Topic: Thermodynamics

1. Laws of Thermodynamics:

1. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

 If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then
they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This law establishes the
concept of temperature.
2. First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Energy Conservation):
 Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to
another.
 Δ�=�−�ΔU=Q−W, where Δ�ΔU is the change in internal energy,
�Q is the heat added to the system, and �W is the work done by the
system.
3. Second Law of Thermodynamics:
 Heat flows spontaneously from a substance at a higher temperature to a
substance at a lower temperature.
 Entropy (�S) tends to increase in an isolated system. In other words,
natural processes move towards a state of greater disorder.
4. Third Law of Thermodynamics:
 As temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a perfect crystal
approaches zero.

Key Concepts:

1. Thermal Equilibrium:
 When two objects are at the same temperature and no heat flows between
them.
2. Heat Transfer Mechanisms:
 Conduction: Heat transfer through direct contact.
 Convection: Heat transfer through the movement of fluids.
 Radiation: Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves.
3. Thermal Expansion:
 Most substances expand when heated and contract when cooled.
4. Heat Engines and Efficiency:
 Efficiency (�η) of a heat engine is given by
Useful work outputTotal heat inputTotal heat inputUseful work output.

Applications:
 1. Heat Engines:
 Internal combustion engines in vehicles.
 Steam turbines in power plants.
2. Refrigerators and Heat Pumps:
 Use the principles of thermodynamics to transfer heat from a cooler place
to a warmer place, requiring the input of work.

Example Problems:

1. Calculate the change in internal energy ( Δ�ΔU) of a gas that absorbs 500 J of
heat while doing 300 J of work.
 Δ�=�−�ΔU=Q−W
 Δ�=500 J−300 J=200 JΔU=500J−300J=200J
2. If a refrigerator removes 800 J of heat from its interior while doing 200 J of work,
what is the change in internal energy?
 Δ�=�−�ΔU=Q−W
 Δ�=−800 J−(−200 J)=−600 JΔU=−800J−(−200J)=−600J

Homework:

 Solve additional problems on the laws of thermodynamics.

 Research real-world applications of thermodynamics in energy production,
climate control, and refrigeration technology.