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Steam cracker facilities in the United States: operations, emissions, and

sociodemographic patterns of surrounding populations
To cite this article before publication: Nicholaus P Johnson et al 2023 Environ. Res.: Health in press https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-5309/acdcb2

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Page 1 of 18 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - ERH-100101.R1

IOP Publishing Journal Title

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Steam Cracker Facilities in the United States:

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10 Operations, Emissions, and Sociodemographic
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Patterns of Surrounding Populations

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15 Nicholaus P. Johnson1, Michelle L. Bell2,3, Nicholas Perez4, Robert Dubrow1,2, Nicole C. Deziel1,2,3
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Yale School of Public Health, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, New Haven, CT, USA
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Yale Center on Climate Change and Health, New Haven, CT, USA
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Yale School of the Environment, New Haven, CT, USA
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Yale College, New Haven, CT, USA
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24 *Address correspondence to Nicole C. Deziel, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St., New Haven, CT USA 06512.
25 Telephone: 203-785-6062. Email: nicole.deziel@yale.edu
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31 Abstract
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33 Background: Production of shale gas in the United States (US) increased more than 10-fold from 2008 to 2021, yielding
34 greater quantities of hydrocarbon feedstocks and incentivizing expansion of petrochemical facilities. Steam crackers (SCs)
35 convert hydrocarbon feedstocks into ethylene and propylene (the building blocks of plastics), while releasing toxic chemicals
36 and greenhouse gases (GHGs). Analyses of environmental health and justice impacts of SCs are limited.
37 Methods: We described SC operations, locations, and emissions, and evaluated sociodemographic characteristics of
38 populations residing near SCs to better understand potential public health hazards and inform future studies. We summarized
39 and described industry-reported emissions from the US Environmental Protection Agency’s Toxic Release Inventory and
40 GHG Reporting Program. We compared population characteristics of US Census block groups ≤5km and >5km from a steam
41 cracker-containing facility (SCF) within the same county.
42 Results: We identified 32 SCFs across five US states, with most in Texas and Louisiana. Toxic chemicals with the greatest
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reported cumulative air emissions in 1987-2019 were: ethylene, propylene, hydrochloric acid, benzene, n-hexane, 1,3-
44 butadiene, ammonia, toluene, vinyl acetate, and methanol. Reported total annual GHG emissions were 4% higher in 2019
45 versus 2010, with total GHG emissions of >650 million metric tons (carbon dioxide equivalents) in 2010-2019. We found
46 that 752,465 people live in census block groups ≤5km from an SCF, regardless of county. Compared to block groups >5 km
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away within the same county, block groups closer to SCFs had statistically significantly lower median incomes ($54,843 vs
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$67,866) and more vacant housing (15% vs 11%), and higher proportions of residents who were non-Hispanic Black (31 vs
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19%) and unemployed (8% vs 6%).
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Conclusion: SCs emit substantial amounts of GHGs and toxic chemicals in locations with historically disadvantaged
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populations. Future research could further evaluate the accuracy of reported emissions, conduct monitoring in proximate
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53 communities, and assess population-level health impacts.
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55 Keywords: petrochemical, unconventional oil and gas, greenhouse gases, air toxics, environmental justice
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3 1. Introduction Reviews and meta-analyses of epidemiologic literature
4 Shale gas production, the extraction of natural gas from low- observed some evidence of increased hematologic cancers,
5 permeable geologic formations using horizontal drilling and lung cancer, and respiratory outcomes in populations living
6 high-volume hydraulic fracturing (1, 2), increased over 10- near petrochemical complexes (7, 20-25). Other health
7 outcomes studied include reduced kidney function (16, 26),
fold in the United States (US) between 2008 and 2021 (3). The
8 respiratory problems (25) and adverse perinatal outcomes (25,
abundance of hydrocarbons supplied by this upstream

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9 27-30). Risk assessments and epidemiologic analyses of
development has incentivized buildout of downstream
10 petrochemical workers reported increased risks of
industrial petrochemical infrastructure. Numerous studies
11 hematopoietic and respiratory cancers (24, 31). A recent
documented increased health risks in populations living near
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upstream oil and gas wells (4-6); however, US-based studies exposomics analysis identified elevated markers of oxidative
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stress in residents near petrochemical sites (15). Existing

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14 of environmental health hazards of downstream petrochemical
infrastructure are limited (7). studies have generally focused on a single facility or
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petrochemical industrial complexes as a heterogeneous group.
16
A key component of petrochemical infrastructure is steam US studies include ecological and case-control studies,
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18 crackers (SCs), which convert hydrocarbon feedstocks such as primarily from the 1970s to early 2000s, with inconsistent
19 ethane and propane into ethylene and propylene, chemical findings (7). To our knowledge, no health studies have
20 intermediates for plastic production. Since 2010, investments focused specifically on SCs.

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21 in petrochemical processing facilities and supporting
22 infrastructure surpassed $200 billion across more than 350 Analyses of GHG emissions from oil and gas production
23 shale-gas related projects (8), with construction for new and generally focused on emissions generated during upstream
24 expanding SCs underway in the Gulf Coast and Appalachian production (32, 33). Facility-level research on GHG emissions
25 regions (9). The buildout of petrochemical infrastructure has from downstream oil and gas infrastructure is sparse (34).
26 been accompanied by public concern regarding local human Petrochemical facilities are projected to contribute 38% of
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health impacts from toxic air emissions and global climate-
related impacts from greenhouse gases (GHG). There are
an total emissions of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) across
all upstream, midstream, and downstream oil and gas
facilities, when considering current and planned facilities
concerns that expansion of petrochemical facilities will extend
30 the lifetime of fossil fuel extraction efforts, even with through 2030 (34).
31 transitions to low-carbon or carbon-free energy sources (10).
32 Conversely, benefits include job creation and stimulation of Despite a well-documented history of siting petrochemical
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33 local economies (11, 12). complexes in lower income and racial/ethnic minority
34 communities (35, 36), to the best of our knowledge, a national
35 Petrochemical sites vary in size and complexity and can analysis of distributive injustices around SCs has not been
36 include different petroleum-related industrial facilities, such conducted (37). County-level analyses found a correlation
37 between a social vulnerability index and density of midstream
as refineries. Environmental monitoring studies demonstrated
38 gathering and transmission pipelines (38) and an inverse
elevated levels of organic chemicals (e.g., volatile organic
39 correlation between per-capita income and oil refinery
compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
40 emissions (39). Proximity analyses found disproportionate
polychlorinated biphenyls) in environmental media near
41 siting of upstream oil and gas facilities in areas with lower
petrochemical complexes (7, 13). Inorganic chemicals such as
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arsenic, nickel, chromium, and vanadium were identified in income or greater proportions of people of color (40-43).
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44 environmental and human biological samples collected within

communities near petrochemical facilities (13-16). While We conducted the current study to advance understanding of
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many studies did not report the specific distance between potential public health hazards posed by SCs with the
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sampling sites and the facility, some reported distances of 5- following objectives: (1) describe the steps of SC operations
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48 10 km (15, 16). Monitoring studies specific to SC emissions and identify potential emission sources; (2) construct a
49 are limited. Some studies from the engineering literature database of US SCs, including chemical composition and
50 simulated SC emissions, focusing on releases during startup quantity of emissions of toxic chemicals and GHGs; and (3)
51 describe sociodemographic characteristics of populations
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and shutdown procedures, rather than normal operating

52 conditions (17, 18). An air sampling study within a living in proximity to SCs, compared to other populations, and
53 petrochemical complex in China found that fugitive SC (4) identify data gaps to inform future research on health
54 emissions primarily consisted of alkanes and alkenes (e.g., impacts of SCs.
55 ethane, propane, ethylene, propylene) (19).
56 2. Data and Methodology
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3 2.1. Steam Cracker Operations industry publications, and news articles (e.g., about a plant
4 To understand the steps of SC operations, including potential closure/opening) to resolve discrepancies. We performed
5 emission sources, we reviewed and synthesized information additional review of TRI emissions records to check for
6 on the normal operating procedures of SCs from publicly presence of ethylene and propylene, which are commonly
7 emitted from these units.
available sources identified through web searches, textbooks,
8
company websites, and facility permits in online

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governmental databases (44). 2.3. Toxic Chemical Emissions
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EPA’s TRI program requires facilities operating in certain
11
Consistent with US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) industries to annually self-report emissions of toxic chemicals
12
13 terminology, we consider a facility to be “all buildings, (53), defined as those that cause: (i) cancer or other chronic

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14 equipment, structures, and other stationary items which are human health effects, (ii) significant adverse acute human
15 located on a single site or on continuous or adjacent sites and health effects, or (iii) significant adverse environmental
16 which are owned or operated by the same person [or entity], effects (54). Facilities that manufacture, process, or use TRI-
17 [meaning] a facility may contain more than one covered chemicals above 25,000 pounds for manufacturing or
18 establishment” (45). Other terms used interchangeably with processing and 10,000 pounds otherwise are required to
19 petrochemical facility in the literature include petrochemical annually self-report emissions to EPA TRI (55). EPA TRI
20 complex or petrochemical industrial park. We consider an maintains these emission estimates in a publicly available

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21 individual SC an “establishment” or unit at a single physical database. Because emissions are self-reported and not based
22 location where industrial operations are performed. A SC may on independent monitoring, they are difficult to verify and
23 be collocated with other types of industrial units or may be underreported (53). The list of chemicals covered by
24 establishments (e.g., refineries) within a given facility. the TRI is updated annually, and at the time of data acquisition
25 Therefore, we use the term SC for a specific cracker unit, and included reporting years 1987-2019. We assembled a dataset
26 SC facility (SCF) for a facility containing a SC. In general, we of TRI emissions to air, land, and water for all SCFs.
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found data were available at the SCF level, not the SC level.
2.4. GHG Emissions
2.2. Identification of Steam Crackers EPA’s GHGRP requires that certain categories of facilities
30 Because there is no centralized, standardized list of all SCs, with GHG emissions above 25,000 carbon dioxide equivalents
31 we compiled a list of possible US-based SCs from: (1) US (CO2e) per year self-report annual GHG emissions and that
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Energy Information Administration (EIA), (2) Oil & Gas EPA maintain this information in a publicly available database
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Journal (a petroleum industry journal), (3) non-governmental (56). GHGRP requires reporting of carbon dioxide, methane,
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organization Beyond Plastics, and (4) non-governmental and nitrous oxide. Facilities have different options in
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organization Environmental Integrity Project (46-50). This calculating the reported emissions, including monitoring
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list also included data such as location, ownership, and systems, fuel composition data, and default emission factors.
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38 emission reporting IDs. We visually inspected maps and aerial We assembled a dataset of GHGRP emissions for all SCFs
39 photos of each facility to confirm presence of SCs (51). during reporting years 2010-2019.
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41 For all SCFs with a confirmed or possible SC, we obtained 2.5. Socioeconomic and Demographic Data for
42 identifiers (IDs) from the EPA Federal Registry Service, Neighboring Communities
43 Toxic Release Inventory (TRI), and GHG Reporting Program We obtained sociodemographic variables from the 2019 US
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44 (GHGRP). We performed several checks to maximize Census American Community Survey (5-year estimates
45 accuracy of IDs assigned to each SCF and standardize ending in 2019) (57): population educational attainment
46 identifiers across the databases. We conducted EPA Federal (percent ≥25 years with ≤ high school education), race
47 Registry Service online queries to find all EPA-reporting (percent identifying as White, Black/African-American,
48 facilities with the same or similar company name, site name, Asian, other/multiple races), ethnicity (Hispanic/Latino),
49 and location (city, county, and state) as each SCF on our list. percent unemployed, percent households receiving public
50 We inspected system facility names by reporting program assistance income in past 12 months, median household
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(TRI and GHGRP), associated facility names and income in past 12 months, percent population in renter-
52 organizations, Standard Industrial Classification Codes (SIC), occupied housing, percent vacant housing units, crowding
53 and North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) (percent housing units with >1 person/room), and percent
54 codes to obtain the most likely IDs pertaining to each SCF on population in professional occupations. Population density
55 our list (52). Finally, in cases where the years of operational was calculated by dividing the block group population
56 status of the SCF was unclear, we performed web-based estimate by the block group area.
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3 2.6 Descriptive and Statistical Analysis chemical process, is also an important process in terms of
4 For Objective 1 (describe steps of SC operations), we overall operational emissions.
5 developed a figure to illustrate the multi-step processes of
6 steam cracking, accompanied by a narrative description of Pyrolysis begins by feeding petroleum hydrocarbons
7 each step, emphasizing potential emission sources. (feedstock) - primarily ethane, propane, butane, and naphtha -
8 into furnaces, also referred to as heaters (Figure 1, Step 1).

9 For Objective 2 (construct database of US SC locations and
10 emissions), we mapped locations of all SCFs in our database.
11 We graphed annual and total emissions of TRI toxic chemicals
12
emitted to air in the greatest quantities from 1987-2019 and
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annual median and total SCF GHG annual emissions from
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SCs can often accommodate a mixture of feedstocks, and the
composition is usually determined by resource availability and
market conditions (47, 48, 61). During this energy-intensive
step, feedstocks are heated to high temperatures in the
presence of steam to alter (i.e., “crack”) their molecular

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2010-2019. structure. During quenching, the cracked gas leaves the
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furnaces at high temperatures where it is cooled in an oil- or
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For Objective 3 (describe sociodemographic characteristics of water-based quenching column (Figure 1, Step 2). This
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18 populations living near SCs), we classified 2019 census block simultaneously preserves composition of the gases while
19 groups in counties with a SCF as being “near” a SCF if a 5 km reducing presence of undesirable side reactions. Next, the
20 buffer around the SCF coordinates intersected with any cracked gas undergoes several rounds of compression via a

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21 portion of the block group or “far” from the SCF otherwise. turbine-driven centrifugal compressor coupled with additional
22 We selected 5 km based on published health studies conducted cooling and drying to remove water introduced prior to and
23 in other nations that observed increased air concentrations or during compression (Figure 1, Step 3). During fractionation
24 health risks in populations living 2-10 km from petrochemical the compressed cracked gas is fed into distillation columns
25 complexes (7, 25). We compared the mean and standard that separate the gas into different components, also referred
26 deviation of sociodemographic variables between near and far to as fractions (Figure 1, Step 4). Various distillation columns
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differences using the Wilcoxon rank sum test. We conducted
a sensitivity analysis in which we redefined “near” as block
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census block groups and tested the statistical significance of are used including a demethanizer to separate methane and
hydrogen, a deethanizer to separate ethane and ethylene, and
a C3 splitter to separate propylene (60). Finally, flaring is a
30 groups that intersected with a 5 km radius around the high-temperature oxidation process that combusts excess
31 coordinates of the SCF regardless of county and “far” as block hydrocarbon emissions to relieve pressure (Figure 1, Step 5).
32 groups >5 km and <20 km from an SCF. Finally, we calculated
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33 the total population living in a block group intersecting with a There are several emission sources throughout a steam
34 5km radius around a SCF, regardless of county designation. cracker’s multistep process. Cracking furnaces and supporting
35 infrastructure used in pyrolysis are potentially one of the
36 All statistical analyses were conducted in SAS (version 9.4; largest sources of toxic chemical and GHG emissions (Figure
37 SAS Institute Inc.), and all tests were two-sided with an alpha 1, Step 1). During normal operating procedures cracking
38 level of 0.05. furnaces are permitted to emit a range of pollutants and toxic
39 chemicals including particulate matter with aerodynamic
40 diameter ≤2.5 microns (PM2.5) and ≤10 microns (PM10),
3. Results
41 nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and volatile
42
organic compounds, and GHGs including methane, carbon
43 3.1. SC Operations
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dioxide, and nitrous oxide. Cracking furnaces also emit

44 3.1.1. Operational Overview similar pollutants, toxic chemicals, and GHGs during the
45 The steam cracking system is a complex and energy-intensive decoking process, during which built up residue on the furnace
46 process with the overall purpose of converting hydrocarbons coils is combusted and released to the atmosphere. Facility-
47 (paraffins) to light olefins (ethylene and propylene), the
48 wide fugitive emissions that often result from system
chemical intermediates necessary for plastic production. inefficiencies include ammonia, 1,3-butadiene, and benzene.
49 Historically, most such establishments have been feedstock
50 Other sources of emissions include flares that combust excess
flexible, but the majority of new investments have been in hydrocarbon emissions to relieve pressure operations, as well
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expanding ethane-specific feedstock capacities (58, 59). The as startup and shutdown procedures. Emissions can also be
52
establishments’ design varies based on numerous factors
53 attributed to supporting infrastructure including backup
including age built and feedstock composition; however, the
54 generators and firewater pump engines (62).
general process can be divided into four main steps (Figure 1):
55 <Insert Figure 1. Steam Cracker Operations>
(1) pyrolysis (cracking), (2) quenching, (3) compression,
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cooling, and drying, and (4) fractionation (distillation) (60).
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58 Cleaning and maintenance, though not directly part of the
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3 3.1.2. Identification of SCs
4 Our initial searches identified 44 facilities potentially
5 containing an SC. After record-by-record review, we excluded
6 two facilities that were not operational during our study period
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(1987-2019) and ten whose location and operational status
8
could not be confirmed, yielding a final dataset of 32 US
3.2.2. GHG Emissions
Annual median reported GHG emissions of SCFs ranged from
1.3 to 1.6 million metric tons of CO2e across the years 2010-
2019; median emissions were 25% higher in 2019 versus 2010
(Figure 3). Over 99% of emissions were attributable to CO2,
with <1% due to reported releases of methane and nitrous

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facilities verified to contain an operational SC during our oxide. In 2019, self-reported GHG emissions from all US
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study period (Table 1). SCFs totalled 68 million metric tons CO2e, equivalent to the
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annual greenhouse gas emissions of >14.8 million US
12
13 <Insert Table 1. Steam Cracker Facility Location, passenger vehicles (63). Total emissions in 2019 were 4%

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14 Ownership, and Reporting Years> higher than 2010. Total SCF GHG emissions summed over
15 2010-2019 were >650 million metric tons CO2e.
16 Most identified SCFs were in southeastern Texas (n=19) and
17 southern Louisiana (n=10), with the remaining three located <Insert Figure 3. Self-Reported Median Steam Cracker
18 in Iowa, Illinois, and Kentucky (Figure 2). Four companies Facility Toxic and Greenhouse Gas Air Emissions by
19 own half of all identified SCFs: LyondellBasell (n=6), Dow Reporting Year>
20 (n=4), Chevron Phillips Chemical (n=3), and ExxonMobil

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21 (n=3) (Table 1). The facilities are classified under various
3.3. Sociodemographic Characteristics of Neighboring
22 NAICS codes, most commonly an NAICS code of 325110
23 corresponding to petrochemical manufacturing (n=17) or
Communities
24 325199 corresponding to all other basic organic chemical SCFs were present in 16 counties across five states. Within
25 manufacturing (n=11). these 16 counties, 484 census block groups were within a 5
26 km radius of an SCF, and 3,110 were beyond the 5 km radius
27
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29
<Insert Figure 2. Steam Cracker Facility Locations>
an (Table 2). A total of 752,465 people lived in block groups
within 5 km of an SCF, regardless of county designation.
3.2. SCF Emissions
30 Block groups closer to SCFs differed from those further from
31 3.2.1. Toxic Emissions SCFs with respect to several sociodemographic factors
32 Most reported emissions of toxic chemicals were to air, with indicating greater exposure potential in communities
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33 lesser contributions to water or land. While many TRI toxic experiencing other burdens (Table 2). Compared to block
34 chemicals were emitted to the air in median amounts groups >5 km of an SCF, block groups ≤5 km had a
35 exceeding 1,000 pounds/year, three chemicals had non-zero statistically significantly greater proportion of non-Hispanic
36 median emissions to water (sodium sulfate, nitrate Black residents (31% versus 19%), higher proportions of
37 compounds, ammonia), and median releases to land were zero residents who were unemployed (8% versus 6%), lower
38 for all TRI toxic chemicals. Across all SCFs and reporting median income ($54,843 versus $67,866), greater proportion
39 years, the ten toxic chemicals with the largest mass emitted to of vacant housing (15% versus 11%), lower percentage of
40 air were: ethylene, propylene, hydrochloric acid, benzene, n- individuals in professional occupations (25% versus 33%),
41 hexane, 1,3-butadiene, ammonia, toluene, vinyl acetate, and and greater proportion of individuals with maximum
42 methanol (Figure 3). Ethylene and propylene consistently educational attainment of high school education or less (53%
43
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remained the most dominant toxic chemicals emitted to air versus 45%). Block groups closer to SCFs had a statistically
44 across all reporting years. These toxic chemicals act as significantly smaller proportion of people identifying as
45 asphyxiants at high exposure levels, an important health and Hispanic, lower population density, and lower percentage of
46 safety issue in enclosed occupational settings, but are not renter-occupied housing. Block groups did not differ with
47 generally toxic at environmental concentrations. However, the
48 respect to percent population identifying as non-Hispanic
top ten list also includes known human carcinogens (e.g., White, percentage receiving public assistance, and percentage
49 benzene, 1,3-butadiene), chemicals impacting the nervous
50 of crowded housing arrangements.
system (e.g., n-hexane, vinyl acetate), and chemicals affecting
51
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the respiratory system (e.g., toluene, hydrochloric acid) We observed similar results using a different “near” vs. “far”
52
(Supplemental Table S1). Annual median SCF emissions of
53 categorization (Supplemental Table S2).
the top 10 toxic chemicals declined from 1987 through 2007
54
55 and then remained relatively stable though 2019. Total annual <Insert Table 2. Sociodemographic Characteristics of
56 emissions followed a similar pattern (Supplemental Figure
2019 Census Block Groups within Counties with a
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Steam Cracker Facility>
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3 could negatively affect GHG emission targets (32) and have
4 4. Discussion negative health consequences for surrounding communities
5 Despite current and planned expansions of SCs in the US, (18).
6 there is limited public health research concerning their
7 Observed associations between sociodemographic
placement, operations, emissions, and potential public health
8 vulnerabilities and locations of SCFs in the current work is
hazards. We present new analyses synthesizing the process,

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9 consistent with decades of distributive environmental justice
locations, toxic chemical emissions, GHG emissions, and
10 research that demonstrates inequitable placement of
distributive environmental justice issues in relation to 32 SCFs
11 hazardous industries predominantly in low-income
in the US.
12
communities, communities of color, and other communities
13
that experience structural discrimination (35, 39, 66-68).

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14 Previous epidemiologic studies of health of populations
residing near petrochemical facilities focused on Several SCFs we identified are located in the Louisiana
15
hematological and respiratory outcomes, particularly cancers. industrial corridor, commonly referred to as “Cancer Alley”
16
The toxic chemicals emitted in the greatest quantities from (69, 70), where a recent EPA investigation found longstanding
17
18 SCFs exhibit a range of toxic and carcinogenic properties racial discrimination in the allowable emissions of toxic air
19 consistent with these observed endpoints (Supplemental Table pollutants and consequent adverse impacts to the health of
20 S1). The toxic chemicals most emitted from SCFs also include Black residents (71). The distributive justice issues observed

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21 those with nervous system, immune, urinary, and for SCFs are consistent with those observed for other phases
22 developmental effects, which are less well-studied in relation of the oil and gas production lifecycle across multiple
23 to residential proximity to petrochemical sites (25). geographic contexts (68, 72). A recent study reported an
24 association between redlining (racist lending and housing
25 Few community health studies of petrochemical facilities in policies) and locations of fossil fuel-based electricity
26 the US have been conducted, particularly those using more generation plants (73). Another documented correlation
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recent data from the 2000s onward. Our finding that more than
750,000 individuals live in block groups <5 km of SCFs raises
between social vulnerability and density of pipelines (38), and
county-level analysis observed an inverse correlation between
per-capita income and oil refinery emissions (39). As new SCs
concerns about potential exposures and health impacts from
30 emissions from SCFs and suggests that further research is are proposed, developers and policymakers should consider
31 needed. Changes in feedstock composition and technological environmental justice issues and cumulative burdens as a
32 changes could mean differences in the composition or quantity critical aspect of the permitting process (74).
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33 of emissions in more recent years. Epidemiologic and
34 exposure studies in the US, where regulations, meteorology, <Insert Table 3. Limitations and Data Gaps for Future
35 demographics, and potential confounders may differ from Research on Steam Crackers (SCs)>
36 those of other countries, could contribute new information to
37
facilitate cross-cohort comparisons, triangulate evidence, and Our analysis identified important needs in terms of data
38
enhance generalizability of (64). availability (Table 3). The lack of a centralized database for
39
40 SCFs necessitated consultation of multiple incomplete
Although increased health risks are documented in sources, and our analyses were limited to SCFs that were
41
populations living near petrochemical complexes in various confirmed by visual inspection and emission records. We
42
43 countries, studies specific to SCs are few. While our goal was found that the gray literature, including reports from non-
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44 to focus on SCs specifically, we were limited in our ability to governmental organizations, which may employ staff on the
45 isolate emissions data from SC units because emissions data ground to verify information, provided important data to
46 were for facilities in which SC units were located, not for supplement government databases. Limitations of relying on
47 individual SC units (Table 3). This highlights the need for disparate, non-academic, and non-governmental sources
48 more granular data on SC emissions. include possibilities that facilities are missed, inconsistencies
49 in reporting, differences in the type and quality of information,
50 Current and planned expansions of SCFs for plastic and lack of validation.
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production has significant implications for climate change.

52 The reported GHG emissions from SCFs were slightly greater Our analyses were based on EPA programs relying on
53 in 2019 compared to 2010, highlighting the contribution to industry-reported emissions, which are often based on
54 climate change (65). Furthermore, climate change is driving estimates and algorithms not empirical data, and tend to
55 more frequent SC startups and shutdowns (e.g., freezing underestimate measured emissions (53, 75). These reporting
56 temperature or hurricanes in Texas). SCs emit significant toxic programs are restricted to annual emissions, although short-
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57 chemical and GHG emissions during these processes, which term, peak toxic chemical emissions may be relevant for
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2
3 health. Further, future work is needed to understand other
4 sources, hazards, and pathways through which such facilities
5 could affect health, such as via water contamination, noise,
6 and psychosocial stress.. Another limitation is that our focus
7 on emissions and not ambient concentrations does not
8 consider fate, transport, and transformation of chemicals, or

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9 individual-level activity patterns relevant for exposure. While
10 quantity of emissions is useful for prioritizing chemicals, it
11 does not necessarily correspond to toxicity, as many chemicals
12
are toxic at low levels. Future work could compare the toxicity
13
of SC emissions to those of other petroleum facilities, such as

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refineries; however, because the emission profiles differ
15
substantially, a risk assessment type approach would be
16
needed to facilitate an appropriate head-to-head comparison.
17
18 There are some limitations associated with using
19 socioeconomic data from the 2019 ACS, as ACS estimates can
20 have large margins of error (76). Future research could

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21 evaluate ambient concentrations of highly emitted chemicals
22 in areas surrounding SCs or conduct individual-level
23 monitoring, and evaluate the subsequent health effects,
24 including which subpopulations are most vulnerable. In
25 addition, future studies could evaluate sociodemographic
26 characteristics of communities targeted for future SCFs.
27
28
29
5. Conclusions
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We leveraged publicly available data to synthesize
30 information about the locations, toxic chemical air emissions,
31 GHG emissions, and communities for 32 SCFs in the US.
32 Industry-reported emissions from SCFs demonstrate chemical
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33 releases of known human carcinogens and reproductive
34 toxicants. Annual SCF GHG emissions in 2019 totalled 68
35 million metric tons CO2e, equivalent to the annual GHG
36 emissions of over 14.8 million US passenger vehicles. We
37
found that 752,465 people live in census block groups <5 km
38
from an SCF, and that these communities have increased
39
socioeconomic disadvantages, compared to those residing
40
farther away. These findings underscore the need to consider
41
public health and environmental justice impacts in proposed
42
43 development of new SCs and for more US-based exposure and
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44 health studies of SCs.

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46 Funding
47 This research was funded by a grant from the High Tide
48 Foundation. NP was funded by the Yale University Summer
49 Experience Award.
50
51
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Conflict of Interest
52 The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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1 Table 1. Steam Cracker Facility Location, Ownership, and Reporting Years
1
Reporting Years
2 State - City1 Parent Company1 Primary NAICS Code1, 3
3 TRI1 GHGRP2
4 IA - Clinton LyondellBasell Industries 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325211 - Plastics Material and Resin Manufacturing
5 IL - Morris LyondellBasell Industries 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing

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6 KY - Calvert City Westlake Chemical Corp 1998 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325199 - All Other Basic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
7 LA - Baton Rouge Exxon Mobil Corp 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
8 LA - Geismar NC Holdings USA Inc 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
9 LA - Hahnville Dow Inc 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325199 - All Other Basic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
10
LA - Norco Shell Petroleum Inc 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
11
LA - Plaquemine Dow Inc 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325199 - All Other Basic Organic Chemical Manufacturing

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13 LA - Sulphur Westlake Chemical Corp 1991 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325211 - Plastics Material and Resin Manufacturing
14 LA - Westlake Sasol (USA) Corp 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325199 - All Other Basic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
15 LA - Westlake Indorama Ventures Holdings LP 1987 - 2019 2018 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
16 LA - Westlake LACC LLC 2016 - 2019 2019 325199 - All Other Basic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
17 LA - Addis C-K Tech Inc. 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325211 - Plastics Material and Resin Manufacturing
18 TX - Alvin LyondellBasell Industries 1987 - 2012 -- 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
19
TX - Alvin INEOS USA LLC 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325199 - All Other Basic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
20
21
TX - Baytown Chevron Philips Chemical Co LLC 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
22 TX - Baytown Exxon Mobil Corp 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
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23 TX - Beaumont Exxon Mobil Corp 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
24 TX - Channelview LyondellBasell Industries 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
25 TX - Corpus Christi LyondellBasell Industries 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
26 TX - Deer Park Shell Petroleum Inc 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
27 TX - Freeport Dow Inc 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325199 - All Other Basic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
28 TX - Gregory Occidental Chemical Holding Corp 1988 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325199 - All Other Basic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
29
TX - Longview Eastman Chemical Co 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325199 - All Other Basic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
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31 TX - Orange Dow Inc 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
32 TX - Point Comfort Formosa Plastics Corp USA 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325211 - Plastics Material and Resin Manufacturing
33 TX - Port Arthur BASF Corp 2001 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
34 TX - Port Arthur Chevron Phillips Chemical Co LLC 1995 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
35 TX - Port Arthur Motiva Enterprises LLC 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
36
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TX - Port Neches Indorama Ventures Holdings LP 1987 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325199 - All Other Basic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
37 TX - Sweeny Chevron Phillips Chemical Co LLC 2000 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325110 - Petrochemical Manufacturing
38
TX - Deer Park LyondellBasell Industries 1998 - 2019 2010 - 2019 325199 - All Other Basic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
39 1
2
40 Obtained from EPA’s Toxic Release Inventory (TRI).
2
3
41 Obtained from EPA’s Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program (GHGRP).
3
4
42 North American Industry Classification System code
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36 Table 2. Sociodemographic Characteristics of 2019 Census Block Groups within Counties with a Steam Cracker Facility
4
7
5
Counties with at Least One Steam Cracker Facility (SCF; n=16)

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7 Block Groups ≤ 5 km of Block Groups > 5 km of
8 SCF (n=484) SCF (n=3,110) p-value1
9 Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
10 Characteristic
11 Population estimate 1,452 (1,100) 1,975 (1,781) <0.001

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12 Population density (ppsm)2 2,460 (2,430) 5,373 (5,894) <0.001
13 Socioeconomic Characteristics
14 % Hispanic 26.2 (27.5) 36.9 (30.3) <0.001
15 % White, non-Hispanic 40.2 (32.4) 37.1 (30.5) 0.087
16 % Black, non-Hispanic 30.5 (36.2) 19.1 (24.1) <0.001
17 % Asian, non-Hispanic 1.2 (3.4) 4.9 (8.3) <0.001
18 % Other/multiple races, non-Hispanic 1.6 (3.1) 1.85 (3.0) <0.001
19 % ≤ High school3 53.3 (16.6) 44.85 (23.5) <0.001
20
% Professional occupation 24.5 (14.0) 33.5 (20.8) <0.001
21
22 % Unemployment 8.4 (8.4) 5.8 (5.7) <0.001
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23 % Public assistance 1.6 (2.8) 1.4 (2.5) 0.327
24 Median household income (USD) 54,843 (25,616) 67,866 (41,155) <0.001
25 % Renter-occupied homes 35.5 (22.5) 40.7 (28.5) 0.007
26 % Vacant homes 14.8 (11.5) 11.0 (10.0) <0.001
27 % Crowded housing unit 4.6 (6.3) 5.2 (7.0) 0.086
28
8 1 Wilcoxon rank sum test. 2 People per square mile.

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15 Table 3. Limitations and Data Gaps for Future Research on Steam Crackers (SCs)
2
3 Issue Challenges Impacts Possible Solutions
4 Location & Existing sources for data
Without reliable sources of SC locations and
5 Identification including steam cracker Government bodies such as the EPA and EIA could
operations, studies of SCs are much more time

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6 locations, operations, and provide specific, complete, and regularly updated
7 consuming, and run the risk of misidentifying or
ownership are incomplete and datasets of SC locations and operations.
8 not identifying SCs.
outdated.
9
Without a consistent record of SC investments and A publicly available database of planned and under
10
11
There are gaps in the planned projects, research is likely to construction SCs could be made available and
documentation of planned SCs. underestimate overall SC emissions and potentially maintained with current information by local,

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13 exposed populations. state, and federal government bodies.
14 SCs are collocated in large industrial complexes
15
The EPA could mandate more granular facility
Specificity of NAICS with many other facilities. Therefore, the
16 emissions reporting (i.e., sub facility or unit level).
categorization classification of the complex as a whole may not
17 align with how SCs themselves would be classified.
18
Isolating The EPA could mandate location and emissions
19 SCs are often collocated in large complexes among
20 Emissions Geographic specificity data reporting at a more granular level.
other industrial plants
21
22 The EPA could mandate emissions reporting at a
Companies self-report Self-reported yearly emissions may not reflect real-
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23 more temporally granular level.
24 calculated yearly emissions world conditions.
25 Modelling studies by government bodies or
26 Year-to-year changes in TRI Historical estimates of newly reportable chemicals
independent researchers may be able to model
27 chemical lists are unknown or underestimates.
28
historical emission trends.
29 Temporal & Greenhouse gas emissions data from years prior to Modelling studies by government bodies or
GHGRP reporting year
30 Geographic 2010 are unavailable, making emission totals over independent researchers may be able to estimate
availability
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31 Resolution of SCF lifespans flawed. historical trends.

32 Existing Data Changes in SC ownership and SCs often change names and ownership, making Companies and reporting agencies could make
33 facility names tracking difficult across multiple EPA IDs. crosswalks for facilities changing ownership.
34 Government bodies such as the EPA could
35 The timing of SC operations is missing, making
Lack of operational data mandate that reporting of emissions be
36 health impacts assessments open to flaws.
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37 accompanied by a reporting of operation timelines.

38 Better reporting of operational timelines to the
Lack of historical record SCs that have ended operations may be missed.
39 EPA may help correct the historical record.
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3 Heterogeneity of self-reported
4 EPA coordinates across
5 reporting programs
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Coordinates of facility locations and emission
sources are reported to the EPA by reporting The EPA could clean and update coordinates for
program. This results in numerous sets of each facility and provide specific coordinates of
coordinates, often without a clear indication as to facilities and their emissions sources.

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6 the most accurate set to use.
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1 Figure 1. Steam Cracker Operations
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Figure 2. Steam Cracker Facility Locations
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Figure 3. Self-Reported Median Steam Cracker Facility Toxic and Greenhouse Gas Air Emissions by Reporting Year
2
3
4 1,000,000 1,600,000
5

Median Reported Total GHG Emissions (million metric tons

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900,000
7 1,400,000
8
9 800,000
10 Median Reported TRI Air Emissions (lbs) 1,200,000
11 Chloromethane

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12 700,000
13 Vinyl Acetate
14 Toluene
1,000,000
15 600,000
16 Ammonia

CO2e)
17 1,3-Butadiene 500,000 800,000
18
19 N-Hexane
20 Benzene 400,000
21 600,000
22 Hydrochloric Acid
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23 300,000
Propylene
24 400,000
25 Ethylene
200,000
26
Total GHG
27
200,000
28 100,000
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31 0 0
32 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019
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Reporting Year
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