Tunnel Engineering

1. Definition of Tunnel and Necessity

 The branch of civil engineering which deals with the design, construction and
maintenance of tunnels is known as Tunnel Engineering.

 The Underground passages which are constructed without removing or disturbing the
ground surface are known as Tunnels.

 Necessity of Tunnels
1. When the surface route of railway tracks reaching the outside the hill is much longer and
costlier in construction than tunnel.
2. When the depth of open cut is more than 20m. It is costlier to construct and maintain than
a tunnel.
3. When the provision of a bridge across the river or sea is inconvenient.
4. When two terminal stations, separated by a mountain are to be connected by shortest
route.
5. When holding up of traffic for long periods is to be avoided.
6. When the route of railway track is to be protected from blockage.
7. When there is necessity of water for generating power.
8. When damage to transportation system is to be avoided and safety is to be provided
against aerial welfare.

2. Advantages of Tunnels
1. Tunnels are more economical than open cuts
2. Tunnels avoid disturbing the surface traffic during construction.
3. In case of aerial bombing tunnels provide protection.
4. They connect two terminal stations by shortest route.
5. They avoid acquisition of costly land.
6. Proves to be cheaper than bridges and open cuts.

3. Disadvantages of Tunnels
1. They may be costlier in construction than open cut.
2. They require more time for construction.
3. They require special equipments for construction.
4. They may cause suffocation if not ventilated.

4. Shape and Size of Tunnel

 The shape of a tunnel should be such to fulfill the following requirements:
 1. Walls and roofs of the tunnel should be able to withstand external and internal
pressure to which they are likely to be subjected.
2. It should be able to avoid complicated supporting arrangements for walls and
roofs of the tunnel.
3. It should be able to serve the purpose of the tunnel.
 Following are the various shapes of the tunnel:
1. Rectangular or Bore Hole Tunnel
 The tunnels of this shape are suitable for pedestrian tunnel.
 This tunnel is not able to withstand the external pressure at corners.
 It cannot be used as traffic tunnel.
 Advantages: The tunnel is small in depth and gives more side margins for proper light
and ventilation.
 Disadvantages:
 The roof of the tunnel is subjected to bending stresses and therefore steel girders are
required in concrete lining.
 These tunnels are difficult to construct
2. Circular Shape
 These tunnels are best suited for soft soils.
 These tunnels are commonly used for carrying water under pressure.
 These are not recommended for traffic tunnels because more filling is required to form a
flat base.
 Advantages: The tunnels are best for resisting external and internal pressure.
 These tunnels can be easily constructed in soft rocks.
 Disadvantage: The tunnels require costly filling to form flat base.
 Lining is difficult
3. Segmental or D shape
 The tunnel of this shape has vertical sides and flat floor in the form of letter-D.
 They are suitable for traffic tunnels.
 Commonly used as navigational tunnel.
 Advantages: Easy to construct.
 Disadvantages: Requires more thickness of lining.
 Difficult to construct in soft rocks.
4. Horse Shoe
 They have nearly flat bottom shape.
 It combines the advantage of circular or segmental tunnels.
 They are commonly used as traffic tunnels.
 Advantages: Has enough base to provide working space to the contractors.
 They resist external pressure by arch action.
 Disadvantages: These tunnels are difficult to construct.
 These are suitable for water tunnels
 5. Egg Shaped
 They have smaller cross section at the bottom.
 They are widely used as sewers.
 Advantages: It maintains self cleaning velocity.
 They resist external and internal pressure by arch action.
 Disadvantages: They are difficult to construct.
 They are not suitable for traffic tunnels.
6. Elliptical Shape
 They are provided in soft rocks.
 The major axis of these tunnels is kept vertical for better resistance to external pressure.
 Advantages: They resist external as well as internal pressure due to circular walls.
 Disadvantages: They do not have wider base hence cannot be used as traffic tunnel.
 Lining is difficult.

 Size of Tunnel: The size of the tunnel depends primarily on the purpose for which the
tunnel is to be used such as for carrying traffic, water, sewage etc.

 Factors Affecting the size of a Traffic Tunnel

1. Volume and type of traffic: Total volume and type of traffic including size and speed
of vehicles to be handled will govern the size of the tunnel.

2. The Size of Clear Opening Required: In case of a railway tunnel for single track a
clear space of at least 75 cm on each side should be allowed between the side of the
tunnel and side of the largest locomotive.
In such a tunnel minimum head clearance of 1 meter is allowed between the roof and the
top of the locomotive.
In case of a double line track the minimum centre to centre distance between both the
track should be 4.3 meters.

3. Thickness and allowance of lining: The thickness of lining varies with the material to
be penetrated in lining, an allowance of 5 to 7.5 cm for inward movement of side walls
without endangering the side walls should be given,
Similarly allowance for setting down of the tunnel roof must be given to 20 to 60 cm.

4. Drainage facilities required: The type of drainage system to be provided also affect
the size of the tunnel.

5. Shaft and Purpose of Shaft

 Shaft: The vertical wells or passage constructed along the alignment of tunnels are known
as shafts.
 Purpose of Shaft
 1. To expedite the construction work of tunnel by starting excavation at several points at
the same time.
2. To provide openings for the removal of excavated materials.
3. To provide natural ventilation.
4. To provide passageway for pumping out water.
 During the construction of tunnel shaft serves the purpose of entrances.
 Therefore they must provide passageway for workmen, construction tools, machinery,
and pipes for ventilation.
 They are necessary for transferring centre line to inside the tunnel.

6. Construction of Shaft

1. Drilling and Blasting

 In drilling of the material stepped down technique is adopted to permit drilling and
mucking operation together.
 For drilling holes in hard rock Jack hammers are used.
 For soft rocks excavation is done by simple tool.
2. Mucking
 The operation of removing the excavated material and dumping the same at a
predetermined site is known as mucking.
 Mucking can be done manually or mechanically.
 Mucking is done with the help of two buckets of cubic meter capacity.
 It makes the operation quick as when one bucket is being loaded the other one can be
hoisted to remove the excavated material.
3. Timbering
 The art of supporting the sides of a tunnel to prevent them from sliding down is known as
timbering.
 It varies with type of ground and the depth of the shaft.
 In hard rock’s excavation up to 20m can be done without timbering.
 In soft rocks timbering of the shaft becomes necessary immediately after excavation is
commenced.
4. Pumping
 In case there is inflow of ground water inside the shaft, the same is collected in the sump.

 Transferring the Alignment to Inside the Tunnel

 After constructing the shafts, the alignment of the tunnel is to be transferred down the
shaft.
 For this purpose two small pillars are constructed on the opposite side of the shaft along
the centre line of the tunnel.
 On top of the pillars the points corresponding to the centre line are correctly marked.
 
 A wire is then stretched between them.
 After this the plumb bobs are suspended inside the shaft.
 Two points are then marked by lowering the plumb bob to the bottom.
 The line joining two points represents the centre line of the tunnel.
 This line is further extended into the tunnel as the work advances by a Theodolite placed
into the shafts.
 The points along the centre line are marked by means of spot and are fixed to tunnel
roofs.
 For preventing oscillation or vibration of hanging wires heavy plumb bobs are used and
kept immersed in a pot containing oils which is placed on the floor of the shaft.

7. Tunneling
 The art of constructing a tunnel is known as tunneling.
 Tunneling is done by a suitable method which depends on following factors:
1. Shape and size of tunnel
2. Type of ground
3. Equipment available
4. The extent of timbering required
5. The scheme of mucking
 Tunneling in Soft Rocks
 It is comparatively cheap.
 In this case timbering is to be provided soon after excavation is started but supporting
the rocks requires complicated structure.
 These temporary supports are then replaced by tunnel lining.
 The sequence of operation is as follows:
1. Excavation
2. Timbering or shuttering
3. Removal of excavated material
4. Lining of tunnel.
 Methods of Tunneling In Soft Rock
1. Needle Beam Method.
 The needle beam consists of stout timber beam or Composite flinched beam which
forms the main support during excavation.
 The length of the beam is usually 5 to 6m.
 The construction procedure is as follows:
1. A monkey drift for a short distance of 1m is driven beyond the day work on working
face.
2. The roof of the drift is supported by lagging carried on wooden segments, which are in
turn supported by two trench jack sets in hitches cut in side of the monkey drift.

3. After this drift is completed the needle beam is slowly skidded forward into the
monkey drift.
4. The front end of the needle beam rests on the plank on the floor of the drift, while the
rear end is carried on stout post resting on the floor lining of tunnel.
5. A trench jack is now placed along the centre line of the needle beam, to support the
segments, thus transferring the load to needle beam.
6.The other trench jack are removed and the drift is widened sideways and supported as
before by laggings, and trench jack supported on sides of needle beam.
 Advantages:
 This method is economical.
 Brick lining can be easily done by this method.
 Disadvantages:
 A large numbers of trench jacks are required which interfere with labour gang’s
efficient working.
 The concrete lining with mechanical method is difficult.
 Tunneling in Hard Rock
 The sequence of operation followed in Tunneling in hard rocks is as follows:
1. Setting up and drilling
2. Loading holes and firing the explosives
3. Ventilation and removing dust of explosion
4. Mucking
5. Removing ground water if any
6. Timbering for sides and roofs if necessary
7. Grouting and Lining
 The methods for tunneling in hard rocks are as follows:
1. Full Face Method
 This method is so called because in this method the whole section of the tunnel is
attacked at the same time.
 In this method drilling is done on the whole section and drilled holes are charged
with explosives.
 After completing one round the tunnel drilling for the next round is started and
repeated until the entire tunnel is drilled.
 Advantages:
 The progress of work is fast as compared to other methods.
 It facilitates laying and mucking progressively.
 Disadvantages:
 Heavy mechanical equipment are required to execute the work
 This method is not suitable for unstable rocks.
 Unexpected problem may crop in the water bearing strata.

2. Heading and Bench Method

 This method involves driving the top portion in advance to the bottom portion.
 If the rock is hard and self supporting the top driving advances ahead so that it
follows heading and benching method.
 In case of broken rock the top heading will need support and bench will afford
platform for this.
 Advantages:
 In this method drilling and mucking are done simultaneously.
 It requires less labour.
 It requires less explosives.
 Disadvantages:
 Use of machinery for mucking becomes difficult.
 Removal of muck from heading is difficult
3. Drift Method

 A drift means hole of considerable size.

 It consists a small sized heading centrally at top or bottom face, which is later
enlarged by widening and benching.
 The operation involved are
1. Boring or blasting a top centre heading or drift end to end.
2. Widening and enlarging the drift
3. Benching in stages.
 A drift of sufficient size for accommodating equipments, machinery and
labours is drilled.
 As the heading work proceeds the centre line is checked accurately.
 Once the drift is accurately drilled the widening operation is commenced by
blasting the sides of the drift to suitable section. This completes the top
heading.
 The benching is carried out in stages and lowered down to grades by a series
of sloping and horizontal cuts.
 Advantages:
 This method is economical as it requires less labour and drilling equipments.
 In this method the nature of rock to be encountered is known in advance.
 This method provides good ventilation during construction
 Disadvantages:
 Program of work is slow as work cannot be done continuously.
 This method requires complicated supporting arrangement of tunnel.
 8. Lining in Tunnel and Purpose
 A layer of timber , iron, masonry or concrete provided on the inside of tunnel is known as
lining.
 Purpose of Tunnel Lining
1. To support the loosened rock pieces during blasting.
2. To increase the structural strength of soft places in tunnels.
3. To withstand soil pressure when driven in soft rock.
4. To provide correct shape of the tunnel.
5. To house electrical fittings.

9. Types of Tunnel Lining

1. Timber lining
2. Stone masonry lining
3. Brick lining
4. Iron lining
5. Cast steel lining
6. Pressed steel plate lining
7. Precast pipe lining
8. Precast block lining
9. Concrete lining
10. R.C.C lining

10. Method of Concrete Lining

1. Laying the Form Work:
 The form work may consist of separate side walls and arch forms and Telescopic forms.
 Separate Side Wall and Arch form: In this method the invert is first laid.
 On this a track is laid for carrying form units for sides and arch.
 Side wall concreting is done by pouring concrete to the sides forms.
 This unit is followed by arch forms. The arch forms are filled with concrete.

 Telescopic Forms
 The main ribs are made up of sections hinged together so that a back unit could be
collapsed and moved under form units erected and in use without disturbing concreting.
 This is suitable for tunnels of 20 to 25 ft diameter.
 As the tunnel size increases the hinged section becomes too heavy to handle.
 Placing of Concrete
 For small tunnels (4-10 ft dia) hand placing is quite satisfactory.
 The laggings are arranged waist high and sides are concreted first.
 Gradually the concrete is lifted to the area under crown.
 The gap in the crown section is concreted in the longitudinal direction or by Pressure
method.
 For bigger jobs the modern practice is to place concrete by the help of pneumatic
concrete placers.
  Compaction: It is done with the help of vibrators.
 Curing: If the tunnel provides enough humidity there is no need for curing.
 Otherwise perforated pipes are fixed to the roof of tunnel.
 If water is not available the best method is to paint the concrete surface with bituminous
paint.

11. Ventilation in Tunnel

 The art of providing fresh air inside the tunnel during or after the construction is known
as Ventilation in tunnel.
 The object of ventilation in tunnel is to remove the poisonous gases, smoke etc by
providing fresh air so as to safeguard the workers and passengers.
 To reduce suffocation inside the tunnel.
 Natural Ventilation
 This type of ventilation is possible due to drift of temperature inside and outside the
tunnel.
 It is not possible to have good ventilation by this method.
 It can be improved by using shaft at regular interval.
 Suitability
1. Where the drift is driven from portal to portal.
2. When diameter of tunnel is large but length is small.
3. When the tunnel is laid in the direction of wind
 Mechanical Ventilation
 This type of ventilation is done by using one or more electric fans.
 These fans may blow air in to the tunnel or exhaust the foul air or dust from the tunnel.
 Following are the methods of Mechanical Ventilation:
1. By Blowing
2. By Exhausting
3. By combination of blowing or exhausting.
1. By Blowing
 In this method of mechanical ventilation fresh air is forced by one or two blowers
through the ducts provided in the tunnel.
 By this method positive supply of fresh air at working place can be obtained.
 This method is known as propulsion method.

2. By Exhausting
 In this method air is sucked by one or two exhaust fans.
 This creates vaccum due to which fresh air enters inside the tunnel.
 It is also known as vaccum method.

3. By combination of Blowing and Exhausting

 In this method, blowers and exhaust fans are provided for forcing fresh air in the tunnel
and sucking foul air from the tunnel.
 After blasting exhaust system is immediately operated for 15 to 30 minutes by opening of
valve V1 and closing valve V2.
 Then blowing of fresh air is done by opening of valve V2 and closing V1.
 It provides most efficient ventilation system.

12. Drainage in Tunnel

 The art of collection and removal of water entering the tunnel during and after
construction is known as Drainage of tunnel.
 Objects of Drainage:
1. An efficient drainage is required during construction to have more program to work.
2. After construction of tunnel is over its drainage is also essential to reduce wear and
tear of the communication route to achieve safety of vehicles.
 Temporary Drainage Tunnel
 The drainage system provided during the construction of a tunnel is known as temporary
drainage system.
 It is done by following two methods:
1. Open Ditch Method: In this system water is collected in open ditch or drains with
proper slopes.
2. Pumping System: Pumps are installed with sumps for collection and pumping the
water out of the tunnel.
 Pumping system is generally preferred over open ditch drainage system.
 Permanent Drainage System
 The drainage system provided after the construction of a tunnel is known as permanent
drainage system.
 Methods for permanent drainage system:
1. By providing a central drain.
2. By providing iron shed along with side drains.
3. By providing a side drains.

1. By providing a Central Drain

 In this method a central drain is provided between the two railway tracks or road
pavement.
 It should handle the maximum flow of water.
 It should be well designed to facilitate inspection and cleaning.
 For this man holes should be provided at 30 to 50 m along the drain.
 It is used when a huge quantity of water does not come through roofs and side of
tunnel.

2. By providing iron shed along with side drains

 In this method a continuous corrugated shed is provided along with side drains.
 The iron shed is so placed that it facilitates shedding of water leaking through the roofs or
sides of the tunnels into the tunnel without dropping on communication route.
 It is used when huge quantity of water falls through roof and side of tunnel.
 Heavy expenditure is involved since iron sheds are subjected to corrosion.

3. Side Drains

 Suitable side drain of sufficient capacity is provided.

 It is used when small quantity of water enters in to the tunnel from a single lane road.