ECOLOGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE

THE ENVIRONMENTAL SPHERES

Earth’s environment is made up of four complex
interacting and often overlapping spheres of:
1. Lithosphere
2. Atmosphere
3. Hydrosphere
4. Biosphere

Scientists sometimes classify hydrosphere into

hydrosphere and cryosphere.
The Impact of Plants and Animals on the
Landscape
It is difficult to set boundaries for biospheres because
each one of them spatially intrudes on the other three.
Plants and animals play an important role in Earth’s
biosphere. They interact with its different components
and influence the biosphere’s development. In ancient
time the whole of earth was covered by vegetation but
this has changed with the advent of humans.
Ecosystems and Biomes

Organisation of ecosystems and

biome are based on two
principles:
Ecosystem: A Concept for All
Scales: Ecosystem compromises
all the interactions among
organisms and the environment in
the specific area. This contains
both living and non-living
components and the energy
transfer or flow between them.
Ecosystems can range from the
whole Earth to drop of water.

Biome: A Scale for All Bio-

geographers: This refers to a
recognisable assemblage of plants
and animals as they interact with
their environment. This is the
most suitable scale for
understanding the world
distribution patterns. The biomes
are classified into eleven major
types There is a significant and
predictable relationship between
the biota (particularly the flora) of
a biome, associated climate and
soil types.
Ecotone:
Ecotones are the transition zone between biotic communities. In ecotones the species of one community
intermingle or interdigitate with those of another.
The Major Biomes
As mentioned above major biomes include fauna, vegetation and interrelationships with soil, climate and other
components. But their name is based on the
dominant vegetation of the biomes.
1. Tropical Rainforest: This is one of the
most complex terrestrial ecosystems. It is
marked by a distinct tropical vegetation
which contains lot of tall high crowned
trees.
This biome sees consistent rainfall all year
long and temperatures on relatively higher
side.
Tall and high crowned trees restrict light on
the ground. There is heavy shade, consistent
rainfall ensures high humidity, and
relatively high temperatures ensure
relatively sparse undergrowth and
continuous decomposition.
Fauna is largely arboreal in nature. The
canopy is the main food source.
2. Tropical Deciduous Forest: This biome
type is not specifically related to any
distinct climatic type. The climate of this
region is fragmented and irregular.
Compared to tropical rainforest this biome
has canopy that is less dense, trees that are shorter, tree species that are less diverse and shrubs and other plants
that are more diverse. Most of the trees shed leaves during the same period even though this period varies based
on the precipitation in the area. This leaves shedding lead to more sunlight at the ground.
3. Tropical Scrub: This biome is generally widespread in A climatic type. This is characterised by low growing
tangled trees and tall brushes. The undergrowth has extensive grass. Compared to tropical rainforest and tropical
deciduous forest the plant diversity is less. The fauna of this biome is much different than fauna of the tropical
rainforest or tropical deciduous forests. The ground dwelling mammals and reptiles along with birds and insects
have moderately rich diversity.
4. Tropical Savanna: The distribution of tropical savanna biome and climatic region does not completely
correlate. This incomplete correlation is most noticeable in areas which experience seasonal rainfall contrasts.
This biome is characterised by tall grasses. Some of these regions were home to tropical deciduous forest or
tropical rainforests in the past that were converted due to human intervention. The seasons in this biome have a
distinct seasonal rhythm. The fauna of this biome differs from continent to continent. Tropical Savanna biomes
in Africa have a diverse large wildlife compared to sparse population of large wildlife in Latin America biomes.
5. Desert: These biomes are closely associated with Bwh and Bwk climate types. They are normally found in
mid-latitude locations across the world on different continents i.e. Asia, North America, South America etc.
These biomes are characterised by shrubs and succulents. In some area’s trees are present. The fauna is
moderately diverse and the variety of large mammals is severely limited.
6. Mediterranean Woodland and Shrub: There are six widely scattered Mediterranean Woodland and Shrub
areas in the world. These areas are relatively smaller in size and located in mid-latitudes. These biomes are
characterised by dry-summers and wet winters. These biomes have dense growth of trees woody shrubs along
with open grassy woodlands. Many plant species of this region can quickly recover from wild fire. Fauna of this
region is not particularly distinctive.
7. Mid-latitude Grassland: In northern hemisphere this biome is associated with steppe climatic type. In
southern hemisphere this association is less visible. This biome is characterised by low precipitation and/or
frequent fires. These climatic conditions restrict the growth of trees and shrubs. The grass in this biome depend
on the moisture availability. Diversity of fauna is relatively limited.
8. Mid-latitude Deciduous Forest: These forests have been extensively cleared for agricultural expansion.
These forests are characterised by dense growth of tall trees which form complete canopy during summers. The
trees shed their leaves during winters. The species of tree differ with regions. These biomes experience seasonal
variation in fauna.
9. Boreal Forest: This biome is closely related to the subarctic climatic type. This is one of the largest biomes
and it occupies large areas of land in Northern North America and Eurasia. This biome is characterised by
conifers and deciduous trees. The number of bogs and swamps is large due to permanently frozen subsoil. The
availability of food and presence of Faunal diversity are limited. Insects are absent in winter but emerge during
brief periods of summer.
10. Tundra: This is essentially a cold desert or cold grassland. This biome is found in the northern edge of the
Northern Hemisphere continents. Trees are absent while variety of grasses, mosses, lichens, glowering herbs,
low shrubs etc. exist. Birds and insects are found in summer.
11. Alpine Tundra: This biome is found in areas situated at high elevation. This biome is characterised by
presence of herbaceous plants, grasses, and low shrubs.

The Geographic Approach to the Study of Organisms

Organisms are highly complex. This complexity forces geographers to restrict their attention to certain aspects
of the whole. The geographical approach is concerned with seeking generalizations and patterns and finding out
their overall importance. Study of the distribution patterns of plants and animals, and how these patterns change
over time is called biogeography whereas the systematic study of plants and animals is done by biologists.
The Search for a Meaningful Classification Scheme
―Linnaean system is the most important and commonly used biological classification system. This
classification is done on the basis of morphology of the organisms under study. The groupings in this
classification are based on structural similarities. This also leads to its main disadvantage i.e. the geographic use
of this system is completely based on anatomic similarities. Geographers are more concerned with distribution
patterns and habitat preferences. Sadly, they are unable to bring anything better to the table and the widespread
agreement on such schemes are very unlikely.

THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL
CYCLES
Geographers generally agreed that
for a billion years the atmospheric
and hydrospheric composition of
Earth has remained relatively
static. Earth receives energy from
the sun and losses it as heat.
Chemical elements in the earth are
recycled. The flow of elements
between living and non-living
forms and from location to location
is known as biogeochemical cycle.
From the viewpoint of living
beings, the following
biogeochemical cycles are very
important.
(a) Energy Cycle
(b) Hydrologic cycle.
(c) Carbon cycle.
(d) Oxygen cycle.
(e) Nitrogen cycle.
(f) Other mineral cycles.
Human beings are negatively affecting all of these cycles.
Energy Cycle
Sun is the primary source of energy on Earth. All the living
beings directly or indirectly depend on sun for their energy
needs.
Photosynthesis: This is the process through which plants
produce food or energy. Plants absorb atmospheric carbon
dioxide, combine it with water in the presence of sunlight
for forming carbohydrate compounds.

CO2 + H2O (via sunlight)  Carbohydrates + O2

This energy travels through the biosphere when these
plants are consumed by animals, and these animals
are consumed by other animals.

Plant respiration:
This is the process of utilising the energy stored in
form of carbohydrates. This happens when plants
oxidise the stored carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates + O2  CO2 + H2O + energy (heat)

Net Primary Productivity: This term is used for

denoting the difference between the amount of
carbohydrates produced by the photosynthesis and the
amount of the carbohydrates lost by the plant
respiration over a period of time (generally one year).
This is a measure of the biomass of the plant
communities. Net primary productivity is highest in
plant communities in the tropics. Net primary
productivity decreases as we move from tropics
towards the pole.
The Hydrologic or Water Cycle
Live on planet Earth cannot exist without water. At
any given time, the water on our planet can either be
in residence or in transit.
The hydrologic cycle starts with heating of water by
the sun. This leads to evaporation of water. Air
absorbs water and become moist. This moist air gains
altitude and becomes cooler. This cooling condenses
the water vapours for forming clouds.
Water is transported across the world in the form of
water vapours or moisture. It returns to Earth as
precipitation. On reaching ground, the water is
subjected to one of the two processes.
1) Evaporation: Some of the water will again get
heated and absorbed into the atmosphere.
2) Percolation: Some of the water will be absorbed
into the Earth and it will become ground water. The
absorption is done through the rocks and soil
particles. This water ultimately go to the oceans,
rivers and streams or the atmosphere (transpiration)

The Carbon Cycle

The flow of carbon in our earth from living matter to
non-living and then back to living matter is called
carbon cycle.
Plants use atmospheric carbon dioxide in
photosynthesis process for making carbohydrates.
Plants and animals use these carbohydrates for their
growth.
Some of the carbon dioxide is directly released by
plants and animals through the process of respiration.
The dead organisms and waste product also release
carbon back into the environment.
Since industrial revolution the increasing human
activities, especially the burning of fossil fuel has
accelerated the rate of release of carbon from reservoirs into the atmosphere.
Oxygen cycle
The flow of oxygen through the various processes in
the environment and humans is known as oxygen
cycle. This is an extremely complicated cycle
because there are numerous chemical forms of
oxygen and these forms are released by multiple
processes. Most of the current oxygen in the
atmosphere has been released as a by
of ways. Oxygen now in atmosphere is largely a by-
product of vegetable life.
Nitrogen cycle
The flow of nitrogen from non-living matter to living
matter and back through various processes and
channels is called nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen is the most abundant gas (78 percent) in
Earth’s atmosphere. But nevertheless, only certain
species of soil bacteria and blue-green algae can use
nitrogen in its gaseous form. The process of
converting nitrogen gas into nitrogen that can be
used by the plants is called nitrogen fixation.
Animals access nitrogen through consumption of
plants and other animals.
Similarly, denitrification is the process by which the
nitrates are released back into the atmosphere as
nitrogen.
Other Mineral Cycles
In addition to above mentioned cycles there are other
trace elements like calcium, sulphur etc. which play a significant part in the nutrients of life. These elements
also follow their own cycles.

Related Terms
 Food chain: The flow of energy in the living beings are described by food chains. Food chains show how
carbohydrates are transferred from one organism to other through feeding. Food chains are limited in the sense
that they show orderly linkage of equivalent units but that is never the case in real life.
 Producers:
Producers are the organisms which produce their own food. Producers are also many times called autotrophs.
Plants are the main producers on the planet Earth. They convert solar energy into carbohydrates. The plants are
eaten by primary consumers. Secondary consumers meet their energy needs by consuming plants. Decomposers
help in breaking the dead organic material back into the nutrients.
 Food pyramid: Food pyramids are improvement over Food chains. They depict the energy transfer from the
lower forms to the higher forms, but does not use equivalent units. These pyramids show the large number of
lower life forms and small number of higher life forms to show the energy transfers.
 Pollutants in the Food Chain: The food chain is increasingly getting polluted due to the activities of human
beings. Many chemicals like DDT, mercury etc. have become part of the food chain and their concentration has
become more in the higher levels of the food chain to an extent where they are even causing deaths.

CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL WARMING AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Earth receives energy from the Sun in form of sunlight. Some of this solar radiation is reflected back from the
atmosphere.
The loss of energy from the system is in form of heat or longwave terrestrial radiation. There are number of
gases in the atmosphere that restrict this terrestrial radiation from escaping into the atmosphere. This is a natural
and very important process for life on earth. Without this trapping of heat, Earth would still be a frozen mass.
This effect of trapping gases is known as Greenhouse effect. The gases responsible for this effect are called
greenhouse gasses. Prominent greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide and methane.
The increase in the concentration of these greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere since the industrial revolution
has increased the amount of trapped heat. This is increasing the average global temperature of Earth. This
increase in the temperature is known as Global Warming. The effect of Global Warming is known as Climate
Change.
 The available recorded data shows that in the 20th century the average global temperature has increased by
approximately 0.6°C.
 Some of the warmest years on record have been observed in the 21st century.
 Climate change is a natural phenomenon. It leads to cycles of ice age on earth. But the rate of change has
been significantly increased due to the increases in the rate of release of greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere by human activities.
 According to estimates carbon dioxide alone is responsible for almost 65 percent of increase in the
greenhouse effect. Since 1750 the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased more than 30 percent.
 Earth is experiencing highest concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in the last 8,00,000 years.
 The warming of the Earth is not uniform. The complexity of the Climate system makes it almost impossible
to predict the exact global warming effects on the area.
 The increase in the temperature of Earth is increasing the rate of occurrence of extreme weather events and
the intensity of these events.
 Computer modelling shows that the global warming ill lead to higher temperatures and more draughts in the
midlatitudes and milder temperature at the higher latitudes. The rainfall in some Arid areas will increase,
ice caps will melt and global sea levels will increase. The present ling patterns across the Earth will change.
The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
IPCC is an international panel of experts from across the globe who are studying the Global Warming, Climate
Change and their effects on us. According to the reports released by IPCC:
a) Warming of the Earths climate has been proved beyond doubt due to the increase in the Earth’s air and
surface temperature, increased widespread melting of snow and ice, and the rise in the global sea
levels.
b) There is a 90 percent probability that the warming of Earth’s Climate is due to the increased pollution
by human activities.
c) The increase in the Earth’s temperature and increase in the greenhouse gas emissions are strongly
correlated.
d) The reports say that since the pre-industrial era, the overall Earth’s climate is showing changes at both
the global and regional levels. And the global warming over the past 60+ years is due to the human
activities.

IPCC reports provide following evidence in support of Global Warming:

 Increase in global average temperature by 0.74°C (1.33°F) between 1906 and 2005 with estimates ranging
from 0.57°C to 0.95°C (1.03°F to 1.71°F).
 Annual average global temperature increase of 0.13°C (0.23°F) per decade over the last 50 or so years.
 Instruments are being used to measure temperature since 1850. The recorded data shows that 11 of the 12
warmest years occurred between 1995 and 2018.
 Post 1961 data of global ocean temperatures shows that 80 percent of the heat added to the global climate
system has been absorbed by the oceans.
 The total global sea levels have increased by 0.17 meters (6.7 inches) during the twentieth century.
 The rate of the average temperature increase in the Arctic over the last century has been twice the increase in
the rate of global average temperatures.
 There has been 7.4 percent per decade decrease in the average summer sea ice in the Arctic since 1978. The
reduced sea ice extent has been correlated with satellite monitoring of the area.
 There has been decrease in ice caps and glaciers in both hemispheres. The flow speed of some Greenland and
Antarctic outlet glaciers has increased.
 Since 1900 the area of land seasonally frozen has decreased by approximately 7 percent.
 Between 1900 and 2005, parts of North America, South America, Central and Northern Asia, and Northern
Europe have shown increase in the average rainfall and parts of Southern Africa, South Asia, Mediterranean,
etc. have shown decrease in the average rainfall.
 Since 1970s the intensity and the duration of the droughts have increased. The area affected by the droughts
have also increased.

IPCCs reports make the following predictions regard the effect of global warming:
(a) Rise in global sea levels between 0.69 to 0.99 meters. This will cause retreating of the shorelines and
subject the coastal areas to more storms.
 (b) Significant diminishing of the snow cover on land
(c) Significant diminishing of the sea ice in Arctic and Antarctica.
(d) Increase in precipitation in high latitudes and decrease in precipitation in subtropical areas.
(e) Increase in frequency of heat waves and heavy precipitation.
(f) Shift in the distribution of plant and animal species.
(g) Marked increase in the species extinction rate.

Related Information
1. Paleoclimatology: Study of past climates is called Paleoclimatology.
2. Proxy measures: The measures used for measuring climate change in the past. Proxy measures are used
because detailed climate measurements were developed in last few hundred years.
3. Dendrochronology: Deriving information about past climates through analysing tree rings. This analysis
helps us in gaining information regarding droughts and temperature fluctuations.
4. Oxygen Isotope Analysis of Oceanic Sediments: A technique for gaining past climatic information from the
ration of oxygen isotopes 16O and 18O. 16O evaporates more readily than 18O so during glacial periods there is
more 16O locked up in glacial ice and greater quantities of 18O left behind in the oceans. Similar changes can
be seen in the sediments at the ocean floor.
5. Oxygen Isotope Analysis of Ice Cores: A technique for gaining past climatic information through studying
the 18O/16O ratio in ice cores. 18O/16O ratio acts as a proxy thermometer.
6. Pollen analysis: Pollen analysis or palynology studies the pollen in sediment layers at the bottom of lakes and
bogs. Certain plans show greater adaption to the changes in the climate. The pollen of these plants at different
time can help in providing an indication regarding the climatic conditions of the time. In this method the dating
of sediments is done using radiocarbon dating techniques and this information is correlated with the pollen in
the relative sediment layers.

Climate Models
Atmospheric scientists predict climate change through computer simulations and/or general circulation models
(GCMs). These models are tested with the past and present data. Their adequacy for future predictions is
dependent on their success in simulating the present and past climate changes.

Strategies for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Different scientists and experts have suggested the following strategies for combatting global warming:
 Reduction in use of fossil fuel: Electrical power generation and transportation accounts for more than 40%
of the current global greenhouse gas emissions.
 Cap-and-Trade and Carbon Tax schemes: The countries are not willing to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions as it affects their economies negatively. As such additional incentives will be required by both
developed and undeveloped nations for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon Tax imposes tax on
processes that increase carbon footprint. This encourages reduction of carbon footprint. Cap and trade scheme
places declining limit on emissions from industries by allowing one to purchase carbon credits from low-
producing nations.
 “No Regrets” Opportunities: I.e. encouraging energy efficient practices by incentivising them through lower
energy bills.

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