At the same time, it is a place
where much effort is needed to develop it as a global ecotourism
destination. This study is meaningful because it plans the estuarine
wetlands as an ecotourism destination from the perspective of resilience.
The resilience perspective provides a basis for discussing a strategy for
transforming the social-ecological system of ecotourism. The link be­
tween the original intent of ecotourism and the resilience principles lays
9
Tourism Management 83 (2021) 104237
the foundation for practicing internationally agreed-upon justice.
Ecotourism practices environmental preservation by reinforcing stake­
holders’ sense of responsibility and aims for the distribution of profits in
local society through engaging local residents in tourism activities
(tourism, operation, management, interpretation). The resilience prin­
ciple provides a guideline for building stakeholders’ polycentric gover­
nance, learning, and participation and securing the connectivity and
diversity of ecological and social elements within ecotourism destina­
tions. This study suggests that the resilience principle matches the
purposes of ecotourism, such as extending the participation of local
society and preserving the natural environment by reinforcing stake­
holders’ sense of responsibility. This point has been applied to the
ecotourism system plan based on the resilience principle, which con­
siders the ecological environment and stakeholders together.
Despite these contributions, it is worth noting some study limitations
and future research directions. First, although this study included
extensive ecotourism resource management plans, it did not cover all
ecological and man-made tourism resources in the estuary wetlands.
Because estuary wetlands form complex and sensitive social-ecological
systems, to reflect the ecotourism resource management plan in prac­
tice, the relationship between the elements of space and the time scale
and the drivers that operate these elements must be further specified.
Second, in the enactment of the resilience principles-based systems
thinking approach, the opinions of various stakeholders were not
captured. Data collection for this study was based on gray literature.
This is positive in terms of the use of realistic and formal records, but it is
insufficient for building stakeholders’ participation, learning, and
polycentric governance. Therefore, future research will identify the
target ecotourism resource and establish a concrete and practical plan by
reflecting the opinions of the major stakeholders affecting this resource.
The final limitation is that the conservation method of the Nakdong
Estuary is limited in terms of ecological tourism resource management
and does not directly consider the negative impact of ecological tourism
activities. Ecotourism surely generates a positive impact on the social
ecosystem, but on the contrary, it also creates a negative impact (Fen­
nell, 2008). In this study, as an indirect way to minimize the negative
impact of ecotourism, it was proposed to increase the sense of re­
sponsibility for the environment through the education and interpreta­
tion of tourists, local residents, and tourism operators. In follow-up
studies, it will be necessary to identify which types of ecotourism edu­
cation and interpretation can ultimately promote the responsibility of
Y.E. Choi et al.
tourism actors.
Author contribution
All the authors contributed to the work in this paper. The first author,
Yun Eui Choi, designed this study and wrote the manuscript in all
phases. The co-author, Chi-Ok Oh, contributed to the construction of the
table of contents and the revision of the discussion and conclusions. The
corresponding author, Jinhyung Chon participated in the development
of this study and provided structural discussion.
Impact statement
This paper contains the process and the results of an attempt to
establish an ecotourism resource management plan for estuarine wet­
lands by utilizing a resilience principle-based systems thinking
approach. Practitioners who want to understand the complex
ecotourism system and establish a suitable plan can acquire skills to deal
with their own research sites by following the systems thinking process
presented in this paper. By referring to this paper, the estuarine wetland
manager can recognize that the roles of various stakeholders in
ecotourism are important to derive environmental preservation ap­
proaches and the wise use of estuaries. The readers of this paper will also
be able to understand that the resilience-based principles are useful to
achieve the goals of ecotourism.
Declaration of competing interest
None.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of
Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MEST) (No.
2020R1C1C1007165) and supported by an OJERI (OJeong Resilience
Institute) Grant. This study was also carried out under the project titled
“Marine Ecosystem-Based Analysis and Decision-Making Support Sys­
tem Development for Marine Spatial Planning” by the Ministry of
Oceans and Fisheries (grant number 20170325).
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Yun Eui Choi is a research professor at Ojeong Resilience

Institute in Korea University. Her research interests include
tourism resources, the role of stakeholders in protected areas,
and community resilience. She earned her Ph.D. from the
Department of Environmental Science and Ecological Engi­
neering at Korea University.

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