The basics of the writing process

 WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF ACADEMIC WRITING

1. to report
2. to synthesise
3. to discuss
4. to answer the question
THE WRITING PROCESS
 Step One: Realistic time planning
 Planning your work carefully is very critical to make sure
that you approach the task in a more focused manner and
in time taking into consideration other tasks you might
have at hand
STEP TWO: RECOGNIZING THE ELEMENTS OF THE
TASK- ANALYSE THE TOPIC
 Break down the task into its component parts by asking the
following questions:
 What is the instruction? At university, many assignment
tasks are constructed as commands introduced by an
instruction word and not necessarily by a question.
 It is thus important to interpret these instruction words
properly.
 E.g. What exactly is required? (Are you required to:
Argue? Analyse? Compare? Contrast? Explain? Define?
Prove? Discuss? Evaluate? Summarise?
Differentiate/Distinguish between . . .)
INSTRUCTION WORD MEANING
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The basics of the writing process

Analyse Examine in very close

detail and break an issue
into its constituent parts.
Look in depth at each part
using supporting arguments
and evidence for
and against as well as how
these interrelate to each
other.
Compare Look for similarities and
differences between two or
more things, problems or
arguments. Perhaps,
although not always, reach
a conclusion about
which you think is
preferable.
Contrast Set in opposition to each
other two or more things,
problems or arguments in
order to identify clearly
their differences and their
individual characteristics.
Criticize Identify the weaknesses of
certain theories, opinions or
claims, and
give your judgement about
their merit. Support your
judgements with a
discussion of the evidence
and the reasoning involved.
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Define Outline the precise meaning

of a word or phrase. In
some cases it may
be necessary or desirable to
examine different possible,
or often used,
definitions
Describe Give a detailed or graphic
account, keeping to the
facts or to the impressions
that an event had upon you.
In history this entails giving
a
narrative account of the
events in the time sequence
they occurred.
Discuss Investigate or examine by
argument; sift through the
arguments and the
evidence used to support
them, giving reasons for
and against both sides;
examine the implications. It
means playing devil’s
advocate by arguing
not just for the side of the
argument that you support,
but for the side with
which you may have little
sympathy.
Illustrate Explain or clarify
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The basics of the writing process

something by the use of

diagrams, figures or
concrete
examples.
Explain Make plain; interpret an
account for the occurrence
of a particular event by
giving the causes. Unlike
the verb ‘to describe’, this
does not mean that it
is sufficient to describe
what happened by giving a
narrative of the events.
To explain an event is to
give reasons why it
occurred, usually involving
an
analysis of the causes.
Evaluate Make an appraisal of the
worth of something, an
argument or a set of
beliefs, in the light of their
truth or usefulness. This
does involve making
your own value
judgements, but not just
naked opinion: they must
be
backed up by argument and
justification.

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The basics of the writing process

 What’s the topic? This will give you an idea of the context
of the discussion you need to construct.
 What’s the aspect of the topic? This will help you define a
more specific focus within the wider context.
 What restriction is imposed on the topic? This will help you
limit the scope of the discussion.
ANALYSIS OF SAMPLE QUESTION
 Assignment question:
 ‘Assess the importance of post-operative care in the
rehabilitation of orthopedic patients’.
 Instruction (word): assess.
 Topic: post-operative care.
 Aspect: importance.
 Restriction 1: rehabilitation.
 Restriction 2: orthopaedic patients
1. Analyse the following questions into; a) Instruction
word(s); b) Topic; c) Aspect d) Restriction (s)
[10 marks]
i. Discuss the impact of Bill 10 on the constitution of
Zambia
Instruction word : Discuss

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The basics of the writing process

Topic: Bill 10
Aspect: Impact
Restriction: Constitution of Zambia.
ii. Investigate factors affecting the inclusion of the
disabled at the University of Zambia
Instruction Word: Investigate
Topic: inclusion of the disabled
Aspect: factors affecting
Restriction: University of Zambia
iii. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of a coalition
government
Instruction Word: Evaluate
Topic: Coalition government
Aspect: Strengths and Weaknesses
iv. Comment on the assertion that men use offensive
language than women
Instruction word: Comment
Topic: offensive language
Aspect: men use more than women
v. Argue for youth leadership in Zambia
Instruction Word: Argue for
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The basics of the writing process

Topic: leadership
Aspect: youth (youth leadership)
Restriction: Zambia

STEP THREE: USE PRIOR KNOWLEDGE,

BRANSTORM, ORGANISE IDEAS
 You probably already know something about the topic
asked.
 Write down key information and ideas as they come to you.
STEP FOUR: SEARCH FOR INFORMATION
 Locate relevant information (read) to add to what you don’t
know or to provide support to your claims.
 once you have analysed your task, the topic and aspect
guides you on what kind of information to look for
 WHERE TO SEARCH:
 Library search
 recommended reading given in your course (usually these
are authorities in that area and through their references-you
will be pointed to more information on the topic)
 google scholar
 z-library and many other sources such as newspapers and
magazines

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The basics of the writing process

 What do you think about what you have read/discovered?

Remember to use reliable sources and record all the details
you will need to reference the source.

 Step Five: Plan an outline.

 Have you gathered enough relevant information? Organise
the ideas, linking them to each other and the main idea.
Group related ideas together to ensure your writing
“flows”.
 Step Six: Write the first draft.
 Make sure that you have a logical and meaningful
argument, and that everything you say is relevant.
 Step Seven: Edit and improve the draft.
 Step Eight: Rewrite your work until it is clear and well
constructed.
 Step Nine: Proofread.
 Check for punctuation, spelling and grammatical errors.
Have you referenced correctly?
 you could even give your work to another person who is
not doing your task to go through and help you see what
you could have been missing
 9. Write the final version.
ESSAY WRITING

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The basics of the writing process

 In the course of your studies, you will be asked to produce

a structured formal piece of writing.
 And this leads us to the importance of essays:
 Why are essays important?
 They demonstrate one’s ability to argue; essay writing
helps us to develop the essential skill of arguing.
 Essay writing deepens your understanding of your courses;
 Essay writing is a major element in assessing your
progress;
 Presenting your ideas effectively on paper relies on the
skills you acquire in essay writing now;
 Essay writing helps you think; How??

COMPONENTS OF AN ESSAY
 Introduction: Strategies
 The idea of an introduction is to introduce your reader to
what you are going to say.
 In other words, it should be a bridge between what your
reader doesn’t know yet, and the information you are going
to provide.
The introductory paragraph can be presented differently as:
 (a) Definition of key terms, if needed
 (b) Relevant background information

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The basics of the writing process

 (c) Review of work by other writers on the topic

 (d) Purpose or aim of the paper
 (e) Your research methods
 (f) Any limitations you imposed
 (g) An outline of your paper
EXAMPLES: DEFINITION
Definitions
(b) It is useful to remind the reader of the wider context of
your work. This may also show the value of the study you
have carried out:
Learning is one of the most vital components of the
contemporary knowledge-based economy. With the
development of computing power and technology, the Internet
has become an essential medium for knowledge transfer.

Certain words or phrases in the title may need clarifying

because they are not widely
understood:
There is a range of definitions of this term, but in this paper
‘e-learning’ refers to any
type of learning situation where content is delivered via the
Internet.

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The aim of your research must be clearly stated so the reader

knows what you are trying
to do:
The purpose of this study was to examine students’
experience of e-learning in a higher
education context.

THE BODY
 The body forms the bulk of your essay; your ideas are
explored in more detail.
 You may provide illustrations, examples, evidence and put
forth and explore various arguments.
 It is vital that you present a logical argument. To achieve
this, you have to establish logic and coherence on two
levels:
 The text as a whole as well as within each paragraph.
This is discussed in further detail later.
CONCLUSION: STRATEGIES
 How to write a conclusion
 There are various strategies you can use to write a
conclusion:
 Summarising your argument (Do not use this strategy in
both introduction and conclusion)
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The basics of the writing process

 Persuasion: explaining why your viewpoint is important

 Giving the meaning of the information (You will be more
likely to use this strategy in a report than in an essay).
HOW TO PRESENT YOUR IDEAS LOGICALLY
 As mentioned earlier, it is important to ensure a clear line
of argument and a coherent writing.
 You have to establish coherence in the text as a whole, as
well as in each paragraph.
CREATING LOGIC IN AN ENTIRE TEXT
 You have to pay attention to the order in which you present
ideas. One idea (and paragraph) has to flow into the next.
One way of achieving this is to group related ideas
together.
 Remember, the common link between each of your ideas
will be the topic!
 It is not enough to merely group the ideas together. The
manner in which you express these ideas should also
indicate the relationship between ideas.
 This can be done by using linking words or phrases.
Linking words are used to show the relationship between
ideas.
 They will therefore be used within paragraphs as well as
between paragraphs. A brief guide to various types of
linking words is given:

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The basics of the writing process

SOME EXAMPLES OF LINKING WORDS/COHESIVE

DEVICES
 Causal indicators: used to show relationships of cause and
effect (e.g. "As a result of", "therefore", "thus",
"accordingly", "consequently", etc.).
 Contrasting words: used to show that the new paragraph
contains a contrasting idea (e.g. "On the other hand",
"however", "by contrast", etc.).
 Collectors: used to remind the reader of a point already
made, or to show that paragraph continues the thoughts of
the text as a whole (e.g. "As has been pointed out...",
"The point is that...", "moreover", "further",
"furthermore"
 Another way to establish coherence is to always show the
relevance of the point you’re making. The reader has to be
able to easily follow your argument.
 Show the relevance of your point by relating it back to the
topic.
 Remember also to contextualise your points where
necessary.
 Doing this, together with showing the relevance of your
point will make it easier for your reader to follow your
argument.
CREATING LOGIC AND COHERENCE IN PARAGRAPHS

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The basics of the writing process

 Not only must the relationship from one paragraph to the

next be clear, but also the relationship from one sentence to
the next.
 You need continuity and flow between paragraphs, but
also within paragraphs.
 Remember that a paragraph is not just a block of writing of
a certain size – it is also a means of organising your
thoughts.
 You should organise your thoughts clearly, not only by
grouping related ideas together in your text as a unit, but by
exploring these ideas in a logical manner within
paragraphs.
 Your argument will be stronger, and your text will make
more sense.
 Writing a paragraph is not a haphazard activity. It is
therefore vital to pay attention to the elements and
 STRUCTURE OF A PARAGRAPH
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
 • What is a paragraph?
 • What is the normal length of a paragraph?
 • Is there a standard structure for paragraphs?
 • How is a paragraph linked together?

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The basics of the writing process

(a) A paragraph is a group of sentences that deal with a single

topic. Dividing up the text into paragraphs helps both writer and
reader to follow the argument more clearly.
(b) The length of paragraphs varies significantly according to
text type, but should normally be no less than four or five
sentences.
(c) Usually (but not always), the first sentence introduces the
topic. Other sentences may give definitions, examples, extra
information, reasons, restatements and summaries.
(d) The parts of the paragraph are linked together by the phrases
and conjunctions shown in bold. They guide the reader through
the arguments presented.
ELEMENTS AND STRUCTURE OF A PARAGRAPH
 A paragraph should contain:
 The main idea (The main idea is the big or central idea
around which the entire paragraph is organised).
 Topic sentence/s The topic sentence states the main ideas
of the paragraphs.
 This is the most important sentence in the paragraph as it
expresses the key theme of the paragraph.
 Supporting sentences -You develop the main idea using
supporting sentences.
Concluding sentence -A concluding sentence often reveals the
point of the paragraph, and may also link the paragraph on to the
next paragraph.
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The basics of the writing process

EXAMPLE: The rate of home ownership varies widely across

the developed world. Germany, for instance, has one of the
lowest rates, at 42 per cent, while in Spain it is twice as high, 85
per cent. Both the USA and Britain have similar rates of about
70 per cent. The reasons for this variation appear to be more
cultural and historic than economic, since high rates are found in
both rich and poorer countries. There appears to be no
conclusive link between national prosperity and the number of
home owners.

This paragraph can be analysed:

1 Topic sentence: The rate of home ownership varies widely
across the developed world.
2 Example 1 Germany, for instance, has one of the lowest rates,
at 42 per cent, while in Spain it is twice as high, 85 per cent.
3 Example 2 Both the USA and Britain have similar rates of
about 70 per cent.
4 Reason The reasons for this variation appear to be more
cultural and historic than economic, since high rates are found in
both rich and poorer countries.
5 Summary There appears to be no conclusive link between
national prosperity and the number of home owners.

UNITY OF A PARAGRAPH

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The basics of the writing process

 When a paragraph has unity, all the sentences relate to the

main idea.
 Sentences that do not deal with the controlling theme of the
paragraph must be dealt with in a separate paragraph;
otherwise they will destroy the ‘unity’ and logic of your
paragraph.
COHERENCE AND CONTINUITY
 In addition to having unity, a paragraph needs to be
coherent. Not only must the relationship from one
paragraph to the next be seen,
 but also the relationship from one sentence to the next. In
other words, you need continuity and flow between
paragraphs (as discussed above) but also within paragraphs
(between sentences). Use linking words to achieve this.
In order to begin a new topic, you may use phrases such as:
 Turning to the issue of . . .
 Rates of infection must also be examined . . .
 . . . is another area for consideration.
Paragraphs can also be introduced with adverbs:
 Traditionally, few examples were . . .
 Finally, the performance of . . .
 Currently, there is little evidence of . . .
 Originally, most families were . . .

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The basics of the writing process

EMPHASIS: Remember that…

 The first and last sentences in your paragraph create the
greatest impact on the readers. This is where you must put
your main ideas or topic sentences.
 Don’t bury important ideas in the middle of a paragraph;
they deserve a more prominent position.
 The information in a paragraph (and in a larger piece of
writing) must be developed in a logical order. Consider the
following paragraph:
WAYS TO AVOID WEAK PARAGRAPHS
 Do not repeat the main idea unnecessarily
 Do not include information that does not belong to the
main idea of that paragraph (rather place in separate
paragraph).
 Avoid long, complicated sentences (or Run-on sentences)
 Ensure that each sentence is a complete, coherent sentence.
PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
 In addition to taking into consideration the elements and
structure of a paragraph, attention must also be paid to how
a paragraph is developed.
 paragraphs follow different structures
 Consider the following paragraph:
EXAMPLE

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The basics of the writing process

Copper sales have slumped in the republic of Zambia as the one-

year China ‘recession’ deepens its grip [topic sentence].
Mopani reports that its sales are the worst they have been in the
last five years, and Konkola Mines have had to close down a
plant in Nchanga [detail sentence building up the topic]. Only
Kansanshi and Lumwana have reported a modest profit, mostly
due to the success of their new model of processing copper ores
[detail sentence building up the topic]. If this trend continues,
a bleak future is predicted for the Zambian mine industry
workers [concluding sentence revealing the point of the
paragraph].
 Not all paragraphs need follow this structure - this is simply
a structure that is widely used.
 The various sentences in a paragraph must fit together in a
logical way.
 There are various kinds of logical relationship that the
sentences in a paragraph can show.
HOW TOPIC SENTENCES CAN BE PRESENTED
Definition
 The topic sentence is a definition, which the rest of the
paragraph explains: E.g.
Learning is one of the most vital components of the
contemporary knowledge-based economy. With the
development of computing power and technology, the Internet
has become an essential medium for knowledge transfer. The

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The basics of the writing process

education system in the 21st Century is now more computer

based than it was years back.

AS A GENERAL POINT
 The topic sentence might be a general point.
 Then the remaining sentences in the paragraph might be
specific examples that provide evidence.
 Here is an example of such a paragraph:
 The rate of home ownership varies widely across the
developed world [general point]. Germany, for instance,
has one of the lowest rates, at 42 per cent, while in Spain it
is twice as high, 85 per cent [specific example]. Both the
USA and Britain have similar rates of about 70 per cent
[specific example]. The reasons for this variation appear to
be more cultural and historic than economic, since high
rates are found in both rich and poorer countries [reason].
There appears to be no conclusive link between national
prosperity and the number of home owners [concluding
sentence].

GENERAL POINTS WITH A SERIES OF REASONS

 The topic sentence can be a general point, followed by
numbered reasons:

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The basics of the writing process

Copper sales have slumped in the Zambia for various reasons

[general point]. Firstly, China, the single biggest importer of
copper is experiencing a an economic downturn [first reason].
Secondly, a lack of confidence in the world economy is scaring
off buyers [second reason]. Thirdly, rumours that the world
supply of copper is on the rise have had a negative impact on
copper sales [third reason]... and so on.

FACT AND OPINION

 Your topic sentence might be an opinion; the sentences that
follow could be facts supporting that opinion:
Americans believe that Toyota make the most reliable cars
available in the US market [opinion]. In 2001, the Toyota
Camry was the biggest selling individual model in America
[fact supporting the opinion]. And then a survey of 27 000
drivers carried out by CAR magazine showed that Toyota
drivers indicated the highest level of customer satisfaction [fact
supporting the opinion].
CAUSE AND EFFECT
 The paragraph might start off with a statement that is given
as the cause of various effects:
Copper sales in the Zambia have collapsed very badly this year
[cause]. This has resulted in mines closing down and a
consequent loss of jobs in several mining towns [effect]. Voters
are angry, and are demanding that the politicians do something
to revive the economy on the Copperbelt [effect]. Opposition

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The basics of the writing process

political parties have stopped from campaigning freely due to

fear for a revolt [effect].
CONTRAST AND COMPARISON
 The topic sentence might consist of a point which the
rest of the paragraph works against by comparison or
contrast. For example:
Copper sales in the Republic of Zambia have slumped badly this
year. However, some economists see this as a hidden blessing -
they argue, on one hand, that the Zambian mining sector will be
driven to improve their efficiency and productivity as well as
planning well in advance. On the other and, others argue that the
real problem is not a lack of productivity or efficiency or
planning. The real problem, they say, is the fear that the copper
deposits will soon run out.
QUESTION AND ANSWER
 The topic question poses a question, which the rest of the
paragraph answers:
Motor cars are still popular as a form of transport, but are they
worth all the trouble they cause? They damage the atmosphere,
kill and mutilate pedestrians and motori21 sts alike, and keep
millions of people in a state of permanent debt. I say we should
go back to horses!
Any problem with the above sentence in light with what we
have discussed thus far?

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THE END

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