Fats and oils 5.

Olive Oil
● Both are glycerol esters of a wide variety of fatty acids. Chemically, both are called lipids. 6. Rice Bran Oil
● Oils are mostly liquid at ambient conditions whereas fats are solid. 7. Peanut Oil
● Both have glycerol backbone and fatty acid side chains and each type of fat/oil is a mixture of 8. Canola Oil
different fatty acids. 9. Rapeseed oil, etc.
● The difference between animal and plant fat is the length of fatty acid chains and level of
unsaturation. Classification by Culinary Use
● Animal fats are mostly saturated, plant fats are mostly unsaturated, except for coconut and The classification of fat according to culinary use is as follows:
palm kernel oils. 1. Frying Oil
● Only animal fats have cholesterol but plant oils can be converted to cholesterol in our bodies. 2. Spread
3. Salad Dressing
Saturated Fatty Acids- butter, lard, beef tallow, andsome plant oils such as coconut oil and palm kernel 4. Shortening
oil,lauric and myristic acid respectively. 5.Topping
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids- canola, olive, and peanut oil 6.Flavoring
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids- corn, canola, cottonseed,sunflower, safflower and soybean. 7. Nutritional Supplement
Trans Fatty Acids- formed when vegetable oils are hydrogenated, present naturally in some animal
fats. Nutritional Importance
Omega-3 Fatty Acids- which are eicosapentaenoicacid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Major ● Fats and oils are concentrated sources of energy.Although fats are essential, nutritional
Sources are: Fatty, cold-water fish like salmon,herring and mackerel, ground flaxseed, flax oil and guidelines recommend that calories from fat should not exceed30% of total caloric
walnuts. requirement.
● If excess, it manifests as fat deposits and an excess of fat deposits are responsible for obesity.
Classification
Classification by Appearance As a general rule, Filipinos’ consumption of fats and oil is low, at 15g/day.
Visible fat are those that are visually distinctive such as butter, beef tallow, coconut oil etc. while 1.Bicol Region (23g/day)
invisible fat are those that are indistinguishable unless separated by chemical means. Examples are 2.NCR and Central Luzon (19-18g/day)
fat in avocado, egg yolk, and lean meats. Invisible fat is nutritionally significant but not for culinary use. 3.Central Visayas (8g/day)
● Fats and oils carry the fat soluble vitamins A,D,E,K which insulate the organs and maintain
Classification by Source cellular structures.
Animal Source ● Essential fatty acids like linoleic acid and linolenic acid,are converted into prostaglandins,
1. Lard, rendered from fatty tissues of pork which are necessary for the immune system.
2. Beef Tallow, rendered from fatty tissues of beefs ● Linoleic acid is the parent molecule of omega-6 fatty acids like arachidonic acid (ARA).
3. Fish oils, derived from fatty tissues of fish ● Alpha linolenic acid is the parent molecule of omega-3 fatty acids including docosahexaenoic
4. Fish Liver oils, derived from fish liver acid(DHA).
5. Chicken Fats ● ARA & DHA are critical for infant brain development.
Plant Source
1. Coconut Oil Chemical Composition of Fats and Oils
2. Palm Oil ● Triglycerides - are glycerol esters of free fatty acids where all 3 carbons in the glycerol
3. Soybean Oil backbone are attached to fatty acid.
4. Cottonseed Oil
 ● Aside from the the kind and length of fatty acid chains and degree of unsaturation, fat/oil
molecules can differ from each other with respect to the position of attached fatty acids etc.
● Majority of the fatty acids are esterified with the glycerol chain.
● Only a very small percentage of FFA’s are free in the natural state. They increase when
hydrolysis sets in
● A high level of free fatty acids is an indication of fat deterioration.
● Though minor constituents in natural fats and oils, mono and diglycerides, have significant
functions as emulsifiers because these molecules have a hydrophilic end and hydrophobic
one.
● Phospholipids- are a combination of a lipid and a phosphate group. Phospholipids unlike the
glycerides are polar substances, due to the acidic nature of its phosphate group and
nitrogenous base.
● They typically occur alongside the proteins and lipoproteins in tissues where they are located.
● Vitamins and minerals- vitamins A,D,E and K
● Pigments like carotenes and chlorophyll may be present unless oil is refined.
Physical Properties of Fats and Oil
● The physical structure or chemical configuration of fats and oils determine its properties
and reactions. Solid fat is composed of crystal structures of straight chain fatty acids
suspended in oil.
Solid Fat Index
● The proportion of fat in crystalline form to the suspending oil is expressed as solid fat index
(SFI). More solids will result in high SFI.
Polymorphism
● Crystals may be fine or coarse depending on the variety of molecular species and on
processing conditions. If there are less molecular species, the crystals will be unstable and
larger crystals will form whereas if there are more molecular species, the resulting crystals will
be smaller. This behavior is called polymorphism.
Plasticity
● Plasticity is the property of fat that allows it to be molded or pressed into various shapes
without breaking. This property is possible because of the presence of both solid and liquid fat.
Melting Point
● Melting point is the temperature at which a solid fat is changed to liquid. This property is
unique for each type of fat/oil. Its range depends upon the solid fat index (SFI) which in turn is
determined by various factors such as: chain length, degree of saturation of component fatty
acids, configuration at double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids and number of molecular
species.
Solidification temperature
● Solidification temperature is the temperature range when a liquid fat is changed to solid. It is
always lower than the melting point. To solidify a melted fat, it must be cooled to a temperature
lower than the melting temperature whereas if an oil is cooled until it solidifies, it must be
warmed to a higher temperature than the temperature of solidification before it can regain
fluidity.
Solubility
Natural fats are insoluble in water, slightly soluble in lower alcohols and readily soluble in non-polar
solvent such as chloroform, ether, petroleum ether, benzene, and carbon tetrachloride.
Density/ Specific Gravity
● In a mixture of water and oil, oil floats to the surface. This is because oil is lighter than water.
Oil/fat has a density(weight/volume) of between 0.90-0.92 grams per cubic centimeter.
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio between the density of a substance and that of water. It
can be measured by pycnometer or westphal balance.
●
Surfactant property is the ability to bridge water and oil molecules. It is a useful value in emulsification.
Thermal stability refers to the ability of fat/oil to withstand heat without undergoing deterioration. This
is manifested by such values as smoke point, flash point and fire point. In cooking, these values are
important because the cooking temperature for frying is limited by the smoke of the fat/oil.
RANCIDITY OF FATS AND OIL
RANCIDITY
● a general term for the flavor problems developed in fat-containing products.
● there are two distinct types of rancidity. which are hydrolytic rancidity and oxidative rancidity
HYDROLYTIC RANCIDITY results in the formation of free fatty acids and soaps (salts of free fatty
acids) caused by either the reaction of lipid and water in the presence of a catalyst of by the action of
lipase enzymes
OXIDATIVE RANCIDITY results from more complex lipid oxidative processes
THREE PHASES OF LIPID OXIDATIVE PROCESSES
1. Initiation/Induction - molecular oxygen combines with unsaturated fatty acids to produce
hydroperoxides and free radicals (both are reactive)
 2. Propagation - the further oxidation by lipid oxidation products give rise in the term
“auto-oxidation” HIGH VALUES - definite indication of rancid fat
3. Termination - relatively unreactive compounds are formed including hydrocarbons, aldehydes, MODERATE VALUES - result of depletion of peroxides after reaching high concentrations
and ketones.
TBA TEST - Saturated aldehydes, 2-enals, and 2-dienals produced in the termination phase of lipid
Factors Affecting Oxidation of Fats and Oil oxidation can be detected by reaction with 2-thiobarbituric acid.
● the initial quality of the fat or oil used for manufacturing the product - produces a red color which can be measured using a spectrophotometer.
● conditions used to manufacture the product - has the same limitation as peroxide value
● storage conditions (heat, light, packaging)
● surface area exposed to atmospheric oxygen Anisidine value - When hydroperoxidases break down, they produce volatile aldehydes leaving behind
● presence of transition metals a non-volatile reaction product that can be measured by reaction with anisidine.
● concentration of active lipoxidase - defined as 100 times the absorbance (at 300 nm) of a solution resulting from reaction of 1 gram of fat
● application of appropriate of synthetic or natural preservatives, in 100 mL solvent.
● or presence of chemical oxidizers High anisidine values may be an indication that a fat has been oxidized

Reaction Products of Oxidation Free Fatty Acids (FFA) - can be determined by titration
Early in the lipid oxidation process, peroxides and hydroperoxides are the predominant reaction - is an indication of hydrolyic rancidity, but other lipid oxidation processes can also produce acids.
products. These continue to increase until; ● For tallows and soybean oil - % oleic acid
● storage conditions change, ● For coconut oils or other oils that contain high levels of shorter chain fatty acids - % lauric aci
● one or more initiators is depleted
● available oxygen is consumed, or PREVENTING RANCIDITY
● the lipid substrate is exhausted ANTIOXIDANTS
● compounds that delay rancidity and the flavor deterioration associated with oxidation.
MEASUREMENTS OF RANCIDITY ● can either be from natural sources or synthesized products and acts as radical scavengers
SENSORY METHODS ● do not stop the development of oxidative rancidity but can delay it.
● detect typical smell such as acetylaldehyde and phenolic substances. ● do not work if the rancidity has begun and cannot reverse the oxidation reactions
● can directly measure consumer acceptability
CHEMICAL METHODS VITAMIN E
● categorized into two types: predictive test and oxidation indicator test ● reacts with the peroxy radical forming a tocopherol radical which is an unreactive compound.
● an effective scavenger of peroxyl radicals
- PREDICTIVE TEST ● the specific type used is alpha tocopherol
Deterioration of iodine value - an example of
predictive testing VITAMIN C
● iodine value indicates the oxidation potential as it measures the double bonds of the Since the initial oxidative reaction is the removal of hydrogen atom, the vitamin C donates or returns the
unsaturated fatty acids hydrogen atom to form an unreactive ascorbic radical.
- OXIDATION INDICATOR TEST
Peroxide value - a measure of the concentration of peroxides and hydroperoxides formed in PHENOLIC ANTIOXIDANTS
the initial stages of lipid oxidation ● these include propyl gallate, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT),
- not static and care must be taken in handling and testing samples and tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ)
 ● these are all synthetic, however, renewed interests in natural plant phenolics arise to replace Cottonseed Oil - usually winterized. Winterization is a process which subjects the oil to a low
these. temperature where higher melting point glycerides are crystallized then filtered off. This is a
characteristics required for salad oils.
CHELATING AGENTS Soybean oil - Comes from the selective breeding and/or biotechnology to reduce the linolenic acid
● substances that help antioxidants content which makes it susceptible to oxidative rancidity.
● in themselves, they are not antioxidants Corn Oil - obtained from the germ of the corn endosperm. It is almost flavorless and high in
● They sequester metal contaminants thus preventing them from catalyzing the oxidative polyunsaturated fat, mostly linoleic (55%) and oleic (29%). used as frying oil, salad oil, made into
reactions. shortening and mayonnaise.
● some examples are citrate, tartarate, phosphates, and ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid Canola Oil - obtained from genetically modified rapeseed. Rapeseed is a member of the mustard
(EDTA) family. The modification reduced the amount of erucic acid from 20-40% to less than 2%. used for
frying, salad dressing, and shortening.
STORAGE TEMPERATURE CONTROL Margarine - Margarine is developed as a substitute for the more expensive butter. It is prepared from a
Elevated storage temperatures promote oxidation so lowering storage temperature can delay rancidity mixture of vegetable oil that is hydrogenated to a desired extent. several variations of margarine
development. includes; hard stick margarine, spreadable margarine in tubs, whipped margarine, with buttermilk, and
mixtures of margarine and butter
FAT AND OIL PRODUCT Coconut Oil- composed mostly of saturated medium chain fatty acids. About 50% lauric acid (12:0) and
ANIMAL FATS about 20% myristic (14:0). In the past years consumers had been urged to avoid food containing
Butter - fat or cream that is seperated from other milk constituents by agitation or churning. Butter is coconut oil and palm oil because of its saturated fatty acid content.
about 18% water dispersed in 80% fat with small amounts of proteins as emulsifier
Lard - In the Philippines, lard is a by-product of chicharon making. Lard is utilized mostly as a flavoring Benefits of Coconut Oil
ingredient or as a flavor carrier especially for the very popular instant noodles. It is also the fat preferred Almost 50% of fatty acids in natural coconut oil is lauric acid which in the body is converted to
in the preparation of hopia and in local delicacies such as the Argao torta. monolaurin. Lauric
Tallow - It is used as an additive to various frying oils. Beef tallow is dry rendered from fatty tissues of acid has been shown to destroy lipid membranes in a variety of microorganisms and viruses. Lauric
beef. acid is also the main fatty acid component in human breast milk and is considered to be significant in
Fish Oil- Fish oils are from oily fish like salmon and mackerel, which are rich in omega-3 fatty acids that protecting infants from illness. It is now quite clear that coconut oil has been shown to be beneficial.
are essential for human health. Coconut oil is used for all edible oil usage from frying oil to filled milk and cheese and coffee whitener.

PLANTS FATS
Vegetable oil - are removed from oil containing seed fruits or nuts by various pressing processes, by
solvent extraction and by combinations of these.
OLIVE OIL
Virgin olive oil has 2% acidity and pale yellow to medium color.
Extra virgin olive oil is the product of the first cold pressing; it is pale to straw to green with acidity of
not more than 1%.
Olive oil light results from the last pressing and has an acidity of up to 3%
Olive oil pure has undergone a refining process, and also has an acidity of upto 3
Virgin Coconut Oil - produced without the use of chemicals such as those used during the refining
process. It is derived directly from coconut milk. The oil is extracted by natural fermentation and
subsequently separated by centrifuge and filtration. generally costs much more than the refined
coconut oil.
Function of Fats / Oil in Food Preparation
Snacks Food Industry
The snack food industry and the fast food industries are the major industrial users of frying oils. The
temperature at which fat can be heated during frying is limited by its smoke point.
Blanching Medium
Fats and oils are also used as a blanching medium. Oil blanching is an industrial process and is better
known as first fry. This is done in the manufacture of French fries, banana chips and sweet potato
chips. The first fry or blanching is also a drying process. The food is quickly fried to cook but not to
brown the surface or make it crisp.
Low Temperature Frying
This is still a variation of frying which is done at very low (below 100°C) temperatures. This is also
known as oil poaching. This is a special procedure used by chefs for delicate products such as fish.
Butter poached fish is a gourmet dish.
Shortening
One of the most important functions of fat is to tenderize baked products that otherwise would be a
tough mass firmly held by gluten.
Emulsion Structure
In emulsion structure, oil can either be the dispersing medium as in margarine or is the dispersed phase
as in cake batter.
Flavor Effect
Fat is an efficient flavor carrier. Note how efficiently it picks up even undesirable odors and volatile
flavors in storage. The culinary practice of infusing oil with herbs makes use of this flavor- carrying
property of fats and oils. Butter, bacon, olive oil, sesame oil are examples of fatty products that are used
as flavoring in food. Exotic nut oils are also used, such as mustard oil, poppy seed oil and grapeseed
oil.
Color Effect
Butter and yellow margarines are used for a more appetizing color/appearance than white lard or white
shortenings such as in baked goods, pie crusts and in spreads
FAT SUBSTITUTE
The fat replacers currently available are categorized into 3 types
1.Fat-based Substitutes
2.Protein-based Fat Replacers
3.Carbohydrate-based Fat Replacers
Fat-based Substitute
Sucrose fatty acids polyesters (SPE’s) are mixtures of compounds called esters made by combining
sucrose esters and fatty acids, the most common example of which is Olestra. Because of its large
molecular size, Olestra is not absorbed or metabolized by the body, thus it contributes no calories to the
diet. Olestra is currently used as frying medium for savory snacks and as shortening.
Sucrose fatty acid esters (SEF’s) are similar to SPE’s however, their molecular size is smaller. As a
result, they are partially or fully absorbed this providing up to 9 calories per gram to the diet, the same
as provided by conventional fats. SFE’s are used as emulsifiers and stabilizers in a wide variety of
foods and as components of coatings used to retard spoilage of fruits.
Protein-based Substitute
These materials are derived from a variety of protein sources including eggs, milk, whey, soy and wheat
gluten. Generally these protein undergo a process called microparticulation in which they are sheared
under heat into vey small particles to impart similar mouthfeel and texture as conventional fats. They
are used in frozen dairy, desserts, cheese, baked goods, sauces, and salad dressings and may provide
only 1-4 calories per gram depending on the water level incorporated into them.
Carbohydrate-based Replacers
A number of carbohydrates including gums, starches, pectins and cellulose have been used for many
years as thickening agents to add bulk, moisture and textural stability to a wide variety of foods
including puddings, sauces, soups, baker goods, salad dressings and frozen desserts. Digestible
carbohydrates such as modified starched and dextrins provide 4 calories per gram while nondigestible
complex carbohydrates provide virtually no calories
FAT AND OIL STORAGE
In hydrolytic rancidity, water is necessary for the reaction to occur, while in oxidative rancidity, oxygen is
necessary. Here are some general rules to follow to maximize the shelf life of fats and oils.
● Avoid exposure to oxygen, light and heat. If practical, refrigeration is a good option. Most fats
and oils will solidify at low temperatures but the reaction is reversible and solidified oil will melt
once taken out of the refrigerator.
● Always cover oil container
● Used oil should be strained to remove particles of food that have broken off during frying
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Do not overheat oil. Watch out for the smoke point. When the oil starts to smoke, lower the
heat so it will not reach the flash and fire point. Never leave heating oil unattended. Do not
allow children and pets to go near fryers while in use.
2. Cool heated oil before transferring to any container. Do not transfer hot oil to plastic containers.
3. Clean spilled oil immediately so no one can slide on it.
4. Have a fire extinguisher in the kitchen. If not available, NEVER use water to put out the fire.
Use baking soda.
Disposal of Used Oil
Do not throw oil in the drain. If you must, dispose it as solid waste in a tightly sealed container. It can
also be mixed compost. If oil has spilled, take immediate action. Use an absorbent material such as soil
or sand. Large quantities of used oil are best taken to a gasoline station that has proper disposal
procedures.