•Definition of research
Scientific investigation of phenomena (which
includes collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of facts that lines an individual's
speculation with reality) to solve existing
problem.
•characteristic of research
1. Systematic, with clearly defined steps and
procedures from formulation of research
questions to data analysis.
2. Objective, aiming to minimize bias and
objectivity in data collection and analysis.
3. feasible, contraits of resources, time and
ethical considerations, researches should
carefully asses the practicality and viability of
the study, making realistic plans to execute the
research within available means.
4. empirical, relying on direct observation, or
measurement of the data.
5. Clear, defined objectives, methods, findings.
•importance of research in daily life of
individual
Empowers us with knowledge, we gain a deeper
understanding of people, and why they do the
things they do.
• processes of research and goals for
conducting such
7 steps of research process
1. Define research problem
2. Review the literacy
3. Formulate the hypothesis
4. Design research
5. Collect data
6. Analyze data
7. Interpret and report
Goals...
✅To produce evidence-based practice
✅To establish credibility in the profession
✅To observe accountability for the profession
✅To promote cost- effectiveness through
documentation
•importance of ethics in research
Is that it provide framework to ensure that
research is conducted properly, with respect for
humans and other subject include involved,
following established moral principles and
professional standards.
•plagiarism and techniques to avoid it
Plagiarism, the appropriation of another
person's ideas, processes, results or words
without, giving credits.
•general forms of research
Before discussing the research designs, it is
important to tackle first the general forms of
research. The general forms of research define
the purpose and approach of the study. These
are as follows:
1. Scientific research is a research method that
seeks to explain naturally occurring phenomena
in the natural world by generating credible
theories. It is a systematic process that involves
formulating hypotheses, testing predictions
using relevant data and other scientific
methods, and finally coming up with a theory.
As such, this study requires rational and
statistical evidence to draw conclusions.
2. Research in the humanities seeks to define
the purpose of human existence by tapping into
historical facts and future possibilities. While
studies on natural and social sciences required
hard evidence to draw conclusions, this form of
research derive explanations from human
experiences that cannot be simply measured by
facts and figures alone.
3. Artistic research provides alternative
approaches to established concepts by
The main purpose of this form of research is to
expound on the current accepted concepts and
open them to further interpretation. As such,
the word “artistic” does not solely refer to the
arts but rather to the kind of approach a
researcher assumes in this type of research.
This research generates new knowledge
through artistic practices such as defining new
concepts, creating new processes, and devising
new methods.
Any of the three forms of study are by no
means a better approach than the other.
However, what differs among the three is the
objective of each study and the means to
achieve it. Nevertheless, whichever of the three
are followed by the researcher, the true goal of
any research remains the same—to further the
current established knowledge on different
areas of study
•function of a research design
The research design enables the researcher to
organize the components of his or
her research in an orderly and coherent
manner. This will ensure that the research or
study
will effectively address the research topic or
problem. The research design is also a template
for
the collection, measurement, and analysis of
data. The research problem determines the
research
design that will be used in the study.
Having a well-developed research design will
enable the researcher to achieve the following:
1. Clearly identify and describe the research
problem or topic, and justify the selection of
the appropriate design to be used
2. Review and synthesize previous studies and
literature related to the topic
3. Clearly identify hypotheses that are
significant to the problem
conducting practical methods as substitutes for
fundamental and theoretical ones.
4. Determine the data necessary to test the
hypotheses and explain how the data will be
obtained
5. Describe the methods of analysis that will be
used on the data gathered in order to evaluate
the hypotheses of the study
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODS
There are two broad categories of research
methodology: qualitative research and
quantitative research. The research method
determines the approach the researcher takes
in identifying relevant data for the research,
and collecting and analyzing the information
gathered in the research. Choosing either a
quantitative or qualitative approach will affect
the components of the research. For instance, a
researcher may choose to undertake scientific
research. If he or she takes a qualitative
approach, the goal of the study will be to
discuss and analyze the underlying concepts
and theories related to the research topic. If the
researcher chooses a quantitative approach, he
or she will use statistical data to provide an
explanation of the phenomenon.
•differentiate quantitative from qualitative
research
Quantitative Research
Polit and Beck (2004) define quantitative
research as “the traditional positivist scientific
method which refers to a general set of orderly,
disciplined procedures to acquire information.”
In their book, Nursing Research Principles and
Methods, they explain that the research
method utilizes deductive reasoning to
generate predictions that are tested in the real
world. It is systematic since the researcher
progresses logically through a series of steps,
according to a prespecified plan of action.
Quantitative researchers gather empirical
evidence that is within the realm of the senses.
The method used in the analysis of data is
usually statistical in nature. Thus, the resulting
information from the study is usually
, quantitative research has its disadvantages as
well. Quantitative research is considered to be
limiting when it comes to studying the complex
and diverse minds of human beings. This is
because quantitative research can only explain
a small fraction of the human experience (e.g.,
behavioral impulses and varying personal
preferences). In quantitative research, these
human complexities are usually controlled or
removed entirely instead of being analyzed. The
inflexible and narrow vision of quantitative
research tends to present the human
experience in a restricted manner.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is defined as the
“naturalistic method of inquiry of research
which deals with the issue of human complexity
by exploring it directly.” (Polit and Beck, 2008)
Unlike quantitative research, qualitative
research puts an emphasis on human
complexity and man’s ability to decide and
create his or her own experience. This type of
research utilizes naturalistic methods of inquiry
as the research places great emphasis on the
analysis of the experiences of the individual.
This type of research attempts to explain the
human experience with its dynamic, holistic,
and individualistic aspects through the
perspective of the individual himself. This type
makes use of qualitative materials that are
narrative and subjective. Qualitative research
focuses on gaining insights and understanding
about an individual’s perception and
interpretation of events. This type of research
collects data through methods such as
interviews and participative observation. The
task of the researcher is to determine the
patterns and themes in the acquired data rather
than focusing on the testing of hypotheses. A
qualitative study researcher is not limited by
quantitative or measurable. Furthermore,
another criterion used in assessing the data in
this kind of study is its capability to generalize
the effect of the results to the individuals
outside of the study participants. However
existing theories but is rather open-minded to
new ideas and points of views. Lastly, the
researcher does not have to be concerned with
numbers and complicated statistical analyses.
However, a major limitation of this model is its
reductionist nature. Qualitative research tends
to reduce human experience to just the few
concepts under investigation, which are defined
in advance by the researcher rather than the
experience of the respondents. Another
limitation of qualitative research involves the
subjective nature of naturalistic inquiry, which
sometimes causes concerns about the nature of
the conclusion of the study. Polit and Beck
(2008) poses the question, “Would two
naturalistic researchers studying the same
phenomenon in similar settings arrive at similar
conclusions?” They added that most naturalistic
research studies usually utilize a small group of
people as subjects. This makes the findings from
such naturalistic methods questionable, as
opposed to those of the quantitative research
studies.
•characteristics of qualitative research
Kania (2008) presents the following key
distinguishing characteristics of qualitative
research:
1. Qualitative research is conducted in a
systematic and rigorous way. However, it is
more flexible than quantitative research.
2. It usually follows an iterative process, which
means that data collection and analysis occur
simultaneously. Data already collected are
updated by the ongoing data collection.
3. It focuses on gathering information from
people who can provide the richest insights into
the phenomenon or interest. As a result, small
samples are commonly used in qualitative
research. Study participants are usually selected
in a purposive manner, using only those for
whom the topic under study is relevant.
4. Collection of data is continuous until
saturation, or when it reaches the point where
no new information is revealed with respect to
the key themes emerging from the data.
can easily collect and analyze information about
top-selling items, buying trends in various
geographic locations, and overall sales figures
by month. This will give a sense of the who,
what, when, and where of the study.
Qualitative research can complete the picture
by delving into the why and the how. If
quantitative research represents the skeleton,
the qualitative research represents the flesh. It
can explore narrowly-defined issues in greater
depth, explaining the setting in which behavior
can take place. It gives the complete picture of
the issue being studied. The value of qualitative
study comes from its focus on the lived
experience of the participants, which enabled
development of a greater understanding
concerning the outcomes that are important,
relevant, and meaningful to the people
involved.
•common types of qualitative research
The following are the various types of
qualitative research based on different fields of
inquiry (Merriam, S. B., et al, 2002):
1. Phenomenological study. This type of
research seeks to find the essence or structure
of an experience by explaining how complex
meanings are built out of simple units of inner
experience. It examines human experiences
(lived experiences) through the descriptions
provided by subjects or respondents. The goal
of this study is to describe the meaning that
experiences hold for each subject. Some of the
areas of concern for these studies are
humanness, self-determination, uniqueness,
wholeness, and individualism.
5. Qualitative data collection examines
everyday life in its natural context or in an
uncontrolled naturalistic setting
•the value of qualitative research
Qualitative data provides context and meaning.
If an organization wants to assess the behavior
of their clients, they
Example: What are the common experiences
encountered by a person with a spouse who is
undergoing rehabilitation? With the given
problem, the researcher has to discover the
inner feelings, emotional hardships, and mental
disturbances that the respondent is
experiencing.
2. Ethnographic study. This study involves the
collection and analysis of data about cultural
groups or minorities. In this type of research,
the researcher immerses with the people and
becomes a part of their culture. He or she
becomes involved in the everyday activities of
the subjects, and gets to empathize with the
cultural groups experiencing issues and
problems in their everyday lives. During the
immersion process, the researcher talks to the
key persons and personalities called key
informants who provide important information
for the study. The main purpose of this study is
the development of cultural theories.
Example: What is the demographic profile and
migratory adaptations of squatter families in
Barangay Cutcut, Angeles City (dela Cruz,
1994)? In studying the problem, the researcher
immerses with subjects and becomes involved
with the activities that exemplify the cultural
practices of the respondents.
3. Historical study. This study is concerned with
the identification, location, evaluation, and
synthesis of data from past events. This is not
only limited to obtaining data from the past, but
it also involves relating their implications to the
present and future time.
Example: What were the roles of women in the
Katipunan? Some sources of data for a historical
study are as follows:
a. Documents – printed materials that can be
found in libraries, archives, or personal
collections
b. Relics and artifacts – physical remains or
objects from a certain historical period
c. Oral reports – information that is passed on
by word of mouth The data sources are
classified as follows:
a. Primary sources – materials providing first-
hand information, e.g., oral histories, written
records, diaries, eyewitness accounts, pictures,
videos, and other physical evidence
b. Secondary sources – second-hand
information such as an account based on an
original source, or a material written as an
abstract of the original materials
The validity of materials used in the study are
assessed through the following processes:
a. Internal criticism. This involves establishing
the authenticity or originality of the materials
by looking at the consistency of information.
Motives and possible biases of the author must
be considered in trying to determine the
accuracy of the materials.
b. External criticism. This is based on the
analysis of the material: the ink and the type of
paper used, the layout and physical
appearance, and as well as the age and texture
of the material itself.The researcher can consult
authentic and original resource materials
relevant to the problem to determine the
accuracy of information provided in the
research paper.
4. Case study. It is an in-depth examination of
an individual, groups of people, or an
institution. Some of its purposes are to gain
insights into a little-known problem, provide
background data for broader studies, and
explain socio-psychological and socio-cultural
processes. A case study also involves a
comprehensive and extensive examination of a
particular individual, group, or situation over a
period of time. It provides information on
where to draw conclusions about the impact of
a significant event in a person’s life (Sanchez,
2002).Example: How do cancer survivors look at
life? The researcher is able to give an overview
of the problem by interviewing a cancer
survivor about his or her experiences
5. Grounded theory study. The method involves
comparing collected units of data against one
another until categories, properties, and
hypotheses that state relations between these
categories and properties emerge. These
hypotheses are tentative and suggestive, and
are not tested in the study.
Example: Ten school counselors were given
structured interviews to help determine how
their professional identity is formed.
This data was coded first to form concepts.
Then, connections between these concepts
were identified. A core concept emerged and its
process and implications were discussed. School
counselors’ professional interactions were
identified as defining experiences in their
identity formation (Brott & Myers, 1999).
6. Narrative analysis. The main sources of data
for this type of research are the life accounts of
individuals based on their personal experiences.
The purpose of the study is to extract
meaningful context from these experiences.
The common types of narrative analysis are as
follows:
a. Psychological – This involves analyzing the
story in terms of internal thoughts and
motivations. It also analyzes the written text or
spoken words for its component parts or
patterns.
b. Biographical – This takes the individual’s
society and factors like gender and class into
account.
c. Discourse analysis – This studies the approach
in which language is used in texts and contexts.
7. Critical qualitative research. This type of
research seeks to bring about change and
empower individuals by describing and
critiquing the social, cultural, and psychological
perspectives on present-day contexts. As such,
it ultimately challenges the current norm,
especially on power distributions, building upon
the initial appraisal of the said presentday
perspectives.
For example, a critical examination of consumer
education texts used in adult literacy programs
revealed content that was disrespectful for
adult learners, their previous experience as
consumers, and promoted certain ideologies
regarding consumerism.
The texts also defended the status quo by
blaming individual inadequacies for economic
troubles, ignoring societal inequities (Sandlin,
2000).
8. Postmodern research. As opposed to the
traditional forms of qualitative analysis, the
approach of this type of research seeks to
analyze the facts that have been established as
truths, the ability of research and science to
discover truth, and all generalizations and
typologies.
Merriam et al. (2002) proposes the following
three “crises” as a result of the questioning
performed:
a. Whether the experience of another can be
captured or whether it is created by the
researcher
b. Whether any study can be viewed as valid if
traditional methodologies are flawed
c. Whether it is possible to institute any real
change
Example: If our views of the self are themselves
constructed by the society we live in and the
language we use, is true knowledge of the self,
independent of these, even possible? If our
“selves” are constructed, then attempting to
gain knowledge through self-reflection is a
miscognition and [it] instead results in the
creation of a less independent and more
societal-regulated self (Bleakly, 2000).
9. Basic interpretative qualitative study. This is
used when a researcher is interested in
identifying how individuals give meaning to a
situation or phenomenon. It uses an inductive
strategy which is a process of analyzing patterns
or common themes to produce a descriptive
account that summarizes and analyzes the
literature that defined the study.
Example: An interview of 45 women from
varying backgrounds and a comparison of the
developmental patterns discerned with earlier
findings on male development. They found
women’s lives evolved through periods of
tumultuous, structurebuilding phases that
alternated with stable periods (Levinson &
Levinson, 1996).
•strengths and weakness of qualitative research
Anderson (2010), in her article “Presenting and
Evaluating Qualitative Research,” lists the
following strengths of a qualitative research:
1. The study requires a few cases or
participants. Data collected are based on the
participants’ own categories of meaning.
2. It is useful for describing complex
phenomena.
3. Issues can be examined in detail and in
depth.
4. Interviews are not restricted to specific
questions and can be guided or redirected by
the researcher in real time.
5. Subtleties and complexities about the
research subjects or topic are often missed by
more positivistic inquiries.
6. It provides individual case information.
7. Cross-case comparisons and analysis can be
conducted.
8. It provides understanding and description of
people’s personal experiences of phenomena
(i.e., the emic or insider’s viewpoint).
9. It can describe in detail the phenomena as
they are situated and embedded in local
contexts
10. The researcher usually identifies contextual
and setting factors as they relate to the
phenomenon of interest.
11. The researcher can study dynamic processes
(i.e., documenting sequential patterns and
change).
12. The researcher can use the primarily
qualitative method of grounded theory to
inductively generate a tentative but explanatory
theory about a phenomenon.
13. It can determine how participants interpret
constructs (e.g., self-esteem and IQ).
14. Data are usually collected in naturalistic
settings in qualitative research.
15. Qualitative approaches are especially
responsive to local situations, conditions, and
stakeholders’ needs.
16. Qualitative data in the words and categories
of participants lend themselves to exploring
how and why particular phenomena occur.
17. You can use an important case to vividly
demonstrate a phenomenon to the readers.
18. It can determine idiographic causation (i.e.,
determination of causes of a particular event).
Anderson (2010) also enumerates the following
weaknesses of qualitative research:
1. The knowledge produced might not be
applicable to other people or other settings
(i.e., findings might be unique to the relatively
few people included in the research study).
2. Inflexibility is more difficult to maintain,
assess, and demonstrate.
3. It is sometimes not as well understood and
accepted as quantitative research within the
scientific community.
4. The researcher’s presence during data
gathering, which is often unavoidable in
qualitative research, can affect the subjects’
responses.
5. Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can
present problems when presenting findings.
6. It is difficult to make quantitative predictions.
7. It is more difficult to test hypotheses and
theories with large participant pools.
8. It might have lower credibility with some
administrators and commissioners of programs.
9. It generally takes more time to collect the
data compared to quantitative research.
10. Data analysis is often time-consuming.
11. The results are more easily influenced by
the researcher’s personal biases and
idiosyncrasies.
•essential elements of the introduction