3/31/2024

Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines

Electricity Generation Spring Semester 2024
from Wind Energy
The role of wind turbines (WTs) is
to harness the kinetic energy in
Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines wind and convert is into electrical
energy

Habiburahman Shirani, PhD

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Engineering Faculty of Kabul University

Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines

 The kinetic energy of an object is the energy it possesses while in motion  Volume of the air passing through the ring
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑤 vol = 𝐴𝑑
2
 KE = kinetic energy of the moving object (Watt second, Ws)  A = area of the ring
 m = mass of the object (kg)  d = length of the air column, which changes with
 w = velocity of the object (m/s) time. It depends on the velocity of wind and time
 If the moving object is air (wind) 𝑑
𝑤= ⇒ 𝑑 = 𝑤𝑡
𝑚 = vol 𝛿 𝑡
 t = time (s)
 δ = density of air (thin air, 1kg/m3)
 w = wind speed (m/s)
 vol = volume of air passing through the ring

Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines

 Mass of the air passing through the ring during a given time is  The wind power density is
𝑚 = vol 𝛿 = 𝐴𝑑𝛿 = 𝐴𝑤𝑡𝛿 = 𝐴𝑤𝛿𝑡
𝑃 1
 Kinetic energy of the air passing through the ring is 𝜌= = 𝛿𝑤
𝐴 2
1 1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑤 = 𝐴𝑤𝛿𝑡𝑤  For a dry thin air of 1 kg/m3,
2 2 the wind power density is
1 1 about 3.0 kW/m2 if wind speed
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑤 = 𝐴𝛿𝑡𝑤 is 18 m/s
2 2
 Storms are destructive; at 35
 Energy is power multiplied by time, the wind m/s (78 mile/hr), wind power
power (Pw) is density is about 21.5 kW/m2
The KE and power of the
1 wind is proportional to the
𝐴𝛿𝑡𝑤 1  Wind power density is often used to evaluate the potentials of sites for electric
𝑃 =2 = 𝐴𝛿𝑤 cube of the wind speed energy production
𝑡 2

1
 3/31/2024

Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines Wind Speed

 Map of wind power density 1
with average wind speed in 𝑃 = 𝐴𝛿𝑤
Afghanistan 2

Wind speed is a stochastic variable; its magnitude and

direction are continuously changing and cannot be
controlled
The three main factors that determine wind speed are
1. Pressure gradient force (PGF)
2. Coriolis force
3. Friction

Wind Speed Wind Speed

Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
 The sun heats up the Earth with
uneven temperatures
Earth
 Two adjacent areas with different
temperatures cause a difference in
pressure (pressure gradient)
 Pressure gradient causes air to
flow from the high-pressure side to
the low-pressure side to equalize
the two pressures (or temperature)
 Wind speed increases as the PGF
becomes stronger
Coriolis Force
Sun  Due to earth’s rotation
 The effect is a deflection of moving air when they
viewed from rotating reference frame such as
earth’s surface
 In northern hemisphere, deflection is to the right
 In southern hemisphere, deflection is to left
 Strongest near the poles and zero at equator Coriolis effect
 PGF and Coriolis force determine the magnitude
and direction of wind

Wind Speed Wind Speed

Friction Classification of wind based on
 Earth’s surface is rough Beaufort wind force scale
 Air friction near ground is high  Initially developed by Irish
Francis Beaufort in 1805
 Friction causes air to slow down
 Modified several times over
the years
 3 to 9 scale for most modern
WTs
 Below 3 is not strong enough
to rotate WT
 Above 9 may damage WT

2
 3/31/2024

Impact of Friction and Height on Wind Speed Impact of Friction and Height on Wind Speed
 Wind speeds decreases near ground as air friction is high
 Wind power is proportional to the cube of wind speed and can be
 Smooth surfaces, such as water, reduce air friction
predicted as
 Forests or buildings slow down the wind substantially
 Elevation is a key factor in determining wind speed 𝑃 𝑤 ℎ
= =
 An approximate method is 𝑃 𝑤 ℎ
𝑤 ℎ
=
𝑤 ℎ
α = coefficient of friction P = wind power at height h
w = wind speed at height h P0 = wind power at h0
w0 = wind speed at known height h0
α is function of terrain and topology of the area; typical values are α = 0.143 for an
open terrain; α = 0.4 for a large city; and α = 0.1 for calm water

Impact of Friction and Height on Wind Speed Impact of Friction and Height on Wind Speed
 The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in the United States has
Example 2.1 developed the class system
The wind power density at 100 m is 2.5 kW/m2 when wind speed is  The data are divided into two elevations above ground level: 10 and 50 m
10 m/s. Compute the wind power density at 50 m in an open terrain  Sites with class 3 or greater are suitable for most utility-scale WT installations.
α = 0.143 for an open terrain Class 2 areas are may be suitable for rural applications

𝜌 𝑃 𝑤 ℎ
= = =
𝜌 𝑃 𝑤 ℎ

Answer: 1.86 kW/m2

Air Density Air Density

1 Pr = 101,325 Pascal or Newton/m2 ; T = degree Kevin = 273.15 + degrees C
𝑃 = 𝐴𝛿𝑤
2 μ = 287 Ws/(kg Kelvin) ; g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2)
 Air density is a function of air pressure, temperature, humidity, elevation, and h = elevation above the sea level (m)
gravitational acceleration. One of the expressions used to compute air density is
𝑃 ( )
𝑃 ( ) 𝛿= 𝑒
𝛿= 𝑒 𝜇𝑇
𝜇𝑇
Pr = standard atmospheric pressure at sea level (101,325 Pascal or Newton/m2) 101325 ( .
) 353 ( ) 353 . ( )
𝛿= 𝑒 = 𝑒 . = 𝑒
T = air temperature in degrees Kelvin (degree Kevin = 273.15 + degrees C) 287𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 + 273
μ = specific gas constant, for air μ = 287 Ws/(kg Kelvin) 353 . ( )
𝛿= 𝑒
g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2) 𝑇 + 273
h = elevation above the sea level (m)  With decrease in temperature, the air gets denser
δ = density in kg/m3  Air is less dense at higher altitudes

3
 3/31/2024

Air Density Air Density

 Another formula for computing the air density is Example 2.2
The Green Mountain Energy Wind Farm is located in Borden and Scurry
𝑃 𝑀 10 counties in Texas. The elevation of the area is 900 m above the sea level. The
𝛿= average wind speed of these counties is 13 m/s at 50 m above ground level.
𝑅(𝑇 + 273)
The average temperature of the area is 17ºC. Compute the power density of
wind at these average values.
Mw = molecular weight of air = 28.97 g/mol 1
𝜌 = 𝛿𝑤
T = absolute temperature (Celsius) 2
R = ideal gas constant = 8.2056 ×10-5 m3 K-1 mol-1 353
𝛿= 𝑒 . ( )
𝑇 + 273

Answer: 1.196 kW/m2

Air Density WT Blades

Example 2.3  WT blades are similar to the general shape of airplane wings
For the site in the previous example, compute the wind power passing through  Cross section of the wing or blade is known as airfoil
a sweep area of 30 m blade.
𝑃 = 𝜌𝐴
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟

Answer: 3.38 MW

Airfoil

WT Blades WT Blades
Airfoil Airfoil
 Airfoil has two cambers (arcs)  The points on the mean camber line are the midpoints between upper
1. Upper camber and lower cambers
2. Lower camber  Center of gravity is located on mean camber line
 The upper camber is longer than lower camber  Cord line is the line connecting the leading edge to the trailing edge
 Airfoil has a leading edge that faces the wind and trailing edge  All the lines are imaginary

4
 3/31/2024

WT Blades WT Blades
 The air at leading edge splits into two components, one moving along  Bernoulli’s Principle: as the velocity increases, pressure decreases and
upper camber and the other along the lower camber vice versa 𝑤 >𝑤
 According to the law of continuity, air molecules separated at the 𝑃 <𝑃
leading edge to the upper and lower camber paths meet at the trailing
𝑃 =𝑃 −𝑃
edge at the same time.
 The net pressure causes the
 Path of upper camber is longer than lower one, thus w1 > w2
aerodynamic force F
𝑑
𝑤=
𝑡 𝐹=𝑃 𝐴

F is the aerodynamic force created by the net pressure

Pnet is the net pressure exerted on an object
A is the area of the object

WT Blades Relative Wind Speed

 For airfoil, forces at every point on the  If the speed and direction of wind is measured on stationary object,
airfoil’s surface are aggregated to center of then they would be of true wind
gravity  If the measurement is done on moving object (airplane), then they
 Here the aerodynamic force is called lift would be of relative wind speed
force, perpendicular to the flow of air  Wind speed relative to a moving object is called relative speed or
 The lift force make the airplane to fly apparent speed
 The end of WT blade is connected to the hub V = airfoil (airplane) speed
and the lift force make the turbine to rotate
w = true (actual) wind
wr = relative wind speed
FL

Relative Wind Speed Relative Wind Speed

 The relative wind speed can be also found by phasor sum of the head  Application of previous
speed H to the true wind speed principles to the blade of WT
 Head speed is the relative speed of a stationary object seen by the  Center of gravity linear
airfoil motion V is
𝑉 = 𝜔𝑟
𝐻 = −𝑉  Head velocity is
𝑤 =𝐻+𝑤 𝐻 = −𝑉
 Relative velocity is the phasor sum
𝑤 = 𝐻 +𝑤 of head and true wind velocities
𝑤 =𝐻+𝑤
𝑤 = 𝐻 +𝑤

5
 3/31/2024

Relative Wind Speed Relative Wind Speed

Example 2.5 Example 2.5
The true wind speed is 15 m/s at an angle of 20⁰ with respect to the The true wind speed is 15 m/s at an angle of 20⁰ with respect to the
horizontal plane. The center of gravity of the blade is 20 m from the horizontal plane. The center of gravity of the blade is 20 m from the
center of the hub and is rotating at 20 r/min. Compute the relative wind center of the hub and is rotating at 20 r/min. Compute the relative wind
speed and its direction. speed and its direction. 𝑉
𝑉 𝑤 =𝐻+𝑤 𝑤
𝑉 = 𝜔𝑟
𝑤 𝑤 = 41.89∠ − 90° + 15∠20° 20°
rev 2𝜋 rad 1 min
𝜔 = 20 = 2.094 rad/s 20°
min 1rev 60 s 𝑤 𝑤 = 41.89 cos(−90°) + 𝑗 sin(−90°) + 15 cos 20° + 𝑗 sin 20°
𝑉
𝑤 = −𝑗41.89 + 14.1 + 𝑗5.13 = 14.1 − 𝑗36.85 𝑤
rad 𝑤 𝐻 𝑉
𝑉 = 2.094 20 m = 41.89 m/s −36.85
s 𝑤 == (14.1) +(36.85) ∠ tan = 39.46∠ − 69.06° 𝑤 𝐻
14.1

Angle of Attack Angle of Attack

 Angle of attack is the angle between relative wind direction wr and cord line  Aerodynamic force F for several angle of attacks
 Aerodynamic force is resolved into two components at the center of gravity α = 0, all the aerodynamic α is positive,
force (F) is lift force (FL ) aerodynamic
 Lift force (FL) or just lift force (F) is
 Drag force (FD) or just drag resolved into
FL and FD
 FL: is perpendicular to the direction
of relative wind speed wr
α is negative, direction of
 FD: is in line with the direction of 𝑤 lift force (FL ) is reversed α is increased
relative wind speed until the entire
 The aerodynamic force of the blade can aerodynamic
force (F) is FD
be controlled by the angle of attack

Angle of Attack Angle of Attack

Feathering
 During storms, the WT feathers its
blades (puts them in position to
minimize the lift)
 Feathering with positive α for
minimizing FL would cause FD to
deform or damage the blade
 Feathering is done with negative α
 When the blades are moved from
positive to negative α, the FL goes to
zero before it reverses
 At zero FL, the blades are feathered
 Lift force (FL) as function of α
 FL is zero at negative angle of attack α0 , the
α is increased
feathering position of WTs
until the entire  A large negative α reverses the lift
aerodynamic
force (F) is FD  At α = 0, the blade provides some lift
 The lift increases when α
α is negative, direction of increases up to a limit
lift force (FL ) is reversed
 Beyond the max. lift level, the
increase in α, reduces the lift
while increasing the drag force
 The increase in the angle of
attack increases air turbulence
downstream

6
 3/31/2024

Angle of Attack Example 2.4

 Two terms are often used A three-blade WT is operating at a given angle of attack and the aerodynamic force
with the aerodynamic force: exerted by wind on each blade is 2000 N. At the given angle of attack, the lift
 Lift coefficient CL coefficient is 0.95. If the center of gravity of the blade is at 30 m from the hub,
compute the torque generated by the three blades. If the blades rotate at 30 r/m,
 Drag coefficient CD compute the mechanical power generated by the blades.
𝐹 𝐹
𝐶 = 𝐶 = ⟹ 𝐹 = 𝐶 𝐹 = (0.95)(2000 N)
𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 = 1900 N
𝐶 = Torque on one blade is
𝐹
 Both lift and drag 𝑇 = 𝑟 𝐹 = 30 m 1900 N = 57000 Nm = 57 kNm
coefficient are function
of the shape of the blade Torque of three blades is
and its angle of attack 𝑇 = 3 × 57 kNm = 171 kNm

Example 2.4 Pitch Angle

A three-blade WT is operating at a given angle of attack and the aerodynamic force  The angle between the cord line of the blade and the vertical line representing
exerted by wind on each blade is 2000 N. At the given angle of attack, the lift the linear motion of the center of gravity is called the pitch angle, β
coefficient is 0.95. If the center of gravity of the blade is at 30 m from the hub,  Pitch angle β is a function of geometry of the blade, not a function of the wind
compute the torque generated by the three blades. If the blades rotate at 30 r/m, speed direction
compute the mechanical power generated by the blades.
 The angle of attack α can
Torque of three blades is be controlled by adjusting
𝑇 = 3 × 57 kNm = 171 kNm the pitch angle of the blade
 By increasing the pitch
Mechanical power generated by the blades is angle reduces the angle of
rev 2𝜋 rad 1 min attack and vice versa
𝜔 = 30 = 3.142 rad/s
min 1rev 60 s  Pitch angle control is the
rad main method to control the
𝑃 =𝑇 𝜔 = 171 𝑘𝑁𝑚 3.142
s
= 537.282 kW output power of WTs

Example 2.6 Coefficient of Performance

For the Example 2.5 if the pitch angle is 5⁰, compute the angle of attack.  The motion of the mass of air passing
through the turbine blades starts from far
upstream
α + 𝛽 = 90° − 69.06°  No loss of air mass by the action of the
𝛽 = 5° 𝑑
blades
𝛼 + 5° = 20.94°  Mass of the air
𝑤 𝛼
𝑉 𝑚 = vol 𝛿
α = 20.94° − 5°
69.06°  Volume of air is
𝛼 = 15.94° vol = 𝐴𝑑 = 𝐴𝑤𝑡
 Mass of air is then
𝑚 = 𝐴𝑤𝑡𝛿 = 𝐴𝑤𝛿𝑡

7
 3/31/2024

Coefficient of Performance Coefficient of Performance

 Because mass is constant, mass flow rate  The harvested energy is the difference
fmass is also constant for the same time between upstream KE and downstream KE
𝑚 𝐴𝑤𝛿𝑡 𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 − 𝐾𝐸
𝑓 = = = 𝐴𝑤𝛿
𝑡 𝑡
𝐾𝐸 > 𝐾𝐸
 Because fmass is constant, the area times
wind speed is constant at any distance 1 1
from the blade 𝑚𝑤 > 𝑚𝑤
2 2

𝑓 =𝐴 𝑤 𝛿=𝐴 𝑤 𝛿=𝐴 𝑤𝛿  Mass of air is constant, therefore

𝑤 >𝑤
 Passing wind mass through blades, part
of its kinetic energy is harvested  The presence of WT in a large moving
air mass modifies the local air speed

Coefficient of Performance Coefficient of Performance

𝑓 =𝐴 𝑤 𝛿=𝐴 𝑤 𝛿=𝐴 𝑤𝛿  According to the conservation of
linear momentum theory and
𝑤 >𝑤 Bernoulli’s principle, the wind speed
at turbine is average of wu and wd
 At upstream, wind speed wu is
𝑤 +𝑤
highest and cross section of the air 𝑤=
mass envelope is Au is smallest 2

 At downstream, wind speed wd is  Air mass at blades is

lowest and cross section of the air 𝑤 +𝑤
𝑚 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤𝑡 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑡
mass envelope is Ad is largest 2
 At turbine, wind speed w is  KEblades is
between wu and wd and air mass 1 1
cross section is between Au and Ad 𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 − 𝐾𝐸 =
2
𝑚𝑤 − 𝑚𝑤
2

Coefficient of Performance Coefficient of Performance

 KEblades is  Defining the ratio of downstream to far downstream to far upstream wind speed
1 𝑤 +𝑤 1 𝑤 +𝑤 as
𝐾𝐸 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑡 𝑤 − 𝑚𝛿𝐴 𝑡 𝑤 𝑤
2 2 2 2 𝛾= ⟹ 𝑤 = 𝛾𝑤
𝑤
1 𝑤 +𝑤 1 𝑤 +𝑤
𝐾𝐸 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 −𝑤 𝑡 𝑃 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 −𝑤
2 2 2 2
1 𝑤 + 𝛾𝑤
 The power captured by the blade is the energy divided by time 𝑃 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 −𝛾 𝑤
2 2
1 𝑤 +𝑤 1
𝐾𝐸 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 −𝑤 𝑡 𝑃 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 − 𝛾 𝑤 + 𝛾𝑤 − 𝛾 𝑤
𝑃 = =2 2 4
𝑡 𝑡 1 1
𝑃 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 1−𝛾 +𝛾−𝛾 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 1 + 𝛾 (1 − 𝛾 )
1 𝑤 +𝑤 4 4
𝑃 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 −𝑤 1
2 2
𝑃 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 1 + 𝛾 (1 − 𝛾 )
4

8
 3/31/2024

Coefficient of Performance Coefficient of Performance

 Defining  The max. value of Cp is
1
𝑃 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 𝜕𝐶 𝜕 1
2 = 1 + 𝛾 (1 − 𝛾 ) =0
𝜕𝛾 𝜕𝛾 2
 Pw is not equal to the far upstream Pu, the downstream Pd or blade power Pblade
𝜕𝐶 𝜕 1 1
 The power captured by the blade was obtained and is = 1−𝛾 +𝛾−𝛾 = −2𝛾 + 1 − 3𝛾 =0
𝜕𝛾 𝜕𝛾 2 2
1 1 1
𝑃 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 1 + 𝛾 (1 − 𝛾 ) −2𝛾 + 1 − 3𝛾 =0
2 2 2
𝑃 =𝑃 𝐶 3𝛾 + 2𝛾 − 1 = 3𝛾 + 3𝛾 − 𝛾 − 1 = 3𝛾 𝛾 + 1 − 1 𝛾 + 1 = 0

𝐶 =
1
1 + 𝛾 (1 − 𝛾 )
Performance coefficient, represent the amount
𝛾 + 1 3𝛾 − 1 = 0 ⇛ 𝛾 = −1 and 𝛾 = 1/3
2 of wind power that is captured by the blades

Coefficient of Performance Coefficient of Performance

 The max. value of Cp is  The coefficient of
 Substitute γ = - 1 performance is reduced
when we move away
1 1 from γbest
𝐶 = 1+𝛾 1−𝛾 = 1 − 1 1 − (−1) = 0 ; is not appropiate value of γ
2 2
1 𝑤
𝛾 = =
 Substitute γ = 1/3 3 𝑤
1
1 1 1 1 3+1 9−1 1 4 8 16 𝑤 = 𝑤
𝐶 = 1+ 1− = = = 3
2 3 3 2 3 9 2 3 9 27
16
16 𝐶 = ≈ 0.593
𝐶 = ≈ 0.593 ; γ = 1/3 is best value for max. Cp 27
27
 The maximum value of Cp is known as the Betz’s limit  There is no WT today that can achieve this theoretical value of Cp

Tip-Speed Ratio Tip-Speed Ratio

 Tip velocity (Vtip): is the linear velocity at the tip of  Tip – Speed Ration(TSR) (λ): is the tip velocity
the blade which is a function of the angular speed Vtip to the wind speed wu 𝑦
of the blade ω and the length of the blade r
𝑉 𝑥
𝑉 = 𝜔𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑟 𝑇𝑆𝑅 = 𝜆 = 𝑧
𝑤 𝑟
n = the number of revolutions of blade per second 𝑉
 TSR can be easily measured (it needs the
𝑉 measurement of wind speed at turbine and the
𝑛= rotation of turbine)
2𝜋𝑟
 TSR is an easier measure for Cp than γ (γ = wd / wu)
 Vtip should be faster than wind speed to allow the turbine 𝑤
 Modern WTs have TSRs range of about 5 - 10
to generate electricity even at low wind speed
 High Vtip produces noise (Vtip is limited to about 80 m/s)

9
 3/31/2024

Tip-Speed Ratio Blade Power

 Cp has one max. value (point) for one best  The blade power using exerted torque is
value of TSR out of all values
𝑃 = 𝜔𝑇 = 𝜔𝐹 𝑟
 Each WT type has different value of TSR 0.6
for max. Cp Tblade = torque exerted on the blades
0.5
FL = equivalent lift force computed at the center of

performance (Cp)
0.4
Coefficient of gravity of the blade
0.3
rc = distance between the center of gravity and the hub
0.2
 The power in the upstream wind is
0.1
𝑃 =𝐹𝑤
0
7 8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fu = force of upstream wind
Tip – Speed Ratio (λ)
wu = upstream wind speed

Blade Power Blade Power

𝑃 = 𝜔𝐹 𝑟 𝑃 𝜔𝐹 𝑟
=
𝑃 =𝐹𝑤 𝐴 𝐹𝑤
𝑃
𝐴
 The ratio of above two powers is
𝑃 𝜔𝐹 𝑟 𝐴
𝑃 𝜔𝐹 𝑟 =
= 𝑃 𝐹𝑤 𝐴
𝑃 𝐹𝑤
 The tip speed Vtip previously obtained is
 The equation obtained previously for Pw
𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑟𝜔 ⇛ 𝜔 =
𝐴 𝐴 𝑟
𝑃 =𝑃 ⇛ 𝑃 =𝑃  Substitute ω in last above equation
𝐴 𝐴
𝑃 𝑉 𝐹𝑟 𝐴
 Substitute Pu in last above equation =
𝑃 𝐹𝑤 𝑟 𝐴

Blade Power Blade Power

 TSR (λ) previously obtained is  Therefore, Cp is
𝑉 𝐹𝑟 𝐴
𝜆= 𝐶 =𝜆
𝑤 𝐹𝑟𝐴
 Substitute ω in last above equation
 Coefficient of performance Cp is a function of λ as
𝑃 𝑉 𝐹𝑟 𝐴 𝐹𝑟 𝐴 well as the various forces and areas within the air
= =𝜆 mass envelope
𝑃 𝐹𝑤 𝑟 𝐴 𝐹𝑟𝐴
 Lift force FL is also a function of pitch angle as well
 The Cp previously obtained is as the TSR
 All these variables changes with wind speed
𝑃
𝐶 =  The coefficient of performance is a nonlinear
𝑃 function of λ

10
 3/31/2024

Blade Power Blade Power

 A well-designed system operates the WT at or near the maximum Cp as shown  The blade power as a function of wind speed
by ∆λ  The operating range is divided into four regions
 The power captured can be written as a function of wind speed at the turbine
blade is  1st region: ˂ cut-in speed wmin
1  2nd region: wmin ≤ 2nd region ≥wB
𝑃 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 𝐶 (rated power)
2
 3rd region: > wB, the power of the
 We know that turbine is controlled to stay at its
𝐴 rated value
𝐴 𝑤 =𝐴 𝑤 ⇛ 𝑤 = 𝑤  4th region: > wmax (cut-out speed
𝐴
wmax)
1 𝐴
𝑃 == 𝛿 𝑤 𝐶
2 𝐴

Blade Power Blade Power

 At point A, the wind speed is high enough to start generating electricity  The power at point B is the rated output power of the turbine. If the speed exceeds wB, the
blades are adjusted to operate the turbine at its rated power
 Between A and B, the turbine output is a function of the cube of wind speed as
 When the speed reaches the max. design
well as the pitch angle limit of the turbine (cut-out speed or
 During region 2, the pitch angle is max. speed wmax), the turbine is
adjusted to operate the turbine at aerodynamically stalled (feathering) to
its max. Cp to harvest as much make Cp near zero and the mechanical
energy as possible brakes are applied to stop the rotation of
the blades (point D)

Blade Power Blade Power

𝐹𝑟 𝐴  If the wind speed increases, which reduces
𝐶 =𝜆 TSR from λB to λC. With no β control, Cp is
𝐹𝑟𝐴 reduced to CPX. If blade power at X is still at
the rated value, no need to do anything
 Cp is a function of LF, the LF
is a function of pitch angle β  If the blade power exceeds rated value, Cp must
be reduced by increasing β (reducing α and LF)
 Hence Cp is a function of
to maintained power at the rated value (Point C
TSR λ and LF (or β)
corresponds to point between B and D)

𝐶 = 𝑓 𝐿 , 𝜆 = 𝑓(𝛽, 𝜆) 𝑉
𝑇𝑆𝑅 = 𝜆 =
𝑤

11
 3/31/2024

Blade Power Example 2.8

 The coefficient of performance can be empirically computed for A turbine has an upstream wind speed of 10 m/s. The TSR of the turbine is 5. The
a given WT design (widely used equation) as length of the turbine blade is 50 m and the pitch angle is 10º. The constants of the
coefficient of performance are as follows:
𝑘 = 20 ; 𝑘 = 0.1 ; 𝑘 = 0.002 ; 𝑘 = 0.003 ; 𝑘 = 15 ; 𝑘 = 1 ; 𝑘 = 0.02
𝐶 = 𝑘 (Λ − 𝑘 𝛽 − 𝑘 𝛽 − 𝑘 )𝑒
Compute the coefficient of performance and the power captured by the blades.
1 𝑘 𝜋 𝜋
Λ= − 𝛽 = 10° × =
𝜆+𝑘 𝛽 1+𝛽 180° 18

1 𝑘 1 0.02
k1 to k7 are constants unique to any given design Λ= − = 𝜋 − = 0.1734
𝜆+𝑘 𝛽 1+𝛽 5+1 𝜋
18 1+
18

Example 2.8 Example 2.8

A turbine has an upstream wind speed of 10 m/s. The TSR of the turbine is 5. The A turbine has an upstream wind speed of 10 m/s. The TSR of the turbine is 5. The
length of the turbine blade is 50 m and the pitch angle is 10º. The constants of the length of the turbine blade is 50 m and the pitch angle is 10º. The constants of the
coefficient of performance are as follows: coefficient of performance are as follows:
𝑘 = 20 ; 𝑘 = 0.1 ; 𝑘 = 0.002 ; 𝑘 = 0.003 ; 𝑘 = 15 ; 𝑘 = 1 ; 𝑘 = 0.02 𝑘 = 20 ; 𝑘 = 0.1 ; 𝑘 = 0.002 ; 𝑘 = 0.003 ; 𝑘 = 15 ; 𝑘 = 1 ; 𝑘 = 0.02
Compute the coefficient of performance and the power captured by the blades. Compute the coefficient of performance and the power captured by the blades.
Λ = 0.1734 𝐶 = 0.227
We know that
𝐶 = 𝑘 (Λ − 𝑘 𝛽 − 𝑘 𝛽 − 𝑘 )𝑒
𝑃 1
𝐶 = ⇛ 𝑃 = 𝐶 𝑃 = 𝛿𝐴 𝑤 𝐶
𝑃 2
𝜋 𝜋 .
𝐶 = 20 0.1734 − 0.1 − 0.002 − 0.003 𝑒 = 0.227 1
18 18 𝑃 = 1 𝜋 × 50 10 0.227 = 891.4 kW
2

Separation of WTs Separation of WTs

 Wind farms are a cluster of wind turbines that are located at a site to generate
electricity
 Wind farms are also sometimes referred to as a “plant”, “array”, or a “park”
 Advantages of wind turbines clustering are:
 Reduces the installation costs as the expensive heavy equipment do not have
to move over long distances
 Reduces operation costs as system operators are placed in one location
 Reduces maintenance costs
 Simplifies grid connection
 Disadvantages of wind turbines clustering are:
 Wind slows down as it passes through the blades. Thus, available wind
power to downwind machines is reduced.
 Wind passing through blades creates turbulences. Close turbines located
downstream from other turbines cannot efficiently capture energy from the
turbulent wind.

12
 3/31/2024

Separation of WTs Separation of WTs

 WTs must be adequately separated to allow the wind turbulences to damp out  WTs clustering can be done in two ways:
and wind speed recovers before it reaches the next turbine  Square configuration clustering
 Diagonal configuration clustering

Separation of WTs Separation of WTs

Square configuration clustering Square configuration clustering
 D = distance between two adjacent  The separation factor S is
towers 𝐷
 The separation between two turbines is 𝑆=
2𝑟
the minimum distance between the tips of
the two adjacent turbine blades r = length of the blade
 The separation plays a key role in the amount
of power that can be captured by the turbines
Vtip Vtip
r r
Vtip Vtip
Separation r r
Separation

Separation of WTs Separation of WTs

 Array efficiency (ηarray): is a measure of how much of the wind energy is  The acquired land depends on the
available to the turbines in the arrays number of turbines, the length of the
 The array efficiency can be computed empirically by a curve fitting formula blade, and the separation factor. Using
such as the figure, we can calculate the
minimum land use as
𝜂 = 100(1 − 𝑎𝑒 )

a and b are constants 𝐴 = 𝑥 − 1 𝐷 + 2𝑟

values that depend on the
number of turbines in the x = number of turbines
array

13
 3/31/2024

Example 2.9 Example 2.10

A wind developer acquires a 10 × 10 km land to install WTs of 50 m blade length. For the wind farm in the previous example, compute the power production per land
To achieve a separation of 8, how many WTs can be installed at the site? area when the wind power density at the hub is 400 W/m2, the coefficient of
𝐴 = 𝑥 − 1 𝐷 + 2𝑟 performance is 0.3, and the overall efficiency of the turbine-generator system is
𝐷
85%. Assume the array efficiency is 74%.
𝑆= ⇛ 𝐷 = 2𝑟𝑆 = 2 × 50 × 8 = 800 m
2𝑟 The Wind power in turbine sweep area is
𝐴 = 𝑥 − 1 𝐷 + 2𝑟 ⇛ 𝐴 = 𝑥 − 1 𝐷 + 2𝑟 𝑃
ρ= ⇛ 𝑃 = 𝜌𝐴
𝐴
𝐴 − 2𝑟
𝐴 − 2𝑟 = 𝑥 − 1 𝐷 ⇛ 𝑥 = +1
𝐷
𝑃 = 400 × 𝜋 × 50 = 3.14 MW
10000 m × 10000 m − 2 × 50 m
𝐴 − 2𝑟 = 𝑥 − 1 𝐷 ⇛ 𝑥 = +1
800 m The output power of the turbine is
𝑥 = 13.375 ⇛ 𝑥 = 13 tubines in a row
𝑃 = 𝜂𝑃 = 𝐶 𝜂 𝑃 = 0.3 × 0.85 × 3.14 = 800 kW
𝑛 = 13 × 13 = 169 tubines

Example 2.10 Diagonal Configuration Clustering

For the wind farm in the previous example, compute the power production per land  The square configuration is suitable for
area when the wind power density at the hub is 400 W/m2, the coefficient of wind farms exposed to variable wind
performance is 0.3, and the overall efficiency of the turbine-generator system is directions
85%. Assume the array efficiency is 74%.  Diagonal arrangement is used when
The total power of the turbines in the farm is prevailing wind direction is consistent
(such as near shores or mountain passes)
𝑃 =𝑃 𝑛 = 800 kW × 169 = 135.2 MW
 The common ranges of D1 and D2 are:
Because of the array efficiency, the output power of the farm is
𝑃 =𝑃 𝜂 = 135.2 MW × 0.74 = 100.05 MW 6r ≤ D1 ≤ 10r
The power production per land area 10r ≤ D2 ≤ 20r

𝑃 100.05 MW
= ≈ 1 MW/km
𝐴 10 × 10

END
Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines

14