FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

WHAT IS PHOTOGRAPHY?
PHOTOGRAPHY - The process or art of producing images of objects on sensitized surfaces by the chemical action of light. The word
"photography" derives from the Greek and means, literally, “light writing.”

"Photography" is derived from the Greek words photos ("light") and graphein ("to draw") The word was first used by the scientist Sir
John F.W. Herschel in 1839. It is a method of recording images by the action of light, or related radiation, on a sensitive material.

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY:
Police Photography is the study of the general practices, methods, and steps in taking pictures of the crime scene, physical thins,
and other circumstances that can be used as criminal evidences or for law enforcement purposes.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY:
Forensic photography is that field covering the legal application of photography in criminal jurisprudence and criminal
investigation. It is that branch of forensic science dealing with the:
 Study of the fundamental but pragmatic principles/concepts of photography;
 application of photography in law enforcement; and:
 Preparation of photographic evidence needed by prosecutors and courts of law

SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY - Infrared photography is the recording of images formed by infrared radiation. Because infrared
radiation is invisible, some special techniques may be needed. But, in general, most of the commonly required methods are as simple
as those of ordinary photography. These uses as special films that is sensitive to infrared radiation.

Infrared rays which are invisible have a longer wavelength than visible light. They can penetrate haze that scatters the waves of visible
light. For this reason, infrared photographs often much clearer than ordinary photographs. Pictures can be taken with infrared rays
even at night or in complete darkness.

Uses in Law Enforcement

1. Questioned documents. Even crossed-out words or writings on a charred piece of paper can be read if photographs of
them are taken with infrared rays.
2. Aerial photography.
a. Infrared photography can enhance the contrast of the terrain.
b. Coniferous (darker) and deciduous (lighter) growth is differentiated.
3. Surveillance photography.
4. Detection of gunshot-powder burns, stains and irregularities in cloth.
5. Detection of certain types of secret writings.
6. It can differentiate inks, dyes, and pigments that appears visually the same;
7. Fabrics that appear to be similar but have been dyed differently can be identified by infrared;
8. It may also reveal the contents of sealed envelopes;
9. It is also valuable in detecting stains on cloth, including blood stains that are not visible to the eye; and,
10. Powder residues surrounding bullet holes in cloth, even when the fabric is dark in color or bloodstained, may be made
visible by infrared.

Other uses:

Used in medicine to inspect damage to veins and healing beneath scabs.

Faults in the weaving of textiles show up in infrared photography.

2. ULTRAVIOLET PHOTOGRAPHY
Some materials will absorb ultraviolet, while others will reflect these radiations. Some have partial reflection. These effects can be
recorded photographically suing ultraviolet radiation. Black-and-white films are sensitive to most wavelengths of ultraviolet. By using
a filter that absorbs all visible light but passes ultraviolet, it is possible to make a photographic exposure with just ultraviolet.

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Uses in Law Enforcement

a. Try ultraviolet photography after visible light techniques and infrared light techniques fail (questioned documents, etc.).
b. Fingerprints on multicolored surfaces (dust with fluorescent powder or ninhydrin).
c. Body secretions such as urine, semen and perspiration often glow when illuminated by ultraviolet light.
d. Money and other valuables can be dusted or marked to identify thief’s.
e. Photographing “invisible ink”.

Use of Reflective Ultraviolet Photography to Photo-Document Bruising to Children

Reflective UV photography will show bruising or bite marks that are no longer visible.

3. PHOTOMICROGRAPHY – It combines a camera with microscope. Pictures can then be taken of things too small to be seen with
naked eye. A photograph taken through a microscope is called photomicrograph.

Photomicrography is the practice of photographing very small objects in order that they may be seen in comfort.
(One should not confuse this with micro-photography, which is the opposite.)

The practice dates from the earliest days of photography. The first known example is that of Fox Talbot who, using
a solar microscope, had photographed an insect's wing, magnified some 15 times. John Benjamin Dancer also produced work
in this field.

4. MACROPHOTOGRAPHY - Photography of a subject where the image is recorded in the same or larger than actual size.

It is the process of obtaining a magnified photograph of a small object without the use of a microscope, by using a
short focus lens or macro lens/close-up lens and a long bellow extension.

5. X-RAY photography – is widely use in medicine, industry, and science. It is quite different from ordinary photography. X rays are
invisible electromagnetic waves. They behave much like visible light. But they can pass through things such as wood, cardboard, and
flesh, which light cannot penetrate.

MICRO-PHOTOGRAPHY – A.K.A. Micro-filming

This is photography made on a vastly reduced scale, to be observed using a microscope or projected using a "magic
lantern." Though George Shadbolt is credited with being the inventor of micro-photography, the first known example of
micro-photography was by John Benjamin Dancer, in 1839, when he produced photographs 15mm in diameter.

The term should not be (but often is!) confused with photo-micrography; the micro-photographic process is taken to
mean a substantial reduction of the "real thing" either for archival, portability or, as shown above, clandestine purposes.

Micro-photography is the production of photographs in which the image of an object is reproduced much smaller
than it actually is. It is just the opposite of photomicrography.

PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPONENTS:
1. A subject 5. A light source
2. A camera 6. Photographic film
3. Chemicals for processing film 7. A printing device
4. Photographic paper. 8. Chemicals for processing paper

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I. SUBJECT
The subject can be anything. If it can be seen, it can be photographed. Just as there must be light to form an image, there must be
a subject from which to form the image.

II. CAMERA
The camera is essentially a light tight box with an optical system at one end and an image support at the other.

Additions to the basic camera have been made to improve focusing the image, viewing, controlling the amount and
duration of light entering the box, film changing or rolling and range and exposure calculators. While these improvements are
valuable, they are not absolutely essential to the photographic process. A picture can be made with a coffee can if it has a pinhole
atone end and a support for film at the other.

A camera is a device used to take pictures (usually photographs), either singly or in sequence, with or without sound recording,
such as with video cameras.

A camera that takes pictures singly is sometimes called a photo camera to distinguish it from a video camera. The name is
derived from camera obscura, Latin for "dark chamber", an early mechanism for projecting images in which an entire room
functioned much as the internal workings of a modern photographic camera, except there was no way at this time to record the image
short of manually tracing it. Cameras may work with the visual spectrum or other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Video or Movie Camera vs. Still or Photo camera

Cameras that capture many images in sequence are known as movie cameras or as cines cameras in Europe; those designed for single
images are still cameras. However these categories overlap, as still cameras are often used to capture moving images in special effects
work and modern digital cameras are often able to trivially switch between still and motion recording modes. A video camera is a
category of movie camera which captures images electronically (either using analogue or digital technology).

CAMERA OBSCURA – THE ORIGIN OF CAMERA

CAMERA OBSCURA - A device used by early artists (centuries before Christ) to display a scene on the wall of an otherwise-
darkened room so that it could be more-easily copied. In a manner similar to the pinhole camera, a small hole placed in an opposite
wall permitted light to enter the room (the “camera”), and the scene outside became transmitted inside, and was shown inverted on the
rear wall or sometimes on a screen. The camera obscura is the origin of the modern camera.

CAMERA LUCIDA

The Camera Lucida, designed in 1807 by Dr. William Wollaston, was an aid to drawing It was a reflecting prism which enabled artists
to draw outlines in correct perspective. No darkroom was needed. The paper was laid flat on the drawing board, and the artist would
look through a lens containing the prism, so that he could see both the paper and a faint image of the subject to be drawn. He would
then fill in the image. However, as anyone who has tried using these will know only too well, that too required artistic skills, as Fox
Talbot also discovered.

@CAMERA TYPES@

1. Box Camera

For more than several decades the box camera (viewfinder) was the instrument of choice for the casual amateur photographer.
Inexpensive and simple, it was, nevertheless, capable of excellent results under many conditions. Box cameras were normally fitted
with a single-element lens, a limited range of aperture control, and a single-speed leaf shutter.
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 The box camera is, with the exception of the pin hole camera, a camera in its simplest form. The classic box camera is shaped
more or less like a box, hence the name. A box camera has a simple optical system, often only in the form of a simple meniscus lens.
It usually lacks a focusing system (fix-focus) as well as control of aperture and shutter speeds. This makes it suitable for daylight
photography only. In the 1950s, box cameras with photographic flash were introduced, allowing indoor photos.

2. Pinhole Camera

A pinhole camera is a camera without a lens. An extremely small hole takes its place, which
should be in very thin material. An image's light from a scene passes through this single point,
and because there is no lens, the image will be clear at all distances from the pinhole. The
smaller the hole, the sharper the image, but the more exposure will be required. Also, in order
to produce a reasonably clear image, the ratio of the pinhole, or aperture, size to the distance
between it and the screen should be 1/100 or less. The shutter of a pinhole camera is usually
manually operated because of the lengthy times, and consists of a flap of some light-proof
material to cover and uncover the pinhole. Typical exposure times range from 5 seconds to
hours and sometimes days.

Principle of a pinhole camera. Light rays from an object pass through a small hole to form an
image.

3. Folding-Roll Film Camera

The Folding-Roll Film Camera Second in popularity only to the box camera, the folding camera
was manufactured in a variety of formats. Basically, though, it was a box camera whose lens was
incorporated into a movable bellows that could slide back and forth on a rail, allowing the lens to
change focus. Lenses and shutters were often one-piece units. More elaborate models were first-
rate instruments with high-quality optical systems and precision shutters. Many were fitted with
coupled rangefinders. The most significant advantage they have over the box camera, however,
was their compact design when folded, which made them easier to pack and transport. There has
been something of a minor renaissance in folding-roll film cameras in recent years, with
appearance of several new professional instruments. They are appreciated for their large negative
size and compact design.

4. Range Finder Camera -A rangefinder camera is a camera fitted with a rangefinder: a range-finding focusing mechanism allowing
the photographer to measure the subject distance and take photographs that are in sharp focus.

Similar to a Viewfinder type camera this camera does not use a lens to view the subject but
instead relies on a separate viewing system in the camera for aiming and for focus. The range
finder camera allows for accurate focus, however, by using two views of the same subject to
adjust focus. In this camera there are two images in the viewfinder. One is usually only a
portion of the viewer area and is usually slightly yellowish in color. The photographer adjusts
the focus ring on the lens and as they do the two images move. When both on directly on top of
each other they blend together and almost disappear signifying the camera is in focus. The
rangefinder is accurate and usually very quiet and very light weight. It is useful for taking
pictures in low light conditions or for candid’s when quiet is important. These cameras can
easily be identified by their double view windows in the front.

A Foca camera of 1947 at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris

5. REFLEX CAMERA - A camera that has a mirror directly in the path of light traveling through the lens that reflects the scene to a
viewing screen.
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Two Kinds:

Single-Lens Reflex Camera

Twin-lens Reflex Camera

A. TWIN LENS REFLEX - (TLR) A camera having two separate lenses of the same focal length - one for viewing and focusing; the
other for exposing the film. The lenses are mechanically-coupled so that both are focused at the same time.

Twin-Lens Reflex Cameras A medium-format camera--one that uses film larger than 35mm--the twin-lens reflex was
immensely popular after World War II. It is fitted with two lenses of identical focal length, one mounted atop the other. The lower, or
taking, lens focuses its image directly on the film, while the image produced by the upper viewing lens is reflected through 90 degrees
by a mirror, and brought to focus on a horizontal ground-glass focusing screen. The light paths to the film plane and the focusing
screen are equal, so that if the photographer brings the scene on the focusing screen to sharp focus, the image on the film plane will be
equally sharp.

Yashica LM Twin Lens Reflex Camera

B. SINGLE LENS REFLEX - (SLR) A camera with one lens only for both viewing and picture-taking. The image is reflected onto a
viewing screen by a moveable mirror in the camera. The mirror flips out of the way just before the shutter opens, permitting light to
strike the film.

Single-Lens Reflex Cameras One of the most popular designs available today, the single-lens reflex (SLR) both views and
photographs through one lens. Light passing through the lens is reflected by a mirror and brought to focus on a ground glass. The
mirror causes a reversal of the image seen on the ground glass, but the addition of a pentaprism mounted over the ground glass allows
the camera to be used at eye level, with the image seen upright and in proper left/right orientation. An instant before the exposure is
made, the mirror swings upward, and the shutter is activated. A single control cocks the shutter for the next exposure, advances the
film, and returns the mirror to focusing position.

5. VIEW CAMERA - A large format camera - a term that applies to cameras that produce an individual image size of 5" X 4" or
larger. It is most often found in a studio, and is sometimes even called a "studio camera," although the view camera can be transported
and set up in the field.

View Cameras and Technical Cameras Cameras in this category are used almost exclusively by professional photographers. The
most common film formats are 4 x 5 or 8 x 10 inches, the latter often used in the very large cameras found in portrait studios. Film for
these cameras is loaded in the darkroom into two-sided holders, which are inserted at the back of the camera. Both the camera's back
and front can be tilted in various positions, to permit the photographer to make certain types of corrections in the image. By raising the
lens in relation to the film plane, when photographing a tall building, for example, the tendency for parallel lines to look as if they
converge is eliminated.

7. SINGLE-USE CAMERA - Camera that is used only once. It is disposed of after the film is removed for processing.

8. INSTANT CAMERA

An instant camera is a type of camera with self-developing film. The most famous are those made by the Polaroid Corporation.
Polaroid no longer manufactures such cameras. The invention of modern instant cameras is generally credited to American scientist
Edwin Land, who unveiled the first commercial instant camera, the Land Camera, in 1947, 10 years after founding the Polaroid
Corporation.

Instant Cameras An instant camera will produce a finished print in from 20 seconds to about 4 minutes. The film, after exposure, is
passed between two stainless steel rollers inside the camera. These rupture a chemical pod on the film and spread developing agent
evenly over the film's surface. In the original Polaroid system it was necessary for the user to peel the finished print from the base
material. An electronic circuit in the camera measures the time required for the sound to be reflected back from the object

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photographed. This time measurement is converted into a measurement of distance, and an electrical mechanism coupled to the
focusing circuit sets the lens for the proper exposure.

9. COMPACT CAMERA/Instamatic Camera - Commonly refers to a point-and-shoot camera.

Point and Shoot Cameras are a viewfinder type camera with added focus abilities that make it an ideal camera for vacation and
travel snapshots. Most of them use autofocus or focus free lenses for focusing and automatic systems for exposure as well. These
cameras will often have an infrared focus system in them that bounces infra red light out of the camera like radar and determines the
distance to the subject. Point and shoot cameras usually have a fairly wide angle lens and require you to get close to the subject to
make a dominant photograph. For doing a group shot or a scenic or snap shot where there is a lot of material to include in a frame
these cameras are ideal. For the SCHS photo class this type of camera will work for assignments that do not require using special
exposure or shutter techniques because these cameras are usually fully automatic. For a quick photo these are tops.

10. MINIATURE CAMERA – This group consist of a large variety of makes and models taking very small pictures. The miniature
cameras are small, compact ones, with size measuring as small as 3 x 1 5/8 x 1 ½ inches and a weight as low as 3.3 ounces.

Generally speaking, the term “miniature” includes cameras using films in size from 8-mm, 9.5-mm, 16-mm to 35-mm film
cartridges.

11. DISC CAMERAS

Since its introduction in the 1880s, flexible film has usually been rolled onto a spool or loaded into a cassette. In 1980 the
Eastman Kodak Company introduced a new format for mass-market cameras. Fifteen images, each 5/16 x 3/8 inches, can be
photographed on a piece of circular film about 2 1/2 inches in diameter, which is housed in a thin, light-tight film disc. Disc cameras
are exceptionally compact, and most are fitted with an electronic flash and a motor that advances the disc after each exposure.

BASIC PARTS OF CAMERA:

EVERY camera has these basic parts:

A. This first and main part is called the body.

B. The second part is the shutter which might be located in the lens (leaf shutter) or it might be located right in front of the film (focal
plane shutter).

C. The lens lets in light. It draws the light into the camera and focuses it on the film plane. The larger the lens the more light. The lens
also effects how large the image appears based on the focal length of the lens.

D. The aperture is located in the lens and is a set of leaf like piece of metal that can change the size of the hole that lets in light. We
consider the lens to be part of the shutter as we do not actually need a lens to focus an image if we have a small enough hole to let in
the light.

E. Finally, we have the third part is film holder inside the camera. This must have some attachment that allows for the film to
be moved which can either be a lever or a motor.

SHUTTER

SHUTTER - A movable cover for an opening. It open and closes to control the length of time light strikes the film. In
photography, that opening is the lens - more specifically, the aperture. The shutter blocks the passage of light traveling
through the lens to the film when it is closed, and allows light to reach the film when it is open. Shutters are composed of
blades, a curtain, a plate or another movable cover. They control the amount of time that light is allowed to pass through the
opening to reach the film.

Controls how LONG light enters the camera. This is TIMED by the shutter speed dial, usually on top of the camera. The
larger the number the SHORTER the time. A short time lets in light quickly which will stop the MOTION an object might
have as it travels across the film while being exposed.

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SHUTTER SPEED - Controls the duration of an exposure - the faster the Shutter speed, the shorter the exposure time.

Shutter Speeds on the common camera

1000 - 500 - 250 - 125 - 60 - 30 - 15 - 8 - 4 - 2 - 1 - B

Each speed is a fraction of a second - like 1/1000th of a second or 1/4 of a second. B stands for bulb and
holds the shutter open as long as the shutter release is held down. This used to be attached to a long hose to
a bulb held in the photographer’s hand, thus the name Bulb.

APERTURE

APERTURE - A circle-shaped opening in a lens (a hole, really) through

which light passes to strike the film. The aperture is usually created by an
iris diaphragm that is adjustable, enabling the aperture to be made wider or
narrower, thereby letting in more or less light. The size of the aperture is
expressed as an '-number, like '/8 or '/11.

The aperture controls how MUCH light enters the camera. This opening is
inside the LENS of the camera and is adjusted by a ring on the outside of
the lens. The larger the opening the less sharp the final image will be, much
like in our original pinhole camera. The larger the opening the more light
that is allowed into the camera.

The APERTURE is the opening you see in the lens.

Apertures on the common camera

1.4 - 2 - 4 - 5.6 -8 - 11 – 16-22 - 32

each of these represents a fraction again, thus 2 is 1/2 and 22 is 1/22 representing the basic size of the opening in relation to
the focal length of the lens. An aperture of f2 on a telephoto lets in the same amount of light as on a 200 mm telephoto, yet
the size of the opening will not be identical.

F-Number and f-stop

F-NUMBER - (ƒ-number) A number that expresses a lens’ light-transmitting ability - i.e. the
size of the lens opening. Usually found on the barrel of a lens, f-numbers indicate the size of
the aperture in relation to the focal length of the lens. A smaller number indicates a larger lens
diameter. F/1.4 signifies that the focal length of the lens is 1.4 times as great as the diameter.
All lenses set at the same f-number transmit the same amount of light.

F-stop - (f-stop) A lens aperture setting calibrated to an f-number.

The bottom scale on this lens shows f-NUMBERS from ƒ/16 to ƒ/1.4.

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APERTURE PRIORITY VS. SHUTTER PRIORITY

APERTURE PRIORITY - A function or shooting mode of a semi-automatic camera that permits the photographer to preset
the aperture and leaves the camera to automatically determine the correct shutter speed. What does that mean? You select the
aperture setting you want and the camera then automatically calculates the appropriate corresponding shutter speed for proper
exposure. It's like a fully-automatic camera except you totally control the aperture.

SHUTTER PRIORITY - An exposure mode (in a camera with automatic exposure control) that permits the photographer to preset
shutter speed while the camera automatically determines the aperture setting required for proper exposure.

DEPTH OF FIELD VS. DEPTH OF FOCUS

DEPTH OF FIELD – The zone of acceptable sharpness or the area or 'zone' of a photograph, from front to back, which is in focus or
the range of distance in a scene that appears to be in focus and will be reproduced as being acceptably sharp in an image.

Depth of field is controlled by the lens aperture, and extends for a distance in front of and behind the point on which the lens is
focused.

DEPTH OF FOCUS - A zone of focus in the camera. If an image is focused on a ground glass screen in a camera, depth of focus
makes it possible to move the screen slightly backward or forward and still have the image in acceptable focus.

FOCAL LENGTH, FOCAL POINT AND FOCAL PLANE

FOCAL LENGTH - Focal length is the distance between the focal point of a lens and the film plane when the lens is focused at
infinity. It is used to designate the relative size and angle of view of a lens, expressed in millimeters (mm). A particular lens' focal
length can generally be found engraved or printed on the front of the lens.

The focal length of a lens is defined as the distance in mm from the optical center of the lens to the focal point, which is located on
the sensor or film if the subject (at infinity) is "in focus". The camera lens projects part of the scene onto the film or sensor. The field
of view (FOV) is determined by the angle of view from the lens out to the scene and can be measured horizontally or vertically.
Larger sensors or films have wider FOVs and can capture more of the scene. The FOV associated with a focal length is usually based
on the 35mm film photography, given the popularity of this format over other formats.

FOCAL POINT - (1) The central or principal point of focus. (2) The optical center of a lens when it is focused on infinity.

FILM PLANE/FOCAL PLANE - The place in a camera where the film is located in readiness for it to be exposed to light. A film
plane is the area inside any camera where the individual frame of film or digital sensor is positioned during exposure. It is sometimes
marked on camera body with the 'Φ' symbol where the vertical bar represents the exact location.

HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE VS. HYPERFOCAL POINT

HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE - Technically, it is the distance between the camera and the hyper focal point. But, in practice, Hyper
focal distance is a lens setting technique that allows you to shoot sharp pictures within a certain distance range without having to
refocus. When the lens is focused on infinity, the hyper focal distance is the distance of the nearest object in a scene that is acceptably
sharp.

HYPERFOCAL POINT - When the lens is focused on infinity, the nearest point to the camera that is considered acceptably sharp is
the hyper focal point. By focusing on the hyper focal point, everything beyond it to infinity remains in acceptable focus, and objects
halfway between the camera and the hyper focal point will also be rendered acceptably sharp.

III. PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHTING

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Light, or visible light, is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye (about 400–700 nm). In a scientific
context, the word light is sometimes used to refer to the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Moreover, in optics, the term "visible light"
refers to electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths of ~300 nm (near UV) through ~1400 nm (near infrared). [1] Light is composed
of elementary particles called photons.

The speed of light in a vacuum is exactly 299,792,458 m/s (about 186,282.397 miles per second). The speed of light depends upon
the medium in which it is traveling, and the speed will be in a transparent medium. Although commonly called the "velocity of light",
technically the word velocity is a vector quantity, having both magnitude and direction.

IMPORTANT TERMS:

Reflected light vs. Transmitted light

If the object is transparent, then the vibrations of the electrons are passed on to neighboring atoms through the bulk of the material and
reemitted on the opposite side of the object. Such frequencies of light waves are said to be transmitted.

If the object is opaque, then the vibrations of the electrons are not passed from atom to atom through the bulk of the material. Rather
the electrons of atoms on the material's surface vibrate for short periods of time and then reemit the energy as a reflected light wave.
Such frequencies of light are said to be reflected.

INCIDENT LIGHT - Light falling on a surface - not the light reflected from it.

Reflection - the bouncing of light from matter.

Law of Reflection – the angle of incidence formed by incoming ray of light is equal to the angle of reflection formed by the outgoing
ray.

Diffuse reflection vs. specular reflection

When a ray of light shines on an ordinary surface such as a piece of cloth, it bounces off that surface in every direction. The one
bright ray coming in becomes many not-so-bright rays going out. This is called Diffused reflection.

Some surfaces, especially metals, are smooth and shiny, when a bright ray of light strikes a shiny surface; it bounces off in only one
direction. If the ray strikes the surface perpendicularly (head-on), it bounces straight back in the opposite direction. This type of
reflection is called specular reflection, and the reflecting surface is called mirror. (“Specular” is derived from the Latin word for
“mirror”

The Law of Reflection

Light is known to behave in a very predictable manner. If a ray of light could be observed approaching and reflecting off of a flat
mirror, then the behavior of the light as it reflects would follow a predictable law known as the law of reflection. The diagram below
illustrates the law of reflection.

B. Refraction Vs Diffraction

Refraction is the change in direction of a wave due to a change in its speed or it is the change of the direction of light when it
crosses a boundary from one transparent material, such as air, to another such as glass, unless it is travelling exactly perpendicular to
the boundary.

This is most commonly seen when a wave passes from one medium to another. Refraction of light is the most commonly seen
example, but any type of wave can refract when it interacts with a medium, for example when sound waves pass from one medium
into another or when water waves move into water of a different depth. Refraction is described by Snell's law, which states that the
angle of incidence is related to the angle of refraction by

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 Refraction

Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes the edge of an object.

Scientists had noticed that objects with sharp edges cast shadows that are not as sharp. Light seems to bend a little bit around the
edge of the object, producing a fuzzy boundary between light and darkness.

The intensity pattern formed on a screen by diffraction from a square aperture

Colors seen in a spider web are partially due to diffraction, according to some analyses.

Photographic Rays/Types of radiation

Radio Waves

Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. Radio waves were discovered by the German
physicist Heinrich Hertz in 1888 and were at first called Hertzian waves.

Radio waves generally are utilized by antennas of appropriate size (according to the principle of resonance), with
wavelengths ranging from hundreds of meters to about one millimeter. They are used for transmission of data, via
modulation. Television, mobile phones, MRI, wireless networking and amateur radio all use radio waves.

Infrared radiation/light

Infrared light are light having wavelengths greater than 700 millimicrons. It s wavelength ranges from 700 to 800
millimicrons. Infrared is not a color or any kind of red. It is an invisible ray detected by the skin as heat. It is socalled infrared
because they sojourn the red spectrum. Infrared means below the red. This ray of light although invisible is important in law
enforcement photography because it permits result to be obtained which are not possible with only visible light present.

Visible light
The range of the visible light produces different sensation when they strike the human eye. Colors of different objects are
usually mixtures of light of various wavelengths and not a special color. The wavelength of the visible light is from 400 to
700 millimicrons which produce white light.

Ultra-violet light

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 The ultra-violet light is divided into the near and far ultra-violet and ranges from about two hundred (200) to four hundred
(400) millimicrons wavelength. Thus ray is invisible like the infrared. The position of the ultra-violet region falls between X-
ray and visible wavelength. Since ultra-violet radiation can kill bacteria, it is sometimes used to sterilize foods and water.
Police scientists may use ultraviolet light to detect bloodstains, forged document, and faked oil paintings.

X-rays (Discovered by a German physicist. Wilhelm Roentgen in 1895)

After UV come X-rays. It is an Electromagnetic radiation similar to light but of shorter wavelength and capable of
penetrating solids. X-rays can fog photographic film. Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays. X-rays are used
for seeing through some things and not others, as well as for high-energy physics and astronomy. Neutron stars and accretion
disks around black holes emit X-rays, which enable us to study them.

Gamma rays
After hard X-rays come gamma rays. These are the most energetic photons, having no defined lower limit to their
wavelength. It's uncertain what the physical lower limit of their wavelengths would be. They are useful to astronomers in the
study of high-energy objects or regions and find a use with physicists thanks to their penetrative ability and their production
from radioisotopes. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with high accuracy by means of Compton scattering.

Gamma rays have frequencies of about one hundred million trillion cycles per second and can easily pierce through materials
like concrete and steel. Nuclear explosions release gamma rays that can destroy living cells and cause radiation sickness.
However, they are also used by physicians to kill cancerous or diseased cells in the body.

LIGHTING (outdoor lighting)

Lighting is critical in photography. The direction from which the light comes determines where shadows fall. Sometimes
these shadows completely obscure details in the picture. On the other hand, shadows may reveal details which would
otherwise be invisible. Here are basic rules that will help you to understand lighting and judge how each scene should be lit:

Back lighting: Light directed at the subject from behind the subject.
This has little value in crime scene photography. A light directly behind the subject creates a silhouette. The subject may be entirely
concealed by its own shadow. Furthermore, any light shining directly into the lens can cause "FLARE". This may make the whole
picture foggy, streaked or spotty in appearance.

2. Side Lighting:

This may be very good or very bad, depending on the situation. Side lighting puts shadows on the unlit side of the subject. These
shadows are often essential to bring out the fine texture that is found in a cloth sample, a footprint or a tool mark. Try to use side
lighting in all such situations.

On the other hand, when you shoot into a subject, the shadows obscure important interior details. When subjects such as automobiles,
handbags and closets are side lit, even large objects inside them may not appear on the negative. You usually want to avoid side
lighting in this situation.

3. Front Lighting: the sun is in back of the photographer

This is essentially shadow less. It, therefore, gives the best representation of most crime scenes. When you do not have a specific
need for shadows in a scene, you will normally be wise to light it from the front. In daylight, be sure that the sun is behind you or at
least over your shoulder-- Right or Left, it does not matter.

This over-the-shoulder lighting was probably the first photographic advice you ever received. It may seem to be a universal
recipe for good photography, but it is not. The case against over-the-shoulder lighting is that it produces a flattened effect,
doing nothing to bring out the detail or to provide an impression of depth.

IV. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTER

FILTER - Tinted glass, gelatin or plastic discs, squares or rectangles that modify the light passing through them. Filters are used in
photography to change the appearance of a scene by emphasizing, eliminating or changing color or density, generally so that the scene
can be recorded with a more natural look, on a particular film.
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FILTER FACTOR - A number that indicates to what extent you must increase exposure when you use a particular filter (by
multiplying the unfiltered exposure by the filter factor number). Filters absorb light. The filter factor allows you to compensate for this
absorption. The amount of exposure compensation has been predetermined for every filter, and is expressed as a “filter factor”
(sometimes also called an exposure factor, and also referred to as Exposure Magnification or EM values).

FILTER SIZE, measured in millimeters, is inscribed on the filter (left) and sometimes on the lens (right).

PURPOSE

The purpose of photographic filters is to alter the characteristics of light that reaches the light-sensitive emulsion. As light is
transmitted through a filter, at least one of the following alterations occurs:

 The color of light is modified.

 The amount of light is reduced.
 The vibration direction of the light rays is limited.

To use photographic filters properly, you must understand the nature of transmitted light.

White light is composed of three primary colors: red, green and blue. A filter of a primary color will transmit its own
color and absorb the other two; for example, a red filter looks red because it transmits red and absorbs green and blue.

Secondary colors are mixtures of primary colors. Yellow, for example, is a combination of red and green. Because a filter passes its
own color and absorbs others, a yellow filter passes read and green and absorbs blue.

In selecting a filter in black and white photography, you can use the color star in figure 11-19 to determine the effect
of the filter on the gray scale of the negative and the final print.

On the final print, the result will be that a filter will lighten its own color and the colors adjacent to it and darken its complement
and the colors adjacent to its complement; for example, a green filter will lighten green (its own color) and cyan and yellow
(adjacent colors). It will darken magenta (its complement) and blue and red (adjacent colors of the complement).

FILTER FOR COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY

Filters for color photography are classified as light balancing, conversion, and color compensating.

1. Light Balancing Filters

Light balancing filters come in two series (not to be confused with a series that indicated physical size): the series 81
(yellowish filters) are used to lower the color temperature of light source, and the series 82 (bluish filters) are used to
raised the color temperature of light from a light source. Both series are used when a tungsten light source is used with color film.

2. Conversion Filters

Conversion filters are used in color photography when a significant adjustment of an exposing light is required to convert
the color quality of the exposing light the color temperature for which a film is balanced. Conversion filters generally come in two
series. The 80 series of filters are blue in color and convert tungsten light to color qualities acceptable for use with daylight film.
The 85 series are amber in color and convert daylight to color qualities acceptable for use with tungsten film. The correct filter to
use for a given situation with a given film can be determined by reading filter and film data sheets. If your are in doubt, seek help
from your ship or base imaging facility.

3. Color Compensating Filters

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 Color compensating (CC) filters are used to adjust the overall color balance obtained from color film, particularly slide
film. Without the use of color compensating filters, improper color cast can result. For cameras, CC filters are normally
used to color balance the light from sources, such as fluorescent, tungsten, and mercury-vapor lights, and the “bounce” light
reflected from colored surfaces. They are also used to balance lighting effects under unusual circumstances (such as underwater
lighting).

SPECIAL-PURPOSE FILTERS

Some of the special-purpose falters you will work with include the following:

Neutral Density Filters Neutral density (ND) filters reduce the amount of light passing through a camera lens without changing the
reproduction of colors in the scene. These filters are nonselective in their absorption of colors of light and therefore uniformly reduce
the various colors of light in the spectrum. Thus white light and colored light are transmitted through a ND filter with only the
intensity of the light being affected. These filters can be used with both black-and-white and color film.

ND falters are gray in appearance. These falters may be needed for pictures of a brilliant subject in bright sunlight. When you have
set the fastest shutter speed and the smallest f/stop and still cannot take the picture without overexposing the film, you can use a ND
filter to further reduce the exposure.

2. Haze Filters

Suspended in the earth’s atmosphere are minute particles of vapor and dust that because a veil-like appearance called
haze. This haze is most apparent in distant scenes. Haze is the result of sunlight being scattered by minute particles of matter that are
present in the air. The amount of haze can vary due to atmospheric conditions.

A haze filter

Is any filter that absorbs atmospherically scattered sunlight? This includes contrast and correction filters. When contrast and
correction filters are used for haze penetration, they may be considered special-purpose falters. Although contrast filters can
be used for cutting haze, these filters affect the gray tone rendering of colored objects. The contrast and correction filters that
absorb the shorter wavelengths are the most effective. The recommended contrast and correction filter colors, in the order of
greatest to least effective, for haze penetration are as follows: l Red l Orange l Yellow l Green The use of an infrared
sensitive black-and-white film with an infrared filter provides the greatest haze penetration of all.

3. Polarizing Filters

Polarizing filters look like gray neutral density filters. However, their effect becomes apparent when you look at the blue sky
through a polarizing filter while rotating it. As you rotate the falter, the sky appears to get darker, then lighter.

POLARIZING FILTER - A polarizing filter ("Polarizer" or "Polarizing screen") is an adjustable filter, with an inner ring that screws
onto the lens and an outer ring that can be rotated. Turning the outer ring reduces or increases the filter’s effectiveness. The polarizer
absorbs glare, reducing or eliminating reflections and darkening blue skies. It works by transmitting light that travels in one plane
while absorbing light that travels in opposing planes.

Polarizing filters are used in black-and-white and color photography for the following reasons:

1. To reduce or eliminate unwanted reflections (glare) from nonmetallic surfaces, such as glass and water
2. To effect exposure control (similar to ND filters)
3. To reduce the effects of haze
4. To darken the blue-sky image in both black-and-white and color photography
5. To increase color saturation in a color photograph without altering the hues of image colors
There are a number of different polarizing filters. However, there are only two main types: one type fits over the camera lens, and
the other is designed to be used over a light source. Since they do not affect color, polarizing filters and screens may be used
for both black-and-white and color photography.

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4. Skylight Filter - A skylight filter adds warmth to a scene recorded on color transparency film by absorbing ultraviolet
radiation. It does this by reducing the bluish cast prevalent in distant scenes and in scenes photographed on heavily overcast
days or in open shade. A skylight filter is light pink in color.

V. PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS

LENS - A true “lens” is a single piece of glass (or other transparent substance) having one or more curved surfaces used in changing
the convergence of light rays. What we commonly call a photographic lens is more accurately and technically called an “objective,” an
optical device containing a combination of lenses that receive light rays from an object and form an image on the focal plane.
However, dictionaries have come to accept the usage of the term “lens” to mean the entire photographic objective itself. A
photographic lens will always be called a lens, even though it is not a lens, but has a lot of lenses in it. A camera lens collects and
focuses rays of light to form an image on film.

A camera LENS is actually an objective composed of a number of lenses.

Classification of lens according to its focal length

Focal lengths are usually specified in millimeters (mm), but older lenses marked in centimeters (cm) and inches are still to be found.
For a given film or sensor size, specified by the length of the diagonal, a lens may be classified as

NORMAL LENS - Lens with a focal length approximately equal to the diagonal of the film format. A scene viewed through a normal
lens appears to have the same perspective as if it was being viewed “normally” without a lens, just the way your eye sees it. Most 35
mm cameras' normal lenses have a focal length of approximately 50 mm.

In 35mm photography, lenses with a focal length of 50mm are called "normal" because they work without reduction or magnification
and create images the way we see the scene with our naked eyes (same picture angle of 46°).

MACRO LENS - A lens with the ability to focus from infinity to extremely closely, allowing it to capture images of tiny objects in
frame-filling, larger-than-life sizes. Sometimes called a "Close-up lens," although a close-up lens is usually a lens attachment for
close-ups and does not generally have the ability to focus on infinity.

It has an angle of view narrower than 25° and focal length longer than normal. These lenses are used for close-ups, e.g., for images of
the same size as the object. They usually feature a flat field as well, which means that the subject plane is exactly parallel with the film
plane.

A MACROGRAPH shows the subject at actual size or larger.

ULTRA-WIDE ANGLE LENS - An extra-wide angle lens. Generally refers to 35mm camera lenses with focal lengths shorter than 24
mm.

WIDE-ANGLE LENS - A lens with an angle of view that is wider than that of a normal lens, or that of the human eye. A wide-angle
lens has a focal length which is less than the diagonal of the film format. angle of view wider than 60° and focal length shorter than
normal.

5. TELEPHOTO LENS - or long-focus lens: A lens with a narrow angle of view, a longer-than-normal focal length, the ability to
magnify images, and exhibiting relatively shallow depth of field. Examples of 35 mm camera telephoto lenses include 85 mm, 400
mm and 600 mm lenses, to name a few.

A distinction is sometimes made between a long-focus lens and a true telephoto lens: the telephoto lens uses a telephoto group to be
physically shorter than its focal length.

A TELEPHOTO LENS of this super size magnifies the scene like a telescope.

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 6.FISHEYE - Describes an extreme wide-angle lens that has an angle of view exceeding 100° - sometimes more than 180° - and that
renders a scene as highly distorted.

The true fish-eye lens has its image wholly within the film frame.

QUASI-FISH-EYE LENS - The Quasi-fish-eye lens produces an image on the film that
covers the entire frame, whereas a True fish-eye lens has its circular image wholly within
the film frame.

The QUASI-FISH-EYE LENS covers the entire film frame, actually showing less
of the image than a true fish-eye lens.

8. VARIABLE FOCUS LENS - A zoom lens - one in which focal length is variable. Elements inside a variable focus lens shift their
positions, enabling the lens to change its focal length - in effect, providing one lens that has many focal lengths.

LENS DEFECTS OR ABERRATION

(1) Something that prevents light from being brought into sharp focus, disenabling the formation of a clear image.
(2) Lens flaw - the inability of a lens to reproduce an accurate, focused, sharp image.

Here are the ten optical defects and what the camera operator can and cannot do to correct the defect.

1. Astigmatism - The inability of the lens to bring to focus both vertical and horizontal lines on the same plane. Lines in some
directions are focused less sharply than lines in other directions.

Astigmatism is caused by axial rays (not parallel to the lens axis). It will appear that lines of equal density (darkness) are less dense
horizontally or vertically. Astigmatism is improved by stopping down the lens (smaller lens opening, larger F number).

Figure 1. Classic example of astigmatism. Left wheel: no astigmatism. In the presence of astigmatism (middle and right wheels) one
discriminates between the sagittal and tangential foci.

Coma - the image of a point source of light cannot be brought into focus, but has instead a comet shape. Coma causes parallel oblique
rays passing through a lens to be imaged (focused) not as a point, but as a comet shaped (oval) image. Coma can be improved by
stopping down the lens.

Coma is an aberration which causes rays from an off-axis point of light in the object plane to create a trailing "comet-like" blur
directed away from the optic axis. A lens with considerable coma may produce a sharp image in the center of the field, but become
increasingly blurred toward the edges. For a single lens, coma can be partially corrected by bending the lens. More complete
correction can be achieved by using a combination of lenses symmetric about a central stop.

3. Curvature of Field - The plane of sharpest focus becomes curved, not flat. It is caused by rays from the outer limits of the subject
plane coming to focus nearer to the lens than the axial rays (image comes to focus in curved shape, away from the CCD). This defect
is not improved by stopping down the lens.

5. Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration - The inability of a lens to focus all colors (wavelengths) at the same plane on the lens
axis (shorter wavelengths come to focus in front of the CCD, longer behind). This defect is not improved by stopping down
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 the lens. This is normally only noticeable in long telephoto lenses. It is reduced by the use of special glass elements, referred
to as ED, ID, LD or Fluorite.

6. Lateral Chromatic Aberration - also known as Transverse chromatic aberration - variation in the magnification at the sides of
a lens (this aberration type used to be termed “lateral color”) or lateral displacement of color images at the focal plane (CCD).
Caused by different sizes of images by produced by different colors even though the image is all on the same plane (CCD).
Produces color fringing of red or blue. Not improved by stopping down.

6. Spherical Aberration - variation in focal length of a lens from center to edge due to its spherical shape - generally all parts of the
image, including its center; Inability of all rays to focus at the same point. Marginal rays (at the edge) through the lens come to focus
closer to the lens than do paraxial rays (rays parallel to the axis or center). This causes the focus to drift as you stop down the lens.
This may be part of the XL1 focusing problems. However, it's just my opinion.

7. Distortion - distortion causes the image of a straight line, at the edges of the field (CCD) to bow in or out. Bowed in, pincushion,
bowed out barrel distortions. Produced by variations of magnifications over the field of the lens, particularly at the ends of its range
(max wide angle, max telephoto). It does not effect sharpness, only shape of the image. It is not improved by stopping down. Very
common in extreme wide angles and lenses with WA adapters.

DISTORTION - Misrepresentation of proportions of objects or of their arrangement in a scene. The two main types of lens distortion
are: (1) Barrel distortion, in which the straight lines near the edges of the viewframe appear bowed outward from the center, like a
barrel-shape; and (2) Pincushion distortion in which the same lines bend in towards the center.

Example of Pincushion Example of Barrel Distortion

8. Flare - Flare is non-image forming light. Reduces contrast and color saturation. Flare is caused by very bright subject areas and
produces internal reflections in the lens. Stacking of filters can increase flare. Lens coatings by the Mfg. keeps flare to a minimum.
The use of a suitable hood (not the stock hood) can also aid in reducing flare.

FLARE - Light that doesn’t belong in an image, often taking the shape of the aperture, generally caused by shooting towards the light
source. The source may appear in the image as a reflection from the interior of the camera or from the lens. Flare often results in an
overall reduction of image contrast.

FLARE can show up as a plain area of unwanted bright light or in shapes matching the aperture.

9. Ghost Images - Not a true defect but is seen quit often and sometimes confused as one. Distinct images, usually in the shape of the
diaphragm or a very bright light source included in the scene. Caused by high intensity light producing rays which bounce around in

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the lens and form an image. Often multiple images appear in a row across the scene, starting at or near the source. Ghost images can
be reduced by the use of a suitable lens hood.

GHOST IMAGE - In time exposure photography, an object that is only partially recorded on the film and therefore has a translucent,
ghost-like appearance. Ghosting also occurs when using electronic flash at a slow shutter speed, and a second image is captured on the
film by ambient light. Some people also refer to “flare” as a ghost image.

10. Diffraction - Again, not a true defect, but a property of light. Diffraction is the bending of light rays as they pass a small opening
or past a sharp edge. Common when a very small diaphragm (F16, F22, etc.) is used. Diffraction causes a point to be less sharp.

RED EYE

RED EYE - An image in which a subject’s irises are red instead of black. The red eye effect is caused by light from a flash traveling
through the iris and illuminating the retina at the interior back of the eye–– which is red in color due to its blood vessels –– and the
camera capturing that redness on film.

Red-eye is the phenomenon where people have glowing red eyes in photographs. This is caused by the close proximity of the flash
(especially built-in flash) to the camera lens, which causes light from the subject to be reflected directly back at the camera. When the
flash fires, the light reflects off the blood in the capillaries in the back of the subject’s eyes and back into the camera lens. People with
blue eyes are particularly susceptible to the red-eye phenomenon because they have less pigment to absorb the light.

RED EYE is actually an image of the retina at the inside back of the eyeball.

RED EYE REDUCTION - A feature of some cameras or flash units that is meant to reduce the effect of
red eye by emitting multiple bursts of light immediately before the picture is taken. The intended result
is a forced reduction in the size of the subject's iris.

There are a few ways to minimize or eliminate red-eye in your pictures. Some cameras provide a red-
eye reduction feature that fires a preflash, forcing the irises in your subject’s eyes to close before you take the picture. The main
problem with this method is that it often forces subjects to involuntarily close their eyes before the image is taken, and it doesn’t
always completely eliminate the red-eye effect.

A more effective method is to use an external flash via the camera’s hot-shoe mount or, better yet, with an extension bracket. An
external flash radically changes the angle of the flash, preventing the lens from capturing the reflection of the blood in the back of
your subject’s eyes.

While you can also fix the red-eye effect using Aperture, there is no way to accurately reproduce the original color of your subject’s
eyes. Preventing the problem before it occurs is the preferred solution.

Types of Lens According to Degree of Correction:

1. Simple miniscus lens – this lens is usually found in simple or box camera. It is uncorrected lens and therefore suffers from inherent
defects of lenses.

2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – It is a combination of two achromatic lens with almost the same focal length. This is corrected from some
kinds of lens defects but not on astigmatism.

A rectilinear lens is a photographic lens that yields images where straight features, such as the walls of buildings, appear with straight
lines, as opposed to being curved. In other words, it is a lens with little barrel or pincushion distortion.

3. Anastigmatic lens (a.k.a. Anastigmat)– a lens designed to correct astigmatism. A lens which is free from astigmatism and other
types of lens defects. It has the ability to focus a vertical and horizontal line at the same time.

4. Achromatic Lens – a lens which is partly corrected for chromatic aberration.

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An achromatic lens or chromate is a lens that is designed to limit the effects of chromatic and spherical aberration. Achromatic lenses
are corrected to bring two wavelengths (typically red and blue) into focus in the same plane.

5. Process lens – a super-corrected lens for astigmatism. It has a better color correction and has the ability to produce the best
definition of image in the photographs.

6. Fixed Focus Lens – a lens use in all fixed focus camera. Basically, it has a short focal length and greater depth of field.

VI. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

FILM - A transparent cellulose nitrate or cellulose acetate composition made in thin, flexible strips or sheets and coated with a light-
sensitive emulsion for taking photographs.

Black and White

The basic structures of a black and white film are the following:

1. Top Coating – is an over-coating of a thin layer of hard gelatin which helps protect the silver halide emulsion from scratches
and abrasions.
2. Emulsion Layer – is the light-sensitive portion of a film or paper that records the image. composed of silver compounds
which are light sensitive, but for photographic purposes, halogens such as bromide; chloride; and
iodide (used in small amounts, seldom more than 5% with silver bromide in fast film emulsion) is added to silver halides, a
rare compound that forms a latent image.
To be useful in photography, the silver halides are suspected with gelatin; a colloid extracted by boiling animal bones,
hooves, horns, and hides. The gelatin used in films generally comes from the ears and cheek section of calf hides because
hides of calves and cows contain a sulfur compound, which aids in the photochemical reaction that creates latent images.
3. Film base – commonly made of cellulose acetate or other materials such as paper, plastic, or glass which supports the
emulsion layer and is coated with a non-curl anti-halation backing.
4. Anti-halation backing – a black dye applied on the rear surface of the film, its function is to absorb light that may penetrate
the emulsion layer, thus, preventing it to reflect back to the emulsion (halation). The dye is removed during processing by
one of the chemical in the developer. Its second function is to control the film from curling towards the emulsion layer.

Color film

Basically, the structure of color film is almost the same as black and white film except that the emulsion layer consists of three layers,
stacked one on top of the other.

1. Top layer – is sensitive to blue light only; green and red light passes through it without exposing the color blind halides.

2. Yellow filter – known as Carey Lea silver, suspended in gelatin is coated between the top and second layer to absorb any
penetrating blue light but freely passes green and red light.

3. Middle layer – is orthochromatic, which is sensitive to blue (which cannot reach it) and green, but not to red. So the red light
passes on to the bottom emulsion layer.

4. Bottom layer – is panchromatic, sensitive to blue (which cannot reach it) and red. It is also somewhat sensitive to green light
but to such a slight degree that it is not important.

Exposure is made simultaneously in the three layers, each layer responding to one and only one of the additive color primaries. After
exposure, the yellow color of the filter layer is destroyed during processing of the film.

PHOTOGRAPHIC SOLUTIONS:

1. Developer

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 When a photographic emulsion is exposed to light, the silver halides (usually silver bromide and/or silver chloride) in the emulsion
change chemically. However, no noticeable change can be seen until the film is developed. The developer causes the affected silver
halides to change into metallic silver while having no effect on the unexposed silver halides. The result is that a subject area reflecting
the most light will affect the most silver halides and will be the darkest part of the image formed in development. That which is light
in the subject is dark in the processed image and inversely, that which is dark in the subject is light in the image.

Most all modern developer contains the following ingredients:

a. Developing agent/reducer – the basic and most important ingredient in the developing solution is the reducer, Metol-hydroquinon
(M-Q) is the most versatile and popular of all developers.

Other agents: Amidol, Glycin, paraphynylene diamine and pyro.

The reducer agent reacts with the exposed silver halides and develops it into metallic silver which forms the visible image.
However, if used alone, this reducing agent will have a very little effect or no effect on the silver halides since it has low rate of
oxidation. Therefore, it becomes necessary that an accelerator must be added to the developer.

b. Accelerator – Borax, sodium carbonate, and Sodium hydroxide are some of the alkalis used to increase the rate of oxidation of the
reducing agent, softens the gelatin of the film emulsion, and speeds up solution penetration.

However, a solution containing only a reducer and an accelerator will oxidize quickly and act too rapidly. Therefore, it becomes
necessary to add a restrainer to the developer to prevent chemical fog (a veil of silver depositing throughout the entire emulsion) and
rapid deterioration of the solution.

c. Restrainer – the chemical most commonly used as a restrainer is potassium bromide. Without the restrainer, most developing
solution act too fast and developed unexposed silver halides near the surface of the emulsion which causes fog, steaks, and image
lacking in contrast.

d. Preservative – all organic developing agents in an alkaline sate have a strong chemical attraction to oxygen, so, preservative such as
sodium sulfite or sodium bisulfate is added to prevent excessive oxidation thus prolonging the useful life of the developing solution
and prevents the formation of colored oxidation products which causes stains.

2. Stop Bath/rinse bath

It has become common practice to rinse film in running water after development to retard development and to remove excess
chemicals. With prints, it is equally common to use an acid bath to stop the action of the developer and prolong the life of the fixer. In
either case, the bath is referred to as a stop bath. Acetic acid diluted with water is the most commonly used stop bath.

Three (3) General Types of Rinse Bath

a. Water rinse bath - helps retard the action of the developing agent and remove the excess developer from the film, thus preventing
contamination of the fixing bath. A water rinse is suitable and sufficient for most negatives; however, it will dilute the fixer. So, if
used, it should be followed by an acid bath. The same procedure applies when processing prints.

b. Acid rinse bath – sometimes referred to as a stop bath and is more effective than a water rinse, as it instantly neutralizes the action
of the developer and stops further development. It also neutralizes the alkalinity of the developer and prolongs the life of the fixing
bath. To prepare an acid bath, mix ½ oz. of 28% acetic acid in 32 oz. of water.

c. Hardening rinse bath – use only when it is impossible to control the temperature of the solutions, particularly the wash water, or
when development is done in high temperature or under tropical conditions. A typical hardener rinse bath contain the following: 32 oz.
of water; 1 oz of potassium chrome alum; and 1 oz sodium bisulfate ( a solution containing potassium chrome alum is very unstable
and becomes exhausted quickly with or without use).

3. Fixing Bath

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 The fixing bath is employed to fix or to make the developed image permanent by removing all the unaffected silver salt from the
emulsion. These silver salts are still sensitive; and if they are allowed to remain in the emulsion, light ultimately darkens them and
obscure the image, thus, making the negative useless.

Fixing Bath Ingredients:

a. Fixer or fixing agent. The fixer is sometimes called “hypo” because the conditioners to shorten processing time or to preserve other
solutions. The solutions commonly found in mainingredient of the fixer formula, sodium thiosulfate, are also known as hyposulfate.

The purpose of the fixer is to convert the silver halides not changed to metallic silver in the developer into a soluble form. These
soluble salts diffuse out of the emulsion and into the fixer.

b. Acid or neutralizer. After development, the pores of the swollen emulsion retains a considerable amount of developer and if allowed
to remain it will continue its action causing uneven stains in the gelating of the emulsion, rendering the negative unfit for use. Acetic
acid is added to the fixing bath to neutralize the action of the developer remaining in the emulsion when the film is immersed in the
fixing bath.

c. Preservatives. Sodium sulfite is added to the fixer as a preservative to prevent oxidation of the developing agents that are carried
over into the fixing bath by the film; prevent decomposition of the fixing bath; prevents discoloration of the solution; and aids in the
elimination of stains.

d. Hardener. During the development, the emulsions become soft and swollen, frilling and scratching may occur if processing is
continued without hardening the solution. Potassium alum is the hardening agent used expanded but firm for the washing process.

4. Wash.

Running water is not actually required but greatly simplifies the removal of all the chemicals previously used. The wash step
is necessary if you desire a permanent image without stains. Wash films and papers with fresh running water for about five
minutes.

5. Wetting Agent.

The wetting agent, usually called Photo-Flo, is a chemical designed to reduce the surface tension of water, thus reducing
the possibility of water spots forming on film as it dries. It reduces the overall drying time of your films and prints — a point
to consider especially on “rush jobs.”

6. Drying.

The final step in processing film is to dry the wet negative which is done in two phases. First is removal of the excess water from
the surface. Second is drying, either by evaporation or forced air.

THE POSITIVE OR PRINT

PRINT - A photographic image printed on paper, generally a positive image made from a negative. (Also refers to a photograph of a
model that appears in print - in a newspaper or magazine, for example.)

After the process of producing the negative has been completed, a positive image is produced from the negative which is a true
representation of the relative brightness of all parts of the object and is now called print. A print is ordinarily made on paper that is
coated with a light sensitive emulsion. This emulsion is much the same as the one which must be used to cover the film.

Basic Layers of Printing Paper

a. Base. Made of paper which must be chemically pure to insure that it will not interfere with the chemical processes to which
the emulsion is subjected. Available either in a single or double weight paper.

A PRINT is a photograph printed on paper.

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b. Baryta layer. A gelatin layer containing baryta crystal to increase the reflectivity of the paper.

c. Emulsion layer. Contain minute silver halides suspended with gelatin which needs only to reproduce the total range of negative.

Types of Photographic Printing Paper

1. Chloride Papers. Have a slow speed emulsion containing silver chloride, fine grain and produce deep blacks, and used for
contact printing.

2. Bromide Papers. Have faster emulsion speed than chloride paper, achieve sensitivity through the use of bromide halides.
Because of the relatively high sensitivity to light, these emulsions are particularly suitable for projection printing.

3. Chlorobromide Papers. Contain both silver chloride and silver bromide halides. Emulsion speed lies between that of
chloride and bromide papers, used for both contact and projection printing.

4. Variable Contrast Paper. Combines the contrast ranges in one paper, this versatility is achieved with special chlorobromide
emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to different colored light.

PRINTING

In Photography, printing is the term used to describe the process of making positive images from negatives (and, in some instances,
from film positives). The most familiar example is the print made on a paper base.

Photographic print is made by passing light through the negative onto a piece of paper that is coated with a light-sensitive
emulsion very similar to film.

Types of Printing

1. Contact Printing. It is the process of making positive prints by placing a sheet of printing paper in direct contact with the negative,
emulsion to emulsion.

Contact printing is the quickest, simplest, and most economical method of producing photographic prints. For making proof prints
and small volume printing, all you need for a “contact printer” is a sheet of glass, a light source, and some sort of padding.

For making contact proof prints and the occasional contact print job, a glass and a supporting pad are all that are necessary. “Contact
printers,” consisting of a sheet of glass hinged to a metal frame and a pad assembly, are generally known as proof printers. If such a
device is not available or is not large enough for the negatives to be contact printed, a piece of 1/4-inch plate glass and a soft padding
(such as a rubber typewriter pad) can be used. Quarter-inch plate glass is heavy enough to keep the negatives and paper flat
and in contact during exposure. The glass must be free of flaws, scratches, bubbles and dirt.

Contact Print - A print made with the negative in contact (held tightly against) the photographic paper so that both negative and print
are the same size.

A contact print is produced by exposing a sheet of photographic printing paper through a negative with the paper emulsion and the
emulsion side of the negative in contact with each other. Light is directed through the negative that controls the amount of light
transmitted to the paper. The dense areas of the negative pass less light than do the clearer or less dense areas. The image densities
formed (after development) in the emulsion of the paper make a positive print that represents the tonal values of the original
subject. Furthermore, since the paper is in direct contact with the negative, the print produced is exactly the same image size as
the negative.

2. Projection printing. Generally refers to enlarging.

It is the process of making positive prints by projecting the negative image onto photosensitive paper.

The projected image may be enlarged, the same as the negative image, or reduced in size. When the print images are larger
than the negative images, the process is called enlarging.

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When the print images are smaller than the negative images, the process is called reducing.

Because projection printing is usually used to make positive prints with images larger than the negative, projection printers are
usually referred to as enlargers.

Advantages of Projection Printing:

The main advantage of enlarging over contact printing is that large prints can be made, but there are several other important
advantages.

The advantages of projection printing are as follows:

1. Cropping (selecting the main area of interest in a negative) can be done and enlarged to any suitable size.

This gives you the opportunity to eliminate unwanted and distracting elements from around the point of interest of the picture.

CROPPING - (1) Removal of parts of an image in order to improve the image’s composition. Cropping occurs when an area that is
smaller than the entire image frame is printed or reproduced. (2) Cropping is sometimes also used in reference to a photographer
moving closer to a subject, thereby eliminating (cropping) unnecessary surrounding elements from the composition.

CROPPING removes portions of an image to improve its composition.

2. Dodging or burning in. This allows you to apply local exposure control to bring out more detail in the highlight and shadow areas.

DODGING - Blocking a portion of the light when printing a photograph so that an area of the print will be made lighter.

BURNING or Burning-in - Also known as "Printing in." In a darkroom, providing extra exposure to an area of the print to make it
darker, while blocking light from the rest of the print.

3. Local fogging with a small external light, such as a penlight, to darken selected areas. For example, to darken the background of a
portrait to direct viewer attention to the face.

4. Special effects. You can change the appearance of the image by use of diffusers or patterns between the lens and paper.

5. Image distortion correction or introduction can be done by tilting the enlarger easel. An easel is the device used to hold the paper
during exposure.

ENLARGERS

In general, all enlargers are similar in design and operation. They have an enclosed light source, some method of providing an
even distribution of light over the negative, a negative carrier, a lens, and a means of adjusting the lens-to-negative and lens-to-
paper distances.

Two types of enlargers:

1. Condenser Enlarger.

It has a set of condensing lenses between the printing light and the negative. These lenses align and project the light rays evenly
through the negative. Since all features of the negative are being enlarged, any flaws also will be enlarged.

2. Diffusion Enlarger The diffusion enlarger has a diffusing medium (usually a ground glass) between the light source and the
negative to spread the light evenly over the entire surface of the negative. Light emitted from the lamp, as well as that
reflected from the parabolic reflector, strikes the diffuser, which, in turn, scatters it in all directions. Thus, when the light
reaches the negative, it is traveling in a no directional pattern.

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EASEL - A darkroom device used to hold paper flat while exposing it to light from an enlarger. An easel creates a white border
surrounding a print because its "arms" block light from striking the print paper's edges. The sliding arms can be adjusted vertically and
horizontally in order to create prints of specific measurements - e.g. 4" X 6" or 5" X 7" and so on.

An EASEL holds paper flat while exposing it to light from an enlarger.

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