GEN. BIOLOGY 2 in earth’s crust.
The complex of data recorded in
MENDELIAN LAWS OF INHERITANCE
GENETICS - Heredity and Variation
BRANCHES OF GENETICS
Molecular genetics- deals with DNA and gene
expression and regulation.
Transmission genetics- deals with different patterns
of inheritance.
Population genetics- deals with how forces of
evolution influence genes in populations.
Cytogenetics- deals with chromosome structure and
behavior during cell division.
Background of GREGOR MENDEL
 FARM TENDER
 BEEKEEPER
 ACADEMICIAN
 AUGUSTINIAN MONK
 FATHER OF GENETIC
Mendel took the path to priesthood when he entered
Augustinian monastery of St. Thomas and became
monk. This is also where he performed his pea plant
studies. Mendel chose the legumes garden peas or
Pisum sativum for his hybridization experiments.
PREVIOUS NOTIONS OF INHHERITANCE
 PANGENESIS
 BLENDING THEORY
 HOMONCULUS THEORY
Phenotype- is the observable characteristics of an
organism.
Genotype- are the sum of genes trasmitted from
parent to offspring.
Alleles- any of the alternative forms of gene in a
genotype.
Dominant Trait- an inherited characteristics that
appear in an offspring if it is contributed from a
parent through a dominant allele.
Recessive Trait- is a weak, unexpressed trait of
dichotomous pair of alleles that has no effect in the
phenotype of heterozygous individual.
Homozygous is a trait made up of two same alleles.
Heterozygous trait is made up of two different alleles.
EARTH’S TIMELINE AND EMERGENCE OF LIFE
Earth has been around for billions of years and the
way that scientists make an estimate is through the
geologic time scale.
This refers to a system of dating the history of Earth in
a chronological manner using geological data.
The geologic time scale reflects the entire geological
history of our planet.
The geologic time scale is divided into eons, eras,
periods, and epochs.
The geologic time scale is a record of geological
events in the Earth’s History.
FOSSILS- remnant, impression, or trace of animals or
plants of a past geologic age that has been preserved
fossils worldwide- known as the FOSSIL RECORD.
EON
Precambrian Eon (4 BYA)
represents the period between the birth of the planet
and the appearance of life forms.
Phanerozoic Eon (542 MYA)
means ‘visible life’ that was constructed through rock
units that bear abundant fossils.
Precambrian Eon (4 BYA)
 Hadean
 Archean
 Proterozoic
ERA
-Division that span time periods of tens to hundreds
million of years.
Phanerozoic Eon (542 MYA)
Cenozoic Era- is also known as the age of mammals.
Mesozoic Era- is also known as the age of reptiles.
Palezoic Era- is also known as the age of
invertebrates.
PERIOD
-A division of geologic history with a span of no more
than 100 million years.
PALEZOIC ERA- “ancient or oldlife: started more than
500 million years ago.
The era began with a spectacular burst of new life.
This is called the Cambrian Explosion.
Life during Precambrian and Paleozoic Period
Precambrian Era
The Precambrian Era is a predated era prior to the
emergence of life during the Cambrian Period.
Hadean- Earth’s surface was in the form of liquid rock
and boiling sulfur that built an ocean of hot materials.
Archaean-Earth’s interior was still hot and active and
this caused a series of volcanic eruptions. This formed
long chains of small islands. The continents have not
formed yet during this time.
Proterozoic- Earth was suspected to have two
supercontinents: one was located in the equator and
the other one was situated on the other side.
Paleozoic Era
The Paleozoic era spanned around 300 million years.
During this time, there were six major continental
landmasses.
At the start of this era, the world-continent Pannotia
was broken into pieces leading to the formation of
Pangea that makes Earth's continents connected once
again.
This era is mainly characterized by the explosion of
different life forms that started to emerge on Earth.
Paleozoic Era
The Paleozoic is divided into six periods: the
Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous, and Permian.
These names were derived from original locations many of
where fossilized rocks of these ages were found. today's oceans
CAMBRIAN- The explosion of life occurred and seas.
ORDOVICIAN- Dominant animals were marine
invertebrates such as trilobites and corals.
SILURIAN- It is marked by the first appearance of land CRETACEOUS The climate The
plants. remained environment
DEVONIAN- It is also known as the Age of Fishes. similar to that evolved to the
CARBONIFEROUS- First seed plants and first reptiles of the Jurassic point that
appeared. period, warm flowering
PERMIAN- It is marked by the extinction of 90% of and humid. plants
Earth’s species. (angiosperms)
Life Forms During Precambrian and Paleozoic Eras began to
Precambrian Era appear for the
Ediacarans appeared in the fossil record that was first time.
dated almost 600 million years ago.
One of the important Ediacarans was the Dickinsonia,
which resembles a ribbed doormat. Life Forms During Mesozoic Era
Paleozoic Era During the Mesozoic era, dinosaurs evolved,
Vertebrates first appeared 525 million years ago specifically at the end of the Triassic period.
during the Cambrian explosion. These organisms started to diversified in forms and
Trilobites were the dominant species during the sizes until the Jurassic period.
Cambrian period. During the early Mesozoic, the land was mainly
These organisms are extinct groups of arthropods. dominated by ginkgophytes, cycads, ferns, and other
The Silurian to the Permian period was dominated by unusual plants.
crinoids, echinoderms, brachiopods, graptolites, and
rugose corals. LIFE DURING THE CENOZOIC PERIOD
Life during the Mesozoic Period major subdivisions of animal history within Earth’s
The Mesozoic Era is really famous for the presence of geologic time scaThe Cenozoic Era is considered as
dinosaurs. the most recent of the le.
It is termed as the age of the dinosaurs which lasted
for almost 180 million years that spans from an Some of the scientists also referred to Cenozoic as the
estimated 250 to 65 million years. “Age of Mammals” since this time is highly dominated
Environment by large mammals.
During the Mesozoic era, the overall environment was
unusually warm. Also, the polar ice caps were not yet CENOZOIC ERA
formed. Environment
PERIOD ENVIRONMENT LIFE FORMS Earth's climate was warm and wet, but it is followed
TRIASSIC The Dinosaurs by a series of cooling for most of the rest of the era.
environment of evolved in the The cooling trend led to the ice age that
the Triassic late-Triassic approximately started 3 million years ago until 12
period was along with thousand years ago.
generally crocodilians, The Paleogene Period started from the extinction of
warm. The flying reptiles, the dinosaurs (65 million years ago) to the start of the
continents sea-reptiles, Neogene Period (23 million years ago). This time scale
were still and mammals. includes three epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene, and
connected as Oligocene Epochs.
one. The Neogene Period lasted from 23 million to about
2.6 million years ago. It can be further subdivided into
JURASSIC A tectonic shift Dinosaurs two epochs: the Miocene and Pliocene epochs.
took place, continued as The Quaternary or also known as the Anthropogene
several rifts the dominant period began about 2.6 million years ago and
were formed species and continues today. It is subdivided into two epochs: the
and filled with evolved to be Pleistocene and Holocene epochs.
water, forming, gigantic.
what would Artificial and Natural Selection
later become Population
A population refers to a group of individuals that
belong to a species.
This lives in an area and interbreed with one another
to form offspring.
NATURAL SELECTION
Natural selection refers to the process where
individual organisms that have favorable traits
experience greater fitness and reproductive success
than those that do not have the trait.
IMPORTANCE
Selected traits through natural selection are the ones
that deal with changes in the environment wherein
they allow organisms to capture food efficiently, or
escape predators swiftly.
These changes through natural selection leads to
higher chance of survival of the species in the
community.
CHANGES IN POPULATION
1. Overproduction
2. Variation
3. Selection
4. Adaptation
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Artificial selection is the process of selecting plants or
animal individuals for breeding. This principle was
developed from our understanding of heritable traits.
IMPORTANCE
Artificial selection served as the primary principle
behind selective breeding used for producing new
varieties of plants and animals.
Through selective breeding, there is an increase in
chances of achieving desirable traits that could lead
to higher production in any plant or animal derived
products.
GENETICS AND MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
Evolution is any net directional change in the
characteristics of organisms or populations over many
generations.
PROCESS:
 Biological Population
 Inheritable characteristics
 Successive generations of the populations
 Develops in a long period of time
 Adapt to the change
DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT
Aristotle- 350 BCE Species are identical. They tend to
remit the same species and can be arranged
Hierarchically.
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Conte de Buffon- AD 1749 As
species change, they migrate to another environment
resulting in their distribution.
Charles Darwin- 1979 Species evolved from one
common ancestor.
Jean Baptiste De Lamark- 1809 Species evolved from
an existing species through environmental forces.
Traits can be passed to the next generation.
Charles Lyell- 1830 All changes in the environment are
uniform and gradual.
Alfred Russel Wallace- 1859 Species evolved from the
process of natural selection which cause variations
within the population.
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION OF ORGANISMS
JEAN BAPTISTE DE LAMARK
Theory of Acquired Characteristics
Sometimes called theory of the inheritance of
acquired characteristics, or “soft inheritance,
Holds that an organism experiencing such a
modification can transmit such a character to its
offspring.
Theory of Use and Disuse
-Parts of the organism that is regularly use will
undergo hypertrophy and will be developed
Theory of NEED
Changes in the environment can arise to NEW NEEDS,
required for species’ survival
CHARLES DARWIN
“Survival of the Fittest”
Organisms adapt to its environment
THEORY of DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION
-Species descended and change over time
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
 Natural Selection
 Artificial Selection
 Gene Flow
 Genetic Drift
 Mutation
 Recombination
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
Natural Selection: Process which populations of living
organism adapt to change.
Theory of Evolution by Artificial Selection
Artificial Selection: Identification of desirable traits by
humans to perpetuate it to future generations.
GENE FLOW- Gene flow is also called gene migration.
Gene flow is the transfer of genetic material from one
population to another. When this happens, there is
tendency to increase the gene diversity in the
population.
GENETIC DRIFT- Genetic Drift is the change in gene
pool of population due to a chance of event. Examples
are Bottle effect and Founder effect.
Bottleneck Effect
Takes place when the population decreases due to
environmental factors such as fires, earthquakes or
floods
Founder Effect
Refers to the reduction in genomic variability that
occurs when a small group of individuals becomes
separated from a larger population.
MUTATION Evolution by mutation occurs whenever a
mistake in the DNA occurs in the heritable cells of an
organism.
RECOMBINATION- Recombination, the process by
which DNA strands are broken and repaired,
producing new combinations of alleles, occurs in
nearly all multicellular organisms and has important
implications for many evolutionary processes.
PIECES OF EVIDENCE THAT EVOLUTION OCCURS IN
NATURE
 FOSSIL RECORD
 BIOGEOGRAPHY
 HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURE
 MOLECULAR HOMOLOGOUS
 EMBROYOLOGY
FOSSIL FORMATION AND CLASSIFICATION
FOSSILS
Our knowledge of past life forms can be attributed to
fossils.
These are the preserved remains of organisms from
earlier periods of Earth’s history.
FOSSIL FORMATION
● Permineralization
Some organisms have spaces in their bodies.
The process of permineralization involves
groundwater filling up these spaces.
● Carbonization
This happens when organisms leave behind the
residual carbon while other elements are shed off.
● Replacement
The process of replacement involves the minerals in
organisms’ bodies being replaced by other minerals.
When this occurs with per mineralization, it is called
petrification.
The Types of Fossils
1. Mold Fossils
Mold fossils form when substances like minerals or
sediments press over the body of a dead organism
2. Cast Fossils
Cast fossils are formed when sediments and minerals
fill up the body cavities of an organism.
3. Trace Fossils
Trace fossils are traces left behind by organisms in the
past.
Examples of trace fossils are fossilized animal tracks,
eggs, and coprolites.
4. True Form Fossils
True form fossils are entire organisms whose bodies
have been preserved.
Dating Fossils
● Relative Dating
Relative dating methods involve estimating sequences
of events.
This usually involves sequencing rock layers through
stratigraphy.
● Absolute Dating
Absolute dating methods give a numerical estimate of
the age of rock layers and fossils.
An example is radiometric dating, which involves
radioactive decay.
Index Fossils
Index fossils are useful in giving information about the
time when the organism was alive compared to other
fossils.
STRUCTURAL AND GENETIC EVIDENCE OF
EVOLUTION
Structural Evidence in the Study of Evolution
Comparative Anatomy
Comparative anatomy focuses on studying the
differences and similarities between the anatomy of
organisms.
Homologous structures are structures in organisms
that are similar in terms of structure but may have
different functions.
Analogous structures are structures that have similar
functions even though they have evolved
independently between different organisms.
Vestigial structures are structures that have no
function in the organism.
EMBRYOLOGY
The similarities between embryos of different species
can be used for tracking evolutionary relationships.
FOSSILS
Scientists are able to piece together structural
evidence from fossils.
DNA
DNA is made up of nucleotide sequences that dictate
the information that is contained in the molecule.
BIGEOGRAPHHICAL EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
The Science of Biogeography
Vicariance refers to when a barrier appears which
isolates two populations of the same species that
were once connected.
Dispersal refers to when a population moves across a
geographical barrier in order to settle in a new
location.
Phenomena That Shape Biogeographical Patterns
Continental Drift
A scientist named Alfred Wegener proposed this
theory of continental drift.
This theory suggests that most of today’s continents
were once connected.
Further evidence of this theory can be seen in the
fossil assemblages found in different continents that
were once connected through Pangea.
Climate and Sea Level Change
The changes in the sea levels affected the amount of e.g. Felis catus - house cat, Panthera leo - lion
land available for organisms to thrive in. (4) all taxa must have an author when described.
These patterns may have affected how species were Homo sapiens L.,
dispersed and how they interacted with each other. Nomenclature Codes
The dip in sea levels also meant that land bridges, International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) -
which is a stretch of land that connected areas in Algae, Fungi, and Plants
times when sea levels were low, became exposed International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
from underwater. (ICZN)- Animals International Code of Nomenclature
Migration Bacteria
Emigration refers to the movement of a population (ICNB) –Bacteria International Committee on
away from an area. Taxonomy of Viruses
Immigration refers to the movement of a population (ICTV) –Viruses
into an area. FUCTIONS OF TAXONOMY
Geographical Barriers How do scientists classify living organisms?
Geographical barriers are landforms like mountains  Morphological traits
and valleys, or bodies of water like rivers and oceans.  Development Traits
Center of Origin  Genetics Traits
It refers to a geographic location where multiple TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY
species have been proven to have acquired distinct 1. Domain
characteristics which may have led to speciation. 2. Kingdom
The East Indies is where diversification of many 3. Phylum
marine species occurred and eventually spread out to 4. Class
colonize other areas. 5. Order
DEVELOPMENT OF TAXONOMY 6. Family
Taxonomy is the science of classifying and naming 7. Genus
organisms. 8. Species
Taxonomy deals with the following functions: DOMAIN
o Identification of organisms  Eukarya – Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protist
o Naming of organisms  Archaea – Archaea-Bacteria
o Classification of organisms  Bacteria
Phylogenetics- The study of evolutionary relationship KINGDOM
among species  Archaea-Bacteria
HISTORY OF TAXONOMY  Eubacteria
Aristotle- Greek philosopher -classified all the  Protista
animals, Historia Animalium -grouped creatures into  Fungi
hierarchy.  Planate
Carolus Linnaeus  Animalia
 -Carl von Linné KINGDOM ARCHAEA
 -Swedish botanist and explorer  ancient bacteria
 -developed the Linnaean system, a taxonomic  prokaryotes
classification system  unicellular
 -organized organisms from larger  cells don't have peptidoglycan
 to smaller and more specific categories, the  mostly extremophiles
Hierarchical System  halophiles, methanogens, thermophiles
 -created a scientific naming system, Binomial  some are autotrophs, some are heterotrophs
System of Nomenclature KINGDOM EUBACTERIA
Development of Taxonomy  ancient bacteria
Binomial Nomenclature  prokaryotes
→ two-part name (genus and specific epithet)  unicellular
Rules in Writing  cells don't have peptidoglycan
 mostly extremophiles
→(1) the name should be in Latin  halophiles, methanogens, thermophiles
(2) the genus of an organism begins with a capital  some are autotrophs, some are heterotrophs
letter; the species designation begins with a lowercase KINDOM PROTISTA
letter;  plant-like, animal-like, and fungus-like
(3) the entire scientific name is italicized when organisms
typewritten or underlined when handwritten  eukaryotes
  mostly unicellular, few are colonial and
multicellular
 mostly aquatic
 some are autotrophs, some are heterotrophs
KINGDOM FUNGI
 Rhizopus
 Neurospora
 eukaryotes
 mostly multicellular, very few unicellular
 all are heterotrophs form spores for
reproduction
 the cell wall contains chitin
 breaks down organic materials
 provides drugs and aids in food production
 "model organisms" in genetics and molecular
biology
 causes animal and plant diseases
 Agaricus
 Fusarium
KINGDOM PLANTAE
 eukaryotes
 multicellular
 autotrophs
 cells are enclosed by a
 rigid cell wall
 has chlorophyll
 producers
 Two Major Groups
-Bryophytes
-Tracheophytes
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
 eukaryotes
 multicellular
 heterotrophs
 consumers
 biggest kingdom in
 the living world
 Two Major Groups
 -Vertebrates
 -Invertebrates