Authored by M.

ALLIEY

PRÉCIS WRITING :-
Precis is a summary and précis writing means summarizing. Précis writing is an exercise in a
comprehension. A précis is the gist or main theme of a passage expressed in as few words as
possible. It includes all essential points so that anyone on reading it may be able to grasp the
main idea points.

Precis-writing must not be confused with paraphrasing. A paraphrase should

reproduce not all the substance of the passage but also the details. It will therefore be as long
as and probably longer then the original. But précis must always be much shorter then the
original. Precis should not contain more then the one third of the number of words as in the
original passage.

USES OF PRECIS-WRITING:-
Precis-writing is also a very good exercise in writing a composition. It teaches one how to
express one's thoughts clearly, concisely and effectively. Have you noticed how an uneducated
person tells a story? He repeats himself, brings in alot of irrelevant matter, omits from its
proper place what is essential and drags it in later as an after-thought, and takes twenty
minutes to say what a trained thinker would express in five. The whole effect is muddled and
tedious. In a precis you have to work within strict limits. You must express a certain meaning in
a fixed number of words. So you learn to choose your words carefully, to construct your So
practice in precis-writing is of great value for practical life. In any position of life the ability to
grasp quickly and accurately what is read, or heard, and to reproduce it clearly and concisely.

METHOD OF PROCEDURE:-
Reading. (a) First read the passage through carefully, but not too slowly, to get a general idea
of its meaning. If one reading is not sufficient to give you this clearly, read it over again, and
yet again. The more you read it, the more familiar will it become to you, and the clearer will be
(i) its subject, and (ii ) what is said about that subject. Ask yourself, "What is it I am reading?
What does the author mean? What is his subject? What is he saying about it.

(b) Usually you are required to supply a title for your precis. This is a good stage at which to
do this. Think of some word, phrase or short sentence that will sum up briefly the main subject
of the passage. Sometimes this is supplied by what we may call a key-sentence. This key-

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(d) You should now be in a position to decide what parts of the passage are essential and what
parts are comparatively unimportant and so can be omitted without any loss. This process of
selection is not so easy as some people think.

(b) Important Points:-

(i) The precis should be all in your own words. It must not be a patchwork made up of phrases
and sentences quoted from the original.

(ii) The precis must be a connected whole. It may be divided into sections or paragraphs,
according to changes in the subject-matter, but these must not appear as separate notes,but
must be joined together in such a way as to read continuously.

(iii) The precis must be complete and self-contained; that is, it must convey its message fully
and clearly without requiring any reference to the original to complete its meaning.

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READING COMPREHENSION :-
A comprehension exercise consists of a passage, upon which questions are set to test the
student's ability to understand the content of the given text and to infer information and
meanings from it.

Here are a few hints:-

Read the passage fairly quickly to get the general idea.

Read again, a little slowly, so as to know the details.
Study the questions thoroughly. Turn to the relevant portions of the passage, read them
again, and then rewrite them in your own words, neatly and precisely.
Use complete sentences.
If you are asked to give the meaning of any words or phrases, you should express the
idea as clearly as possible in your own words. Certain words require the kind of
definition that is given in a dictionary. Take care to frame the definition in conformity
with the part of speech.

Factors on which reading comprehension depends:-

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Vocabulary Knowledge: A strong vocabulary is essential for understanding the meaning
of words in context. The more words a person knows, the better they can comprehend the
content.
Reading Fluency: Fluent readers can process text quickly and accurately, which is
crucial for comprehension. Slow or laborious reading can hinder the ability to
understand the overall meaning.
Critical Thinking Skills: The ability to analyze and evaluate information, draw
inferences, make predictions, and engage in critical thinking contributes to effective
comprehension.
Text Structure and Organization: Understanding how information is organized
within a text, including the use of headings, subheadings, and other structural
elements, helps readers navigate and comprehend the material more effectively.

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PARAGRAPH WRITING:-
Definition:- A paragraph is a number of sentences grouped together and relating to one
topic; or, a group of related sentences that develop a single point.
There is, therefore, no rule as to the length of paragraphs. They may be short or long
according to the necessity of the case. A paragraph may consist of a single sentence, or of
many sentences.

PRINCIPLES OF PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE:-

1. UNITY:- The first and most important principle to be observed in constructing a
paragraph is that of Unity. Just as each sentence deals with one thought, each paragraph
must deal with one topic or idea- and with no more than one And every sentence in the
paragraph must be closely connected with the main topic of the paragraph.

2.ORDER:- The second principle of paragraph construction is Order - that is, logical
sequence of thought or development of the subject. Events must be related in the order of
their occurrence, and all ideas should be connected with the leading idea and arranged
according to their importance or order.

3.VARIETY:- A third principle of paragraph construction is Variety; by which is meant

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not always of the same sentence construction.

IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF PARAGRAPH:-

I. TOPIC:- The one thing the paragraph is about, is the unifying factor, and every
sentence and idea contained in the paragraph relates to the topic.
II. The main idea:- what the author wants to communicate about the topic, is the
central or most important thought in the paragraph. Every other sentence and idea
in the paragraph is related to the main idea. The sentence that express this idea is
called topic sentence.
III. DETAILS:- are the proof, support, explanationreasons or examplesthat explains the
main idea.

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ESSAY WRITING:-
The word Essay is defined as giving expression to one's own personal ideas or opinions on
some topic; but the term usually covers also any writtten composition, whether it expresses
personal opinions, or gives information on any given subject, or details of a narrative or
description.

CLASSIFICATION OF ESSAYS:-

Essays may be classified as Narrative Essays, Descriptive Essays, Expository Essays,Reflective

Essays and Imaginative Essays.

1. REFLECTIVE ESSAYS :-

A reflection is a thought on some subject-on an idea arising in the mind. So a reflectiveessay

consists of reflections or thoughts on some topic, which is generally of an abstractnature; for
example; (a) habits, qualities, etc., such as truthfulness, thrift, temperance,cowardice,
heroism, patriotism, industry, etc., (b) social, political and domestic topics,such as riches and
poverty, caste, democracy, liberty, government, family life, education,marriage, business, etc.,
(c) philosophical subjects, such as right and wrong, reality,consciousness, the meaning of the
universe, etc.; or (d) religious and theological topics.

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2. NARRATIVE ESSAYS :-

A narrative essay consists mainly in the narration of some event, or series of events. I say
"mainly" because a narrative essay must not be confused with a short story or bits of history.
The narrative it relates should be treated as a subject for thought and comment, and so the
essay should be more or less reflective. Narrative essays may treat of- (a) historical stories or
legends (e.g., the reign of Akbar, the story of Rama and Sita); (b) biographies (e.g., life of
Shivajee, or of Babar); (c) incidents>(e.g., a street quarrel, a marriage); (d) an accident or
natural disaster (E.g., a flood, a fire, a ship-wreck, an earthquake; (e) a journey or voyage; (f) a
story (real or imaginary).

3. Descriptive Essays :-
A descriptive essay consists of a description of some place or thing; e.g., (a) animals, plants,
minerals (such as the elephant, the pipal tree, coal); (b) towns, countries, buildings, etc., (e.g.,
Mumbai, Italy, the Taj Mahal); (c) aspects and phe-nomena of nature (such as volcanoes, the
monsoon, sunlight, organic life); and (d) manufactured articles (such as motor-cars, steam-
engines, silk, paper, etc.).

4. Expository Essays :-
An expository (or explanatory) essay consists of an exposition or explanation of some subject;
e.g. : (a) institutions, industries, occupations {e.g., parliament, the press, silk-weaving, farming,
etc.): (b) scientific topics (such as gravitation, evolution, astronomy etc.); (c) literary topics
(such as the nature of poetry, prose styles, the genius of Shakespeare, the novels of Scott,
history of fiction, etc.).
5. Imaginative Essays :-
Essays on subjects such as the feelings and experiences of the sailor wrecked on a desert
island may be called imaginative Essays. In such the writer is called to place himself in
imagination in a position of which he has had no actual experience. Such subjects as
"If I were a king," or "The autobiography of a horse," would call for imaginative essays.

2. STRUCTURE OF AN ESSAY :-
We may divide an essay into three parts –
 Introduction
 Body of the Essay
 Conclusion
(a) The Introduction :- This, in a short essay, must be very brief. It would be absurd to
have the porch bigger than the building itself. It may be simply a sentence, or a very short
paragraph. But it should always be arresting and pertinent to the subject. The introduction
may consist of a definition or a quotation, proverb, very brief story, or general remark,
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leading up to the subject.
(b) The Body of the Essay:- This is really the essay itself – the house to which the
introduction is the front door, and the conclusion the back door, or exit.
In arranging the body of the essay observe proportion; that is, let each part have due
weight given to it.
The paragraphs should be well constructed and should be related to one another
according to the direction of your outline; and, as far as possible, the connection between
one and another should be shown. Avoid "padding" and keep to the point.
Take pains in selecting words and phrases which exactly express the ideas which you
have in mind; and frame your sentences so that they are quite clear and forceful.
Avoid the use of unneccessary words. In revising your essay, look out for useless
repetitions and redundant expressions, and strike them out.
Match the words to the sense, and adapt the style to the subject-matter. Do not write
frivolously on a serious subject, or ponderously on a light and humorous subject.

(c) The Conclusion :- As the introduction should arouse interest, the conclusion should
satisfy it. An effective and satisfying end to an essay is as important as an arresting
beginning. An abrupt or feeble ending may spoil the whole effect of the essay. A good
conclusion may consist of :- (a) a summing up of the arguments of the essay; (b) final
conclusion drawn from the subject-matter; (c) a suitable quotation; (d) a sentence that
strikingly expresses the main point you want to drive home.

SUMMARY OF METHOD OF PROCEDURE:-

To sum up :-
 Clearly define your subject in your own mind.
 Think over it, until ideas about it come into your mind, and jot the points down on
paper as they occur to you - numbering them.
 Classify these points in groups under suitable headings, rejecting any that are
unsuitable.
 Arrange these headings in a bare outline.
 Fill in the outline, making a full outline.
 Now begin to write the essay, dividing it into paragraphs.
 The essay should consist of introduction, body and conclusion.
o Make the introduction arresting.
o Keep the parts of the body of the essay in proper proportion; and take pains in
choosing words, construcing sentences and building up paragraphs.
o Make the conclusion effective and satisfying.
 Write in a simple, concise, clear, direct and natural style.

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_DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS IN
WRITING:-
Developing ideas in writing is a crucial skill that helps create a coherent and engaging piece of
work. Whether you're writing an essay, a story, or any other type of content, the process of
developing ideas generally involves several key steps:

 Brainstorming:-
o Begin by generating a list of ideas related to your topic.
o Don't filter or judge ideas at this stage; just let your creativity flow.
o Use techniques like mind mapping, free writing, or listing to explore various angles.

 Organizing Ideas:-
o Group related ideas together to form clusters or categories.
o Identify main themes or arguments that will serve as the backbone of your writing.
o Consider the logical flow of ideas to ensure a smooth progression.

 Thesis Statement or Main Idea:-

o Clearly articulate the main point or argument of your piece. This is often called the thesis
statement.
o The thesis statement provides a roadmap for your readers and guides the development of your
ideas throughout the text.

 Outlining:-
o Create an outline that includes key points, supporting details, and the overall structure of your
piece.
o This helps you see the relationships between different ideas and ensures a well-organized
composition.

 Developing Supporting Details:-

o Elaborate on each main point with specific examples, evidence, or anecdotes.
o Provide sufficient details to make your ideas more vivid and convincing.
o Consider the needs and interests of your audience to tailor your development appropriately.

 Transitions:-
o Use transitional words and phrases to guide readers smoothly from one idea to the next.
o Transitions help maintain coherence and clarity in your writing.

 Revision:-
o Review and revise your work, focusing on the clarity and effectiveness of your ideas.
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o Eliminate unnecessary repetition and ensure a logical progression of thoughts.

 Polishing:-
o Pay attention to grammar, punctuation, and overall writing style to ensure a polished final
product.
o Consider the tone and voice that best suit your audience and purpose.

Remember that developing ideas is an iterative process. It's normal to revisit and revise
your work as you refine your understanding of the topic and your audience. Additionally, practice
and feedback play crucial roles in honing your ability to develop ideas effectively in writing.

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DEVELOPING ANALYTICAL SKILLS:-

Developing analytical skills is crucial in various aspects of life, including problem-solving,
decision-making, and critical thinking. Remember that developing analytical skills is an ongoing
process. Consistent effort and a willingness to challenge your thinking will contribute to your
growth in this area over time.
Here are some strategies to help you enhance your analytical skills:

Practice Regularly:
- Like any skill, analytical skills improve with practice. Regularly engage in activities that
require analysis, such as puzzles, logic games, or brain teasers.

Read Widely:
- Read a diverse range of materials, including books, articles, and research papers. Exposure
to different perspectives and ideas helps broaden your thinking and analytical abilities.

Ask Questions:
- Develop a curious mindset by asking questions about the information you come across.
Question assumptions, seek alternative explanations, and strive to understand the underlying
reasons behind concepts.

Critical Thinking:
- Evaluate information critically. Consider the source, relevance, and reliability of the
information. Develop the ability to identify biases and distinguish between fact and opinion.

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Logical Reasoning:
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- Practice logical reasoning exercises. Deductive and inductive reasoning are essential
components of analytical thinking. Solve puzzles and engage in activities that require logical
deduction.

Mind Mapping:
- Use mind maps to visually organize and connect ideas. Mind mapping can help you see
relationships between different pieces of information and enhance your ability to think
holistically.

Collaborate and Discuss:

- Engage in discussions with others. This can expose you to different perspectives and
challenge your own thoughts, fostering analytical thinking.

Stay Updated:
- Keep yourself informed about current events, trends, and developments. This awareness
can contribute to your ability to analyze situations in a broader context.

Continuous Learning:
- Embrace a mindset of continuous learning. Stay open to new ideas and be willing to adapt
your analytical approaches as you encounter different challenges.

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DEVELOPING AN ARGUMENT:-

Developing a strong argument in an essay involves several key elements, including a clear
thesis statement, supporting evidence, logical reasoning, and effective organization. Here's a
step-by-step guide to help you develop a compelling argument in your essay:

Choose a Clear Thesis Statement:

 Start by clearly stating your main argument or thesis. This should be a concise and
specific statement that outlines the main point of your essay.
 Make sure your thesis is arguable. It should present a perspective that someone
could reasonably disagree with.
Outline Your Main Points:
 Identify the key points that support your thesis. These will serve as the main topics of
your body paragraphs.
 Organize your points in a logical order to create a coherent flow in your essay.
Provide Evidence:
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 Support each of your main points with relevant evidence. This can include facts,
statistics, examples, quotations, or expert opinions.
 Ensure that your evidence is credible and comes from reputable sources.
Consider Counterarguments:
 Acknowledge and address potential counterarguments to your thesis. This shows
that you have considered different perspectives and strengthens your overall
argument.
 Refute counterarguments with evidence and reasoning, demonstrating why your
position is stronger.
Use Logical Reasoning:
 Develop your argument using sound logic. Ensure that there is a clear and logical
connection between your thesis, main points, and supporting evidence.
 Avoid fallacies and inconsistencies in your reasoning.
Create a Strong Introduction:
 Begin your essay with a captivating introduction that introduces your topic and presents
your thesis.
 Provide some context or background information to help readers understand the
importance of your argument.
Develop Coherent Body Paragraphs:
 Each body paragraph should focus on one main point and include supporting
evidence.
 Start each paragraph with a topic sentence that clearly relates to your thesis.
Transition Smoothly Between Paragraphs:
 Use transitional phrases and sentences to create a smooth flow between paragraphs
and ideas.
 Ensure that there is a logical progression from one point to the next.
Write a Compelling Conclusion:
 Summarize your main points and restate your thesis in a new way.
 Emphasize the significance of your argument and leave a lasting impression on the
reader.
Revise and Edit:
 Review your essay for clarity, coherence, and effectiveness.
 Check for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that your writing is clear and
concise.

Remember, a strong argument is not only about expressing your opinion but also about
presenting a well-reasoned and supported perspective. It's important to engage your readers
and persuade them through thoughtful analysis and evidence.

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SENTENCE STRUCTURE:-

SENTENCE:

Sentence is the largest unit of grammatical organization which has subject and
predicate structure. In a sentence different parts of speech (nouns, verbs & adverbs) and
grammatical clauses (word, phrase & clause) are said to function. In English a simple sentence
contains one independent clause with a finite verb. However, a compound sentence or a
complex sentence contains more then one clause in it.

SUBJECT:
It is a part of a sentence about which something is stated in the predicate part.
PREDICATE:

It is a part of a sentence about which states something about the subject.

SENTENCE COMBINING:

Sentence combining is the process of putting two or more simple sentences

together to create a more complex and detailed sentence. It involves joining related ideas to
make the writing clearer, more concise, and engaging.

ACCURACY:

In functional English, accuracy refers to making sure that what you say or write is
correct and free from mistakes. It involves using the right words, grammar, and
punctuation to express your ideas clearly and precisely. When you aim for accuracy, you
ensure that your communication is reliable and easily understood by others.

APPROPRIATENESS:

In functional English, "appropriateness" refers to using the right words and

sentence structures that fit the situation. It means expressing yourself in a way that makes
sense for the context and the people you are talking to. So, being appropriate in English is
about choosing the words and sentences that are just right for what you're trying to say and
for the people you're talking or writing to.
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VARIATION:
Variation refers to the differences in pronunciation, grammar or a word choice within a
language. Variation in a language may be related to region, to social class and or educational
background or to the degree of the formality of the situation in which language is used.
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TRANSITIONAL DEVICES:
Transitional devices, also known as discourse markers, sign posts or linkers, are words or
phrases that help guide readers through the logical flow of your essay. They establish
connections between sentences, paragraphs, and ideas, improving the overall coherence and
readability of your writing.

Sequential Transitions:
 First, second, third: Used to indicate the order of events or steps.
 Next, then, finally: Signaling the continuation or conclusion of a sequence.
Causal Transitions:
 Because, since, as a result: Showing cause-and-effect relationships between ideas.
 Therefore, thus, consequently: Indicating the result or consequence of a previous statement.
Additive Transitions:
 Furthermore, moreover, in addition: Introducing additional information or supporting details.
 Also, likewise, similarly: Indicating similarity or agreement with the previous point.
Contrastive Transitions:
 However, on the other hand, nevertheless: Introducing a contrasting idea.
 Although, despite, yet: Indicating a concession or unexpected contrast.
Example and Illustration Transitions:
 For example, for instance, in particular: Introducing specific examples or illustrations.
 In other words, that is, namely: Clarifying or restating a point in a different way.
Summary or Conclusion Transitions:
 In conclusion, to sum up, in summary: Indicating a summary or conclusion of the main points.
 Ultimately, overall, all in all: Expressing a final judgment or overall assessment.
Time Transitions:
 Meanwhile, during, subsequently: Indicating the time relationship between events or ideas.
 Before, after, eventually: Showing the order of events in time.
Comparison Transitions:
 Similarly, in the same way, likewise: Comparing ideas or situations.
 Compared to, in contrast to, unlike: Highlighting differences or similarities.
Purpose Transitions:
 In order to, so that, with the purpose of: Indicating the purpose or intention behind an action.
Emphasis Transitions:
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 Indeed, in fact, of course: Adding emphasis or reinforcing a point.
 Undoubtedly, without a doubt, clearly: Expressing certainty or strong conviction.
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