Ch01 Basic Concepts 2P

Introduction &
Basic Concepts
An introduction to principles
and applications of
macroscopic thermodynamics
in engineering.
Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 1
Introduction
 本章從概觀介紹熱力學及單位系統開始，接著討論
一些基本概念，例如系統、狀態、狀態公設、平衡
和過程。
 此外也會討論溫度和溫標。
 接著介紹壓力，即流體垂直作用於單位面積上的力
量，其中會討論絕對壓力和錶壓力、壓力隨深度之
變化、壓力量測裝置（如壓力計與氣壓計）。
 認真學習這些概念對於學好往後章節相當關鍵。
 最後，我們提出一種直覺式系統化的解題技巧，可
以用來解決工程問題。

Objectives
 確實指出熱力學上特定的字彙。藉由精確地定義熱力
學之基本觀念，以形成發展熱力學原理的堅實基礎。
 複習在這本書會用到的公制單位 (SI）。
 解釋熱力學的基本觀念，如系統、狀態、狀態公設、
平衡、過程和循環。
 複習溫度、溫標、壓力、絕對壓力和錶壓力等概念。
 學習一種直覺式系統化的解題技巧。
General overview
• Mechanical • Thermodynamics
Engineering – A part of the Energy
component of mechanical
– Mechanics engineering.
– Energy – Governs all energy
– Systems consuming and
transforming devices and
– Design system.
The overarching goal is
design of products to
meet societal needs.

INTRODUCTION
 Thermodynamics: The science of energy.
 Energy: The ability to cause changes.
 Thermodynamics = therme (heat) + dynamis (power).
 Formal study of thermodynamics began in the early
19th century through consideration of the motive
power of heat: the capacity of hot bodies to produce
work.
 Today the scope is larger, dealing generally with energy
and with relationships among the properties of matter.
 The ways energy is stored within a body and how
energy transformations, which involve heat and work,
may take place.
INTRODUCTION
Conservation of energy principle: During
an interaction, energy can change from
one form to another but the total amount
of energy remains constant.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
The first law asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.
Ein − Eout = ΔE

INTRODUCTION
The second law of thermodynamics: It
asserts that energy has quality as well as
quantity, and actual processes occur in
the direction of decreasing quality of
energy.
INTRODUCTION
 Thermodynamics is both a branch of physics and an
engineering science.
 The scientist is normally interested in gaining a
fundamental understanding of the physical and
chemical behavior of fixed quantities of matter at rest
and uses the principles of thermodynamics to relate
the properties of matter.
 Engineers are generally interested in studying systems
and how they interact with their surroundings. To
facilitate this, engineers extend the subject of
thermodynamics to the study of systems through
which matter flows.
Using Thermodynamics
 Engineers use principles drawn from thermodynamics
and other engineering sciences, such as fluid
mechanics and heat and mass transfer, to analyze and
design things intended to meet human needs.
 Engineers seek to achieve improved designs and better
performance, as measured by factors such as an
increase in the output of some desired product, a
reduced input of a scarce resource, a reduction in total
costs, or a lesser environmental impact.
 The principles of engineering thermodynamics play an
important part in achieving these goals.
Selected Areas of Application

• Automobile engines
• Turbines
• Compressors, pumps
• Fossil- and nuclear-fueled power stations
• Propulsion systems for aircraft and rockets
• Combustion systems
• Cryogenic systems, gas separation, and liquefaction
• Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems
– Vapor compression and absorption refrigeration,
Heat pumps



• Cooling of electronic equipment
• Alternative energy systems
– Fuel cells, Thermoelectric, Solar heating, cooling,
and power generation
– Geothermal systems, Ocean thermal, tidal power
generation, Wind power
• Biomedical applications
– Life-support systems, Artificial organs




燃料電池原理
Anode reaction:
2H2 4H+ + 4e-
Cathode reaction:
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- 2H2O
Overall reaction:
2H2 + O2 2H2O + Heat
燃料電池從功能而言,像是發電機而非電池
PEFC Schematic and Single Cell Structure
1. Electrodes
2. Porous backing
(Carbon paper or clothes)
3. Catalysts
4. Membrane

Beginning ideas and
concepts...
Macroscopic vs. microscopic

viewpoints...
A collection of atoms within a container, each with a unique velocity.

Energy in a microscopic description
1 2
Energy of each atom = e = m V
2
Number of atoms = N
N 2 N
Total Energy = eN = m V =  kei
2 i =1
The macroscopic description

The energy in both cases
is the same, E. In the
macroscopic description,
atomistic concepts are
disregarded.
How we describe the

system chosen for study
requires careful section of
properties that are based
on observable, measurable
quantities.

Micro vs. Macro
 The microscopic approach, known as statistical
thermodynamics, is concerned directly with the
structure of matter. The objective is to characterize by
statistical means the average behavior of the particles
making up a system and relate this information to the
observed macroscopic behavior of the system.
 The macroscopic approach to thermodynamics is
concerned with the gross or overall behavior. It is called
classical thermodynamics. No model of the structure at
the molecular and atomic levels is directly used.
Classical thermodynamics allows important aspects of
system behavior to be evaluated from observations of
the overall system.
Micro vs. Macro
 For the great majority of engineering applications,

classical thermodynamics not only provides a
considerably more direct approach for analysis and
design but also requires far fewer mathematical
complications. For these reasons the macroscopic
viewpoint is the one adopted in this course.

1.2 Dimensions and Units
 Dimension: Any physical quantity

 Units: The magnitudes assigned to the
dimensions
 Primary or fundamental dimensions:
-mass m, length L, time t,
temperature T , etc
 Secondary or derived dimensions:
-velocity v, energy E, volume V, etc.
The definition of the force units

 Force = ma
1N (newton)= 1 kg · m/s2
 Weight = mass x local gravitational acceleration

W = mg
g = 9.807 m/s2; 9.807 N = 1 kgf
 Work: 1 J ( joule)= 1 N · m
 Energy: kJ;

 Calorie (cal):
The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of
1 g of water at 14.5 ºC by 1 ºC.
 British thermal unit (Btu):
The energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of
water at 68 ºF by 1 ºF.
1 cal = 4.1868 J,
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ
 Dimensional Homogeneity:
All the terms in an equation
must have the same unit.

1.3 Closed and Open Systems
 System:
A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study
 Surroundings:
Everything external to the system
 Boundary:
The real of imaginary surface that
separates the system from its
surroundings.
The Definition of “System”
 A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for

study.
-Closed system (control mass): a specified amount
of mass, no flow of matter
-Open system (control volume): a specified region in
space, open to the flow of matter
-Isolated system: one that is not influenced in
anyway by surroundings
-Adiabatic system

FIGURE 1–14
Mass cannot cross the boundaries of a closed
system, but energy can.
FIGURE
A closed system with a moving boundary.

FIGURE
Both mass and energy can cross the boundaries
of a control volume.
FIGURE
A control volume may involve fixed, moving,
real, and imaginary boundaries.

1.4 Properties of A System
 Property: Any characteristic of a system
 Macroscopic:
a few properties (Characteristics)
P, T, V (measurable)
U,S, H (not measurable)
 Extensive: dependent on mass, size
i.e. volume, mass, energy, S
 Intensive: independent of the size of a system ( i.e.
T, P, density, height)
 Specific: (Extensive properties/unit mass)
 Specific volume v = V /m= 1/ρ
1.4 Properties of A System

Continuum
• Matter is made up of atoms that are widely
spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is very convenient
to disregard the atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with
no holes, that is, a continuum.
• The continuum idealization allows us to treat
properties as point functions and to assume the
properties vary continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
Continuum
• This idealization is valid as
long as the size of the
system we deal with is large
relative to the space
between the molecules.
• This is the case in
practically all problems.
• In this text we will limit our
consideration to substances
that can be modeled as a
continuum.

1.5 Density & Specific Gravity
 Density: mass per unit volume
m
ρ=
V
( kg m 3 )
 The reciprocal of density is the specific
volume v, which is defined as volume
per unit mass.
 Specific volume v = V /m= 1/ρ
 Specific gravity: The ratio of the
density of a substance to the density of
some standard substance at a
specified temperature (usually water at
4°C).
1.6 State and Equilibrium
 State:
The state of a system is described by its properties.
A description at the system.
 Since there are normally relations among the
properties of a system, the state often can be
specified by providing the values of a subset of the
properties. All other properties can be determined in
terms of these few.

 Equilibrium: A state of balance

In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced
potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
- thermal equilibrium
- mechanical equilibrium
- phase equilibrium
If a system involves two phases
and when the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium
level and stays there.
- chemical equilibrium
If the chemical composition of a
system does not change with
time.
 State Postulate:
The state of a simple compressible system is
completely specified by two independent, intensive
properties.
-Two properties are independent if one property can
be varied while the other one is held constant.
 a simple compressible system:
A system is called a simple compressible system in
the absence of electrical, magnetic, gravitational,
motion, and surface tension effects.

1.7 Processes and Cycles
 Process: Any change that a system undergoes from

one equilibrium state to another.
 Path: The series of states through which a system
passes during a process.
 Quasi-static (Quasi-equilibrium) process:

When a process proceeds in such a manner that the
system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium
state at all times
FIGURE
A process between states 1 and 2 and the
process path.
To describe a process
completely, one should
specify the initial and final
states, as well as the path
it follows, and the
interactions with the
surroundings.
 Isothermal Process: T is constant

 Isobaric Process: P is constant
 Isochoric or isometric Process:
specific volume is constant
FIGURE
The P- V diagram of
a compression
process.
 Cycle: Process in which the final state is identical to

the initial value
2 Process B
P
1
Process A
The Steady-Flow Process
 Steady Process: no change with time.

– The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.
 Uniform Process: no change with location
 The Steady-Flow Process:

A process during which a fluid flows through a
control volume steadily. That is, the fluid properties
can change from point to point within the control
volume, but at any fixed point they remain the same
during the entire process.

The Steady-Flow Process
1.8 Temperature and the 0th Law

 Temperature: A measure of hotness or coldness
 Two bodies reaching thermal equilibrium after

being brought into contact in an isolated enclosure.

 The 0th Law

- If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a
third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
- T1=T2, T3=T2 get T1=T3
- in 1931, by R. H. Fowler
 Temperature Scale:
All temperature scales are based on some easily
reproducible states such as the ice point & the
steam point.
- Celsius scale, ºC (Swedish astronomer Anders
Celsius, 1701–1744)
- Fahrenheit scale, ºF (German instrument maker
Daniel Fahrenheit,1686–1736)

 Thermodynamic Temperature Scale:
A temperature scale that is independent of the
properties of any substance.
- Kelvin scale, kelvin (K)
- Rankine scale, rankine (R)
 Constant-volume gas thermometer
At low pressure, the temperature of a gas is
proportional to its pressure at constant volume.

Temperature Scales
T ( K ) = T (° C)+ 273.15
T ( R ) = T (° F)+ 459.67
T ( R) = 1.8 T ( K )
T (° F ) = 1.8 T (°C ) + 32
Temperature Scales
• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin
scale was the ice point, 273.15 K, which is the
temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more
precisely reproducible point, the triple point of
water (the state at which all three phases of water
coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value
273.16 K.

The International Temperature Scale of 1990
(ITS-90)
• The International Temperature Scale of 1990
supersedes the International Practical Temperature
Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68), 1948 (ITPS-48), and 1927
(ITS-27).
• The ITS-90 is similar to its predecessors except that
it is more refined with updated values of fixed
temperatures, has an extended range, and conforms
more closely to the thermodynamic temperature
scale.
The International Temperature Scale of 1990

(ITS-90)
• On this scale, the unit of thermodynamic
temperature T is again the kelvin (K), defined as the
fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water, which is
sole defining fixed point of both the ITS-90 and the
Kelvin scale and is the most important thermometric
fixed point used in the calibration of thermometers
to ITS-90. The unit of Celsius temperature is the
degree Celsius (°C).
• The ice point remains the same at 0°C (273.15 K) in
both ITS-90 and ITPS-68, but the steam point is
99.975°C in ITS-90 whereas it was 100.000°C in IPTS-
68.
Thermometers
• Any body with at least one measurable property
that changes as its temperature changes can be used
as a thermometer.
• Such a property is called a thermometric property.
• The particular substance that exhibits changes in the
thermometric property is known as a thermometric
substance.
The mercury in glass thermometer

• Thermometric property: expansion of Hg with
temperature.
Δ L Hg = α [T − T 0 ]

What are thermocouples?
• Thermocouples operate under the principle that
a circuit made by connecting two dissimilar
metals produces a measurable voltage (emf-
electromotive force) when the two ends of the
thermocouple circuit are at different
temperatures
Thermocouple Material vs EMF

•

1.9 Pressure
 is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per

unit area.
 We speak of pressure only when we deal with a
gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in
solids is normal stress.
 Units:
- 1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2
- 1 bar = 100 kPa
- 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 1.01325 bar
- 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2 = 0.9679 atm = 14.22 psi
- 1 atm = 14.696 psi (lbf/in2)
1.9 Pressure
 Absolute Pressure:
The actual pressure at a given position and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum
 Gage Pressure:
The difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure (measured)
 Vacuum Pressure:
Pressure below atmospheric pressure
 Pgage = Pabs – Patm (P above Patm)
 Pvac = Patm – Pabs (P below Patm)

FIGURE
Absolute, gage, and
vacuum pressures.
1.9 Pressure

1.9 Pressure
 Fz = maz = 0:
W=
 P2 Δx Δy –P1 Δx Δy + ρg Δx Δy Δz = 0
 ∴ ΔP= P2 –P1 = – ρg Δz = – 𝛾 Δz
 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 is the specific weight
1.9 Pressure
 In a room filled with
a gas, the variation
of pressure with
height is negligible.

1.9 Pressure
 If we take point 1 to be at
the free surface of a liquid
open to the atmosphere,
where the pressure is the
atmospheric pressure Patm,
then the pressure at a
depth h from the free
surface becomes
P = Patm + ρ gh
or
Pgage = ρ gh
1.9 Pressure
 Liquids are essentially incompressible substances,
and thus the variation of density with depth is
negligible.
 However, the variation of density of liquids or gases
with temperature can be significant.
 For fluids whose density changes significantly with
elevation,
2
ΔP = P2 − P1 = −  ρ g dz
1

FIGURE 1–46
The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in
a given fluid regardless of geometry, provided that the points
are interconnected by the same fluid.
1.9 Pressure
 Pascal’s law: Blaise Pascal (1623–1662).
The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases
the pressure throughout by the same amount
P1=P2 ; F1/A1=F2/A2
F2/F1=A2/A1
The area ratio A2/A1

is called the ideal
mechanical
advantage of the
hydraulic lift.

1.10 Pressure Measurement Devices
 Barometer:
A device is used to measure the
atmospheric pressure; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred
to as the barometric pressure.
 Patm = ρgh ; ρ:density
 Torr: The unit mmHg
1 torr = 133.3 Pa;
1 atm = 760 torr
 The atmospheric pressure changes
not only with elevation but also with
weather conditions.

The Manometer
Manometers measure pressure differences in
terms of the length of a column of liquid.
It is commonly used to measure small and

moderate pressure differences.
A manometer contains one or more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

Other pressure measurement devices
 Bourdon tube:
It consists of a hollow metal tube bent like a hook
whose end is closed and connected to a dial
indicator needle.
 Pressure transducer:
It is made of semiconductor materials such as
silicon and convert the pressure effect to an
electrical effect such as a change in voltage,
resistance, or capacitance.
 Gage pressure transducer:
The atmospheric pressure as a reference
Bourdon Tubes

Some basic pressure gages.
Other pressure measurement devices

 Absolute pressure transducer:
It is calibrated to have a zero signal output at full
vacuum.
 Differential pressure transducer:
measure the pressure difference between two
locations directly instead of using two pressure
transducers and taking their difference.
 Piezoelectric effect:
An electric potential is generated in a crystalline
substance when it is subjected to mechanical
pressure.

1.11 Problem-solving technique
 Problem statement
 Schematic
 Assumptions and Approximations
 Physical laws
 Properties
 Calculations
 Reasoning, verification, and discussion

1.11 Problem-solving technique
A Remark on Significant Digits

In engineering calculations,
the information given is not
known to more than a certain
number of significant digits,
usually three digits.
Consequently, the results
obtained cannot possibly be
accurate to more significant
digits.
Reporting results in more
significant digits implies
greater accuracy than exists,
and it should be avoided.

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Introduction &

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 2

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 3

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 4

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 5

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 6

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 7

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 9

Selected Areas of Application

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 10

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 11

Selected Areas of Application

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 12

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 13

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 14

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 16

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 17

PEFC Schematic and Single Cell Structure

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 18

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 19

Macroscopic vs. microscopic

A collection of atoms within a container, each with a unique velocity.

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 20

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 21

The macroscopic description

How we describe the

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 22

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 23

Micro vs. Macro

 For the great majority of engineering applications,

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 24

 Dimension: Any physical quantity

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 25

1.2 Dimensions and Units

The definition of the force units

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 26

 Weight = mass x local gravitational acceleration

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 27

1.2 Dimensions and Units

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 28

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 29

The Definition of “System”

 A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 30

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 31

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 32

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 33

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 34

1.4 Properties of A System

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 36

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 37

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 38

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 39

1.6 State and Equilibrium

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 40

 Equilibrium: A state of balance

1.6 State and Equilibrium

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 42

 Process: Any change that a system undergoes from

 Quasi-static (Quasi-equilibrium) process:

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 43

 Isothermal Process: T is constant

Thermodynamics – Chung-jen Tseng @ NCU ME Ch 01 - 45

 Cycle: Process in which the final state is identical to