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Aklan Catholic College

Archbishop Gabriel M. Reyes St.
5600 Kalibo, Aklan, Philippines
Tel. Nos. : (036)268-4152 ; 268-9171
Fax No.: (036)268-4010
Website: http://www.acc.edu.ph
E-mail Add: aklancollege@yahoo.com

English Language Proficiency

COMMUNICATING EFFECTIVELY

Lesson 1

THE NATURE OF COMMUNICATION

We are social beings and as such, we feel an intense need to express our thoughts, feelings,
aspirations, doubts, questions, and fear. Equally intense is our need to be listened to. These needs- to express
and to be listened to- are basic or innate in all of us.
But as Ben Johnson, the English poet, has said, the ability to speak and the ability to speak well are
two different things. Most, if not all of us, can speak, but only a few can speak well. This, however, can easily
be remedied. Speaking well is comparable to any skill in the sense that it can be developed and enhanced. All
that you have to do us expose yourself to various speaking situations. Listen well and study how effective
speakers express themselves. Learn from their strengthss and practice whenever opportunities to do so arise.
Remember the saying, “Practice makes perfect”. In addition, there is certainly truth also in the saying that “If it is
to be, it is up to me.”

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Speaking and listening are vital elements of communication. Therefore, in any communication
situation, you are both speaker and listener. As you exchange ideas with persons, you also listen to their
reactions, comments, opinions, suggestions, and questions. The better you are in performing both roles, the
more effective your communication becomes.
Eugene White (1960) mentions eight stages in the cycle of communication. These are thinking,
symbolizing, expressing, transmitting, receiving, decoding, reacting, and monitoring. When an idea comes to
you, the first thing that you do is to think of the appropriate words that will best convey your idea. You formulate
your sentences mentally and when you feel satisfied you express this to the persons you want to communicate
with. As you express your thoughts, you transmit or send out sound and light waves. These are received by
your listeners through their aural and optic nerves. The sound and light waves are then decoded in the
listener’s brain and as they interpret the message, the reaction could be a nod or a smile; if not, then it could be
a frown or shaking of the head. The reactions of the listeners are known as feedback. You must constantly
monitor the feedback to be able to adjust to your listeners’ needs.
You must remember that as you communicate, other factors affect the communication situation or context.

THE COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION

The Speaker
The source refers to the speaker or addressor. As a speaker, you are expected to have mastery of the
subject matter. You will be able to get the attention and interest of your listeners if you excude confidence and
authority. Confidence and authority result when you have a thorough knowledge of your subject matter or topic.
Your audience will know if you are just pretending to know if you do not have sufficient knowldege of your
subject matter. Your non-verbal signals such as eye contact and facial expression will give you away.
Next to mastery is clarity of purpose. Although you have mastered your topic, if you do not have a
clear purpose for speaking, you will only confuse your listeners. Speaking is a waste of time if you do not have
an reason for doing it.
Knowing what to say and having a purpose are not enough. Your attitude towards yourself, your
listeners, and your subject matter can affect your overall projection of yourself as speaker. Aristotle in his book,

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The Rhetoric, calls it ethos or the good character of the speaker. The ethos . If you speak with confidence and
conviction, your listeners will listen well. Conviction and confidence are infectious, but you need to be wary of
appearing self-centered or egoistic and arrogant. A know-it-all-attitude can make your listeners either too critical
or antagonistic.
How can you improve your credibility as a speaker? First, make references to yourself and your
experiences. But remember to do this sincerely and modestly. Second, cite credible authorities to indicate that
you have done an extensive research on your topic. Third, carefully organize your speech and edit it well to
avoid grammatical errors. Fourth, project sincerity through vocal and facila expressions.

The Message
Message is what you communicate verbally or non-verbally. It also refers to the thoughts, ideas, or
information that you convey to your listeners. When you use your voice and words, the message is verbal.
Verbal delivery of messages inludes elements of voice ( rate, volume, pitch and quality), articulation, and
pronunciation. The absence of these elements makes the message non-verbal.
A verbal message consists of three variables. These are content, stucture, and style. Content is
everything you say about something. It may be referential or relational. All that is relevant to your topic is
referentila while a suggestion of any relationship with your listeners is relational. An example is when you talk to
your audience and you mention their names to hint at your familiarity with them. Structure refers to the pattern
of organization that you must follow. It is important that you guide your listeners to the number of points of you
would like to discuss. No matter how tense you might feel, a simple numerical pattern can be helpful.
Style refers to how you express your ideas. You must carefully select and arrange your words to add
more impact to your message. Style vary among individual speakers amd these can be formal, informal, literal,
ironic, philosophical, and poetic. Your style will determine the impression you want to leave to your listeners
about your perception of the world, people, and ideas. Do not imitate the style of other speakers. Develop your
own according to your personality, your content, audience and occasion. What matters is you exhibit authority,
dynamism, and concern for your listeners.

The Channel
Channel or medium is the langauge you use. As defined by linguists or those who study language,
language is a set of sounds and symbols grouped into words. These words in themselves have no meaning
until they are used in appropriate contexts. And even when the communivacators use the same language,
meanings may still vary because words can have both denotative and connotative meanings. Thus,
communicators must choose carefully the words that they use to avoid offending or antagonizing one another.
Channel also refers to the means through which the message is conveyed such as the telephone, television, or
any other electronic device.

The Listener or Addressee

The receivers of the message are the listeners or the addressees. Upon receiving the message,
politeness demands that they show or manifest some kind of reaction which could either be favorable or
unfavorable. Just like the speakers, the listeners should also have a purpose for listening. Likewise, they must
have certain attitudes towards themselves, the speaker, and the ideas presented.

The Feedback
Reactions are known as feedback and these are directed to the speaker. Through the feedback, the
speaker is able to adjust to the needs of the listeners. Feedbacks may consist of the listeners’ verbal response
to the message or it could just be a nod, smile, or a frown.

The Situation
The situation or the context refers to the time and place in which communication occurs. Your
message, your language, your demeanor, and even your attire will depend on the situation.

EFFECTIVE TECHNIQUES IN COMMUNICATING

Listening
• You have to listen to the other party. Do not commit the mistake of thinking that communication is only
a one-way street.
• Apart from speaking your mind out, communication is also about listening very carefully.

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• Focus on what they are saying, and reflect on that conversation later. This will send out a message to
them that you are grasping their point, and they should do the same when you are speaking.
Expression
• Honesty is very important here. Whenever you are expressing yourself, speaking truthfully and
honestly will send out a signal that you trust your audience. Speak clearly and properly. Also, try to be
precise about the subject that you are speaking on.
• Do not beat around the bush. This will only confuse your audience. Besides, if your audience is getting
confused, the entire purpose of your self-expression is getting defeated.
Taking Criticism Positively
• If someone comes to you with criticism, it’s just a natural human response to defend your stance. But,
try to take criticism positively and constructively.
• If the criticism is very hard to take and emotional, then the chances are that the person you are
communicating with is in distress. Try to empathize with the person, and resonate your words in a very
mild language.
Avoiding Arguments
• Most often than not, whenever you are trying to have a healthy conversation, it turns into an argument.
• Arguing is not going to help any. Try to avoid getting into such situations. And, even if you get into
such a situation, instead of trying to win the argument, find an amicable solution in a constructive way.
Understanding the Audience
• You need to be able to understand your audience, as they are the ones whom you are speaking.
• Do not send out your message before you are absolutely sure that they will grasp what you are saying.
For example: suppose the quality of work of a junior employee is really hampering the overall
performance of the team, and you are really concerned about his work, do not issue an official warning
straight away. Try to understand the perception of the employee and then think of taking any action.
Feedback
• It’s one of the most common occurrence at the workplace, that a colleague does exactly opposite to
what you want him to do, and you keep wondering why has he done so.
• You keep thinking of many reasons for the same. Maybe the colleague did not listen to you, or maybe
he did not understand what you said.
• But, the worst possibility could be the deliberate inaction. What do you do in that scenario? Well, you
take a feedback. Without taking proper feedback, you wouldn’t know the perspective of the person in
front of you.
• Only through feedback you will know why he or she did or did not do what they were asked to do.
• Communication does not simply refer to merely articulating words. Body language, hand gestures,
along with other factors, play an important role for communicating your point.

RELAYING MESSAGES
Note Taking
A useful skill in business. It enables employees to correctly captured information.
- Make sure to listen carefully
- Be brief
- Develop short cuts
- Listen for signals
- Re-read notes when finished
Message Taking
When taking a message key material is needed:
- Urgency
- Whom it is intended for
- Caller’s name and organization
- Time, date, place of message
- The message
- Name and signature of person who took the message.
Telephone Communication
- This is vital part of a business operation;
- This is usually the clients’ initial contact with the company;
- It is the most common way of communicating;

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- When you are using the telephone you need to:

• Be helpful
• Speak clearly
• Greet the caller politely

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Mind Sets
When you enter into a communication situation, you bring with you your beliefs, principles, attitudes,
prejudices, and experiences. If, as you communicate, you allow any of these to interfere with what you hear,
you might not be able to decode correctly what the speaker tells you. The same is true when you are the
speaker. In allowing your prejudices, for example, to color your utterances, you could be antagonizing your
listeners. This can cause a breakdown in communication. Furthermore, if you allow your prejudices or your
beliefs to control your thoughts, you might not be as objective and as sincere as you would like to be.

Distractions
Distractions such as a noise can also be barriers to effective communication. Noise may be defined as
anything that interferes with communication. There are several types of noise: Physical noise, physiological
noise, psychological noise, semantic noise, and factual noise.
Physical noise is any distortion that originates in the communication environment such as the voices of
your classmates, the sound of the air-conditioning unit, or anything at all that produces disturbing sounds.
Physiological noise comes from the body of the communicator. Examples are a bad cold, a headache, or any
other physical comfort.
Psychological noise is any mental or emotional distraction such as personal problems.
Semantic noise is confusion cause by an inability to understand words and expressions.
Finally, factual noise refers to a disturbance caused by attempts to recall minute details or to argue mentally.
Other barriers may include the inability to organize your thoughts, to express your ideas accurately, and to
pronounce words correctly.

How can these barriers be overcome?

1. You should never lose sight if your purpose in communicating. Is it to provide information? To
establish better relationships? To effect change in others? To inspire your listeners? Whatever your
purpose is, you should be objective and sincere.

2. In any speaking situation, you must observe the basic principles in the use of language. Grice(1975;
1978) identified these basic principles and named them maxims of conversation. These are:

a. Maxim of quality- what you say must be true and supported by adequate evidence;
b. Maxim of quantity- what you say must be informative;
c. Maxim of relevance- what you say is relevant to what is being discussed or what needs to
be discusses; and
d. Maxim of manner- what you say is organized and clear.
In addition to these principles, you must also observe the turn-taking rules in communication. Use
signals such as using a falling intonation at the end of an utterance, pausing, or focusing on your listener to
indicate that you are through with your message. If you are the listener, you can utter what discourse analysts
refer to as backchannels like ah-huh, right, yes, indeed, of course, and other similar utterances.

3. To achieve accuracy, you must avoid using words that are vague, ambiguous, or confusing. Moreover,
you must learn to pronounce words correctly.

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LISTENING ACTIVELY
Lesson 2

Active Listening Self-Assessment

Are you an Active Listener?
Use this self-assessment to think about how actively you listen and to identify areas for improvement. Check the box
next to the number in the column that best describes your listening habits
While someone is talking I: Usually Sometimes Rarely
Plan how I’m going to respond. 1 3 5
Keep eye contact with the speaker. 5 3 1
Take notes as appropriate. 5 3 1
Notice the feeling behind the words. 5 3 1
Find myself thinking about other things while
1 3 5
the person is talking.
Face the person who is talking. 5 3 1
Watch for significant body language
5 3 1
(expressions, gestures).
Control fidgeting and other distracting habits. 5 3 1
Interrupt the speaker to make a point 1 3 5
Am distracted by other demands on my time. 1 3 5
Listen to the message without immediately
5 3 1
judging or evaluating it.
Ask questions to get more information and
5 3 1
encourage the speaker to continue.
Repeat in my own words what I’ve just heard
5 3 1
to ensure understanding.
Total for each column
Grand Total
Scoring
49-65 You are an active listener.
31-48 You are a good listener with room for improvement.
13-30 You need to focus on improving your listening skills.
If you received a score between 13 and 48, develop a plan for strengthening your active listening skills. Write your
ideas in the space below.

ACTIVE LISTENING needs you to:

• Put your own concerns, attitudes and ideas to one side whilst listening.
• This removes distractions so you can observe conscious and unconscious signs
• So that you can discern the “true” meaning from the speaker’s words

This technique leaves the speaker in no doubt that you are giving them your full attention and when it is used skillfully,
active listening can:

• Demonstrate your undivided attention

• Encourage the other party to continue speaking
• Restart a completely stalled narrative
• Reassure the other party regarding self-disclosure
• Confirm, improve, or connect your understanding
• Fill any gaps in the content of the narrative
• Improve the other party’s insight into the issue
• Build rapport between you and the other

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CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTIVE LISTENING

• Listening Orientation
• Reflective Technique
• Questioning Skills

Listener Orientation
Successful active listening begins with you making a conscious effort to approach the conversation with a positive
attitude to the other person and to the encounter itself.
It is characterized by:
• UNDIVIDED ATTENTION- This should be self-explanatory: 100% of your attention is on the speaker. You
need to make sure that any important communication takes place in an environment that is free of distractions
and where you won’t be disturbed. You should also switch your cell phone to silent and avoid looking at it, or
at your screen, or anything other than the person you are listening to.
• EMPATHY- Empathy begins with awareness of another person’s feelings and develops naturally out of active
listening. Obviously, it would be easier to empathize if the other party simply told you how they felt. However,
unless you are dealing with someone who is naturally candid you will need to interpret nonverbal cues. You
also need to pay attention to the precise language that they are using. You can show empathy by
acknowledging their emotions, whether these are positive or negative. The ability to empathize is critical, as it
helps you to “tune in” to the things that are important to the speaker. Empathy is surprisingly difficult to
achieve because we all have a strong tendency to advice, tell, agree, or disagree from our own point of view.
• RESPECT-This means thinking well of every person, rather than judging them according to a pre conceived
standard of personal worth. It does not necessarily mean agreeing with them, but it does mean that you
should be respectful on a personal level, rather than dismissive or condescending.
• ACCEPTANCE- in this context, is very close to the concept of respect, and again requires a non-judgmental
approach. It means that you should avoid expressing agreement or disagreement with what the other person
says. It is simply accepted as the current state of play and this will serve as a starting point for later
discussion. This attitude encourages the speaker to be less defensive and to say things that they might
otherwise keep hidden.
• CONGRUENCE- This refers to openness, frankness, and genuineness on your part as the listener. This can
be a problem if you have strong negative feelings about what you are hearing. For e.g. If you are annoyed
with someone it can be very difficult to show empathy, respect, or acceptance (you either admit to feeling
annoyed or postpone the conversation until you have calmed down. On admitting to feeling annoyed (honesty
on your part will lead to the speaker opening up as well) while postponing the conversation -is better rather
than both of you communicating from behind a mask of false affability). The principle of congruence is
important because people are very good at reading each other’s body language and para-verbal signals. If
what you say is at odds with what you feel, then the other party will notice this and believe rather that you are
lying or confused. The conflicting meanings leave the recipient suspicious or hostile, without quite knowing
why.
• CONCRETENESS- This refers to focusing on specifics rather than vague generalities. Often, a person who
has a problem will avoid painful feelings by being abstract or impersonal, and will say things like: “The
management need to get a grip on tasking. When what they really mean is “I’ve too much work and jane is
sitting around doing nothing”. “I think most people want …” rather than “I want” You can encourage
concreteness by asking them exactly who or what specific incident they are referring to.

Reflective Technique
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• Reflection involves reflecting back to the speaker what it is you believe they mean and clarification of the meaning
of what has been heard.
• This technique increases your own understanding, helps the speaker to clarify his or his own thoughts, and can
reassure them that you are interested in their point of view.
• Reflection and clarification are intertwined, in that reflection often leads to some degree of clarification, and
attempts at clarification often requires some degree of reflection.
• The most important part of this approach is that it must take account of the speaker’s nonverbal signs as well as
the actual words they use.
- Keeping your questions brief also forces you to stick to the main points, but it is not always possible
because you do need to be specific rather than general.
- By using reflection, the speaker can see that you are paying attention to them and making conscious
effort to understand what they mean.
- If you want to do this verbally, you can use phrases or supportive sound such as “yes, go on, ah ha, or
mm.
- Altering your posture slightly or nodding your head shows you are taking on board what they are saying.
- You can also use the appropriate facial expression or make eye contact to signal you are listening to
them.
- This tends to encourage people to open up and make their case in an honest and heartfelt way.
- If you feel there is more to explore you can use paraphrasing of the last few words spoken or an open
question to keep the conversation alive.
- In some instances, you may just want to remain quiet in order to give the speaker time to gather their
thoughts again. These simple techniques can help bring to light issued that you were previously unaware
of.

CLARIFICATION

A mixture of reflection and direct questioning can get to the bottom of what people mean. These approaches
enable you to correct misunderstandings and fill gaps in the narrative, thus gaining a better understanding of the
overall situation.

- The process of reflection provides an opportunity for the speaker to point out inaccuracies in your understanding.
However, you need to be aware that they may not take the initiative to do so. Consequently, you should pay close
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attention to their body language and be on the lookout for nonverbal sign that might indicate that you have
misinterpreted their meaning.
- You can only clarify information that the speaker has articulated. If you suspect that significant info is being
withheld. You cannot reflect it in the usual way, because you don’t know what it is. You have to somehow, reflect
its absence by asking questions that lead the speaker to bring it into the open.

The end result of clarification is a fuller and more accurate understanding of the overall situation and a detailed
understanding of specific issues. From the SPEAKER’s perspective, the end result should be a feeling that their
circumstances and point of view have been understood.

Central to the process is the fact that you need to overcome any natural tendency that you may have to rush in with
suggestions or solutions. If you do not, you will be unable to avoid acknowledging your own emotions during the
communication. You need to allow the speaker to present the whole picture so that they expose level of their knowledge
and the extent of their ideas on how to address the issue in hand.

Techniques that can ensure that you ask clarification rather than offer your own opinion are as follows:
• State what you think the speaker has said, as you understand it
• Check whether this is what they really meant
• Use open, non-directive questions- if appropriate
• Ask if you have got it right and be prepared to be corrected
• Admit if you are unsure about what the speaker means
• Ask for specific examples- where necessary or if helpful for understanding

Before you ask a question or give feedback you will ensure that the speaker has said all they want to.
You can also indicate your attentiveness by accurately paraphrasing the speaker’s words into a statement that
communicates your impartiality and comprehension. It also allows you to clarify that you have understood their explanation
of the issue.
A significant part of the technique is your ability to summarize the whole communication exchange, thereby illustrating your
understanding of what has been said. In your summary, be concise, objective, and non-judgmental, using the speaker’s
frame of reference to describe the essential elements of your conversation.

The principles of clarification are:

• More listening than talking
• Responding to what is personal rather than what is impersonal, distant or abstract
• Restating and clarifying what the other has said, not asking questions or telling what the listener feels, believes, or
wants
• Trying to understand the feelings contained in what the other person is saying, not just the facts or ideas
• Responding with acceptance and empathy, not with indifference, cold objectivity, or fake concern.

QUESTIONING SKILLS:
Developing your ability to ask questions can draw out information needed to aid your understanding of the speaker’s
situation.

Questions help you to:

Focus attention  Elicit new ideasEncourage explorationFoster commitment
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7 DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUESTIONS:

There are seven different types of questions you can ask to make sure that you have clear idea of why you are asking a
question in a particular way and at a particular time.

Open questions- are commonly used to encourage the other party to open up, so that you can gather the necessary
information. They often start with why, what, where, which, and how. You will find that they work best when the
conversation is already flowing freely.
e.g. How was that strategy useful? What did you do to keep your team on track? How would you respond to this customer’s
concerns?

Close questions- requires a “yes” or “no” answer. Such questions should be used sparingly because they tend to make
any conversation feel awkward and one-sided, but in some instances an affirmative or negative answer is all that is needed.
In sensitive situations, they are best avoided as they can harm the rapport and empathy that are an essential part of active
listening.

Probing questions- can be used to clarify something that has already been said or to find out more detail about it. Many of
them are helpful in creating rapport, but you must take care not over-use them as this can make people feel as if they are
being interrogated or even attacked.

Make sure your verbal and non-verbal signs are neutral or supportive when asking such questions. This type of
question is useful in uncovering details that may have initially been overlooked or thought irrelevant.
“Why do you think this is the case?”
“Who is involved? Who are the key stakeholders?”
“What does that mean?”
“What needs addressing?”
“What are your opinions for solving the problem?”
“Is there an option that you have not yet considered?”
“Could you be more specific?”
“How have you managed to put up with the situation to data?”
“How would an objective observer describe this situation?”
“What are your concerns?”

Paraphrasing questions- are one of the best ways you can check your own understanding of what the speaker has said.
Speaker- “I can’t deliver on that unless accounts get the information to me the same day.”
Listener- “I’m hearing you say that you could deliver if the accounts department were able to get the information to
you on the same day you requested it. Am I understanding this correctly?”

Hypothetical questions- are one of the best ways you can check your own understanding of what the speaker has said.
Speaker- “I can’t deliver on that unless accounts.

Leading questions- need to be used with care because they imply that there is a right answer to the question, which
contradicts the ethos of active listening. They are useful in situations where you require a desired answer or need to
influence people’s thinking.
“So wouldn’t it have been better to…”
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“Don’t you think we should have..?”

Reflective questions- are frequently used to check and clarify your understanding. This style of question reflects back to
the speaker what they have just said and allows them to fully explore their knowledge of a situation.
Speaker- “I feel frustrated with myself.”
Listener- “And what is this “frustrated with myself” experience like?”
Speaker- “Those people in dispatch are always messing me about.”
Listener- “What does that “messing you about” behavior involve?”
Whenever you ask a question think about how and where you are trying to “take” the speaker. If the question you
ask does not result in a positive step forward then you must ask yourself three simple questions: “Did I ask it in the wrong
way?”, Could the words I used be misinterpreted? And “Was the type of question appropriate?” The answers you get by
asking yourself these things will enable you to develop your questioning competency and alter your behavior in the future.

BARRIERS TO ACTIVE LISTENING:

To use the active listening techniques effectively, you need to put your personal feelings aside during the
conversation, ask questions, and paraphrase the answers back to the speaker. Some of the barriers that can prevent a
proper understanding of the issues involved physical and cultural factors such as a noisy environment, strong regional
accent, or a difference in terms of reference.

In addition to these external factors, which are usually fairly easy to overcome, there are some less obvious barriers that
you should be aware of.

Inappropriate nonverbal cues- These include things like facing or leaning away from the other party, not
maintaining eye contact, looking tense, or presenting a “closed” posture by crossing your arms, etc. If what you say is being
continually contradicted by your body language, then there is no possibility of the other party opening up. Distractions force
you to send inappropriate nonverbal signals to the speaker, and it only takes one such signal to destroy the benefits you
can gain from active listening.

Taking the Spotlight- This refers to the tendency most people have to share equally in the conversation. It shifts
from a passive role into an active one and effectively taking the focus of the encounter away from the other party and onto
yourself.
Before you are tempted to take the spotlight remember as soon as you begin giving advice or instructions you are
no longer listening to the other party.

Stereotyped Reactions- When you are seeking clarification by using reflective questioning it is very easy to get
into the habit of beginning your questions with phrases like: “Are you saying that..?” “Do you mean that..?”. If you are not
careful with this type of questioning it can alienate the other party because it can sound patronizing.

Inappropriate Responses- If you are asked a direct question then the most appropriate response is usually to
answer it rather than look for any deeper meaning. The best answer is usually a direct one. You should try to avoid
answering direct questions with a question of your own, because it can make you appear vague or evasive.

Pretending Understanding- If you really don’t understand what the other party is trying to say then you should
always seek clarification in a direct way. Hoping that their meaning will eventually become clear is unnecessary and
undermines the whole process.
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Overreaching and Under-reaching- Overreaching involves ascribing meanings that go far beyond what the other
party has expressed, by stating interpretations that are conjecture on your part.
Under-reaching involves missing the meaning of what has been said because it does not agree with your own view
of how things are.
It can be tempting to seek confirmation of your own views and you may need to make a conscious effort to avoid
doing so.

Long-windedness- Giving very long or complex responses breaks the flow of the conversation and makes it less
likely that you will gain an understanding of the other party’s position. Short, simple responses are more effective.

FACE-TO-FACE COMMUNICATION: EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING

Lesson 3

Asking the right question is at the heart of effective communications and information exchange. By using the
right questions in a particular situation, you can improve a whole range of communications skills: for example, you can
gather better information and learn more; you can build stronger relationships, manage people more effectively and help
others to learn too.

Here are some common questioning techniques, and when (and when not) to use them:

OPEN AND CLOSED QUESTIONS

A closed question usually receives a single word or very short, factual answer. For example, "Are you
thirsty?" The answer is "Yes" or "No"; "Where do you live?" The answer is generally the name of your town or
your address.
Open questions elicit longer answers. They usually begin with what, why, how. An open question asks
the respondent for his or her knowledge, opinion or feelings. "Tell me" and "describe" can also be used in the
same way as open questions. Here are some examples:

• What happened at the meeting?

• Why did he react that way?
• How was the party?
• Tell me what happened next.
• Describe the circumstances in more detail.
Open questions are good for:
1. Developing an open conversation: "What did you get up to on VACATION?"
2. Finding out more detail: "What else do we need to do to make this a success?"
3. Finding out the other person's opinion or issues: "What do you think about those changes?"
Closed questions are good for:
1. Testing your understanding, or the other person's: "So, if I get this qualification, I will get a
raise?"
 8

2. Concluding a discussion or making a decision: "Now we know the facts, are we all agreed this is
the right course of action?"
3. Frame setting: "Are you happy with the service from your bank?"
A misplaced closed question, on the other hand, can kill the conversation and lead to awkward silences,
so are best avoided when a conversation is in full flow.

FUNNEL QUESTIONS
This technique involves starting with general questions, and then homing in on a point in each answer,
and asking more and more detail at each level. It's often used by detectives taking a statement from a witness:
Q: How many people were involved in the fight?
A: About ten.
Q: Were they kids or adults?
A: Mostly kids.
Q: What sort of ages were they?
A: About fourteen or fifteen.
Q: Were any of them wearing anything distinctive?
A: Yes, several of them had red baseball caps on.
Q: Can you remember if there was a logo on any of the caps?
A: Now you come to mention it, yes, I remember seeing a big letter N.

Using this technique, the detective has helped the witness re-live the scene and gradually focus on a
useful detail. Perhaps he'll be able to identify young men wearing a hat like this from CCTV footage. It is unlikely
he would have got this information if he's simply asked an open question such as "Are there any details you can
give me about what you saw?"

Tip: When using funnel questioning, start with closed questions. As you progress through the
tunnel, start using more open questions.

Funnel questions are good for:

1. Finding out more detail about a specific point: "Tell me more about Option 2."
2. Gaining the interest or increasing the confidence of the person you're speaking with: "Have you used
the IT Helpdesk?", "Did they solve your problem?", "What was the attitude of the person who took
your call?"

PROBING QUESTIONS
Asking probing questions is another strategy for finding out more detail. Sometimes it's as simple as
asking your respondent for an example, to help you understand a statement they have made. At other times, you
need additional information for clarification, "When do you need this report by, and do you want to see a draft
before I give you my final version?", or to investigate whether there is proof for what has been said, "How do you
know that the new database can't be used by the sales force?"

An effective way of probing is to use the 5 Whys method, which can help you quickly get to the root of a
problem.
Tip: Use questions that include the word "exactly" to probe further: "What exactly do you mean by
fast-track?", "Who, exactly, wanted this report?"
 9

Probing questions are good for:

1. Gaining clarification to ensure you have the whole story and that you understand it thoroughly.
2. Drawing information out of people who are trying to avoid telling you something.

LEADING QUESTIONS
Leading questions try to lead the respondent to your way of thinking. They can do this in several ways:
1. With an assumption: "How late do you think that the project will deliver?". This assumes that the project
will certainly not be completed on time.
2. By adding a personal appeal to agree at the end: "Lori's very efficient, don't you think?" or "Option 2 is
better, isn't it?"
3. Phrasing the question so that the "easiest" response is "yes" (our natural tendency to prefer to say "yes"
than "no" plays an important part in the phrasing of referendum questions): "Shall we all approve Option
2?" is more likely to get a positive response than "Do you want to approve option 2 or not?". A good way
of doing this is to make it personal. For example, "Would you like me to go ahead with Option 2?" rather
than "Shall I choose Option 2?".
4. Giving people a choice between two options, both of which you would be happy with, rather than the
choice of one option or not doing anything at all. Strictly speaking, the choice of "neither" is still available
when you ask "Which would you prefer of A or B", but most people will be caught up in deciding between
your two preferences.

Note that leading questions tend to be closed.

Leading questions are good for:

1. Getting the answer you want but leaving the other person feeling that they have had a choice.
2. Closing a sale: "If that answers all of your questions, shall we agree a price?"

Tip: Use leading questions with care. If you use them in a self-serving way or one that harms the
interests of the other person, then they can, quite rightly, be seen as manipulative and dishonest.

RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
Rhetorical questions aren't really questions at all, in that they don't expect an answer. They're really just
statements phrased in question form: "Isn't John's design work so creative?"
People use rhetorical questions because they are engaging for the listener – as they are drawn into
agreeing ("Yes it is and I like working with such a creative colleague") – rather than feeling that they are being
"told" something like "John is a very creative designer". (To which they may answer "So What?")

Tip: Rhetorical questions are even more powerful if you use a string of them. "Isn't that a great
display? Don't you love the way the text picks up the colors in the photographs? Doesn't it use space really
well? Wouldn't you love to have a display like that for our products?"

Rhetorical questions are good for engaging the listener.

Using Questioning Techniques

You have probably used all of these questioning techniques before in your everyday life, at work and at
home. But by consciously applying the appropriate kind of questioning, you can gain the information, response or
outcome that you want even more effectively.
 10

Questions are a powerful way of:

1. Learning: Ask open and closed questions, and use probing questioning.
2. Relationship building: People generally respond positively if you ask about what they do or enquire about
their opinions. If you do this in an affirmative way "Tell me what you like best about working here", you will
help to build and maintain an open dialogue.
3. Managing and coaching: Here, rhetorical and leading questions are useful too. They can help get people
to reflect and to commit to courses of action that you've suggested: "Wouldn't it be great to gain some
further qualifications?"
4. Avoiding misunderstandings: Use probing questions to seek clarification, particularly when the
consequences are significant. And to make sure you avoid jumping to conclusions, the Ladder of
Inference Add to My Personal Learning Plan tool can help too.
5. De-fusing a heated situation: You can calm an angry customer or colleague by using funnel questions to
get them to go into more detail about their grievance. This will not only distract them from their emotions,
but will often help you to identify a small practical thing that you can do, which is often enough to make
them feel that they have "won" something, and no longer need to be angry.
6. Persuading people: No one likes to be lectured, but asking a series of open questions will help others to
embrace the reasons behind your point of view. "What do you think about bringing the sales force in for
half a day to have their laptops upgraded?"

When actually asking questions – especially in more formal settings some of the mechanics to take into
account include:

Being Structured
• In certain situations, for example if you are conducting a research project or you work in a profession that
requires the recording of information, it may be necessary to ask large numbers of questions.
• In such cases it is usually a good idea to inform the respondent of this before you start, by giving some
background information and reasoning behind your motive of asking questions. By doing this the
respondent becomes more open to questions and why it is acceptable for you to be asking them.
• They also know and can accept the type of questions that are likely to come up, for example, “In order to
help you with your insurance claim it will be necessary for me to ask you about your car, your health and
the circumstances that led up to the accident”.
• In most cases the interaction between questioner and respondent will run more smoothly if there is some
structure to the exchange.
Use Silence
• Using silence is a powerful way of delivering questions. As with other interpersonal interactions pauses in
speech can help to emphasize points and give all parties a few moments to gather their thoughts before
continuing.
• A pause of at least three seconds before a question can help to emphasize the importance of what is
being asked. A three second pause directly after a question can also be advantageous; it can prevent the
questioner from immediately asking another question and indicates to the respondent that a response is
required.
• Pausing again after an initial response can encourage the respondent to continue with their answer in
more detail. Pauses of less than three seconds have been proven to be less effective.
 11

Encouraging Participation
• In group situations leaders often want to involve as many people as possible in the discussion or debate.
• This can be at least partially achieved by asking questions of individual members of the group.
• One way that the benefits of this technique can be maximized is to redirect a question from an active
member of the group to one who is less active or less inclined to answer without a direct opportunity.
Care should be taken in such situations as some people find speaking in group situations very stressful
and can easily be made to feel uncomfortable, embarrassed or awkward.
• Encourage but do not force quieter members of the group to participate.

More Tips:
1. Make sure that you give the person you're questioning enough time to respond. This may need to include
thinking time before they answer, so don't just interpret a pause as a "No comment" and plough on.
2. Skillful questioning needs to be matched by careful listening so that you understand what people really
mean with their answers.
3. Your body language and tone of voice can also play a part in the answers you get when you ask
questions.
 12

GIVING ORAL INSTRUCTIONS

Lesson 4

Giving oral instructions using appropriate word and tones

There are some basic rules to participate in successful spoken messages and oral communication
instructions. In all cases the sender should ensure oral communication is clear, concise and professional with
attention to cultural differences. The receiver should give appropriate feedback, listen actively and clarify any areas
of uncertainty.
Some facts to remember when communicating verbally are that:
• The sender’s perception of the message can be different from that of the receiver.
• The self-esteem of both the sender and receiver can affect the perception of what is said and how it is
said.
• The attitudes of both the sender and receiver can affect what is said and how it is received.
• The environment in which the communication is taking place can significantly affect communication. To
communicate well you must be able to hear/understand properly.
• Our facial expression/s can affect the “meaning” of our words. Facial expressions contribute 55% of the
message.
• The way we speak contributes 38% of the message (our tone, volume and rate of speech).
• Only 7% of the message is conveyed by the actual words spoken.

Steps in Giving Oral Instructions

1. Consider the Situation. Know what kind of instruction you are to give. Secure the full attention of those
being instructed. Give the audience time to gather around you and wait for reasonable silence.
2. Provide clear information. If your communication isn’t complete and accurate, it can cause confusion
instead of clarity. Carefully plan your communication to be sure you are passing along the correct
information and the right amount, so those you are communicating with understand what you want to say.
3. Speak up loud and clear. Enumerate points of instructions in a clear and correct sequence. Go over
your instructions more than once.
4. Use workplace approved equipment and processes to convey information oral communication in the
workplace can include:
• loudspeaker announcements
• telephone / radio transmissions
5. Bring non-verbal and verbal communication together. Sometimes a person says one thing but acts in
a different way. For instance, it’s not uncommon to hear someone say “Yes” but shake his head
horizontally which indicates “No” in a non-verbal way. This sends mixed messages. Bring your
communication together by being conscious that your non-verbal and verbal messages are in agreement.
6. Listen. To effectively share information with another person, you have to hear what is being
communicated. Most conflict stems from poor listening. To help learn how to listen well, take time to
repeat what you hear from the other person to ensure clarity. This does not mean childish copying of
every word but a simple paraphrase to verify accuracy. This will cut down on conflict and vastly increase
the effectiveness of your communications.
 13

7. Ask questions Asking questions is a good way to verify what you hear so you respond appropriately.
Questions let the other person have the chance to clarify what they said. It also allows you to hear a
response in a different way or just hear it again in order to be sure of what you heard. Give final chance
for questions. Let them repeat important points you have mentioned.
Strategies for Successful Word Choice in Oral Instructions
1. Be careful when using words you are unfamiliar with. Look at how they are used in context and check
their dictionary definitions. Use a dictionary to be sure the synonym you are considering really fits what
you are trying to say.
2. Don’t try to impress your listener or sound unduly authoritative.
• Under the present conditions of our society, marriage practices generally demonstrate a high
degree of homogeneity.
• In our culture, people tend to marry others who are like themselves.
3. Before you use accurate and strong adjectives, make sure you are first using accurate and strong nouns
and verbs.
4. Look for repetition. When you find it, decide if it is “good” repetition (using key terms that are crucial and
helpful to meaning) or “bad” repetition (redundancy or laziness in reusing words).
5. Find five possible ways to communicate your main statement in one sentence to your audience. By
formulating five different versions of your main statement, you can begin to see your range of choices.
The final version may be a combination of phrasings and words from all five versions, or the one version
that says it best. By literally spelling out some possibilities for yourself, you will be able to make better
decisions.
6. If your listener quickly and easily comprehends a given direction and its significance, you may proceed to
the next direction. If, on the other hand, your listener keeps asking for clarification, you will need to work
on finding the right terms in the direction.

Speaking on the phone using appropriate words and tone

Many business transactions are done by telephone. If you are employed in a company, you become
representative of that organization, thus your telephone etiquette would reflect not only your skills but the
organization’s image as well.

Guidelines on Telephone Communication Skills

1. Pay attention to the volume, tone, and clarity of your voice.
2. Adjust your voice to the equipment. Enunciate clearly.
3. Other distracting sound should be avoided (chewing, blowing, tapping, sighing, typewriter, radios)
4. Get message clearly and correctly. Be ready to take notes. Be ready with important printed matter.
5. Learn to receive a call. Courteously greet the caller. Identify yourself and the department or organization.
“This is Rue, Human Resource Department. How may I help you?”
6. Let the caller know the right number has been reached.
7. If the person needed is not around, offer to take a message.
8. Identify yourself properly when placing a call and state necessary details.
“Hello, this is Gale calling, the person who inquired about your product yesterday.”
If your call has been acknowledged, state the purpose of your call.
“I would like to know if you can send us brochure of other products?”
9. Keep the caller informed because he cannot see what is happening.
 14

10. Report to the caller about delays by making appropriate remarks.

“We’re still trying to locate Mr. Mellark. Can you call again after five minutes?”
“I’m sorry, Ms. Everdeen is still in a meeting. Do you wish to wait, or shall I have her call you?”
11. Let your caller know you are following what they are saying.
“Yes.” or “I see.”
12. Transfer call quickly and efficiently and say to the caller
“If you will hold for just a moment, I’ll have your call transferred.”
13. End the conversation politely
“Thank you for calling.”
“I hope I’ve assisted you.”
“Goodbye.”
14. Hang up carefully; never dropping the phone on its cradle. It is the courteous move to allow the caller to
replace the receiver first.
 15

DEMONSTRATING FLUENCY IN VERBAL COMMUNICATION THROUGH DEBATE

Lesson 5

Debate
A debate is a discussion between sides with different views. Persons speak for or against something before
making a decision. Debates are a means of encouraging:
1. critical thinking
2. personal expression
3. tolerance of others' opinions.

Two thousand years ago, citizens of Athens held regularly scheduled public assemblies. Peoples' votes
determined
1. the policies and actions of the state
2. whether Athens went to war and how it fought
3. the laws that impacted their daily life

The process of debate allows participants to analyze the similarities and differences between differing viewpoints,
so that the audience can understand where opinions diverge and why. Debate is also an excellent way to model
the analytical and communicative processes that students are learning whenever they examine course material
through oral or written work.

Basic Debating Skills

A debate is basically an argument. That is not an undisciplined shouting match between parties that passionately
believe in a particular point of view. Debating has strict rules of conduct and quite sophisticated arguing techniques
and you will often be in a position where you will have to argue the opposite of what you believe in.
The Proposition
The PROPOSITION is something to argue about. They are often about current issues of public importance or about general
philosophies or ideas ("That beauty is better than brains"). All topics begin with the word "That". There are two sides to any
proposition. The team that agrees with the proposition is called the AFFIRMATIVE and the team that disagrees with the
proposition is called the NEGATIVE.
1. Resolved, that mercy killing be legalized.
2. Resolved, that divorce be adopted in the Philippines.
3. Resolved, that nuclear production be abolished.
4. Resolved, that same-sex marriage be adopted in the Philippines.
5. Resolved, that there should be a separates train cars for men and women.
The Definition
It must be agreed in advance what the debate is going to be about. Deciding and explaining what a proposition means is
called ‘defining the proposition’. The job of defining begins with the AFFIRMATIVE. The first speaker of the affirmative must
explain in clear terms what they believe the proposition means. The negative team may agree with or choose to challenge
 16

the definition presented. The negative team should be very careful about challenging as it is difficult to continue the debate
with two definitions.
The Team Line
Because debating is a team event it is important that the three speakers work together as a team. The TEAM LINE is the
basic statement of "why the proposition is true" (for the affirmative) and "why the proposition is false" (for the negative). It
should be a short sentence, presented by the first speaker of each team and used by the other two speakers to enforce the
idea of teamwork.
The Roles of the Speakers
In a debating team each speaker has specified roles that they must fulfill to play their part in the team.
1st Affirmative must:
• Define the topic.
• Present the affirmative's team line.
• Outline briefly what each speaker in their team will talk about.
• Present the first half of the affirmative case.
1st negative must:
• Accept or reject the definition. If you don't do this, it is assumed that you accept the definition.
• Present the negative team line.
• Outline briefly what each of the negative speakers say.
• Rebut a few of the main points of the first affirmative speaker.
• The 1st negative should spend about one quarter of their time rebutting.
• Present the first half of the negative team's case.
2nd affirmative must:
• Reaffirm the affirmative's team line.
• Rebut the main points presented by the 1st negative.
• The 2nd affirmative should spend about one third of their time rebutting.
• Present the second half of the affirmative's case.
2nd negative must:
• Reaffirm the negative's team line.
• Rebut some of the main points of the affirmative's case.
• The 2nd negative should spend about one third of their time rebutting.
• Present the second half of the negative's case.
3rd affirmative must:
• Reaffirm the affirmative's team line.
• Rebut all the remaining points of the negative's case.
• The 3rd affirmative should spend about two thirds to three quarters of their time rebutting.
• Present a summary of the affirmative's case.
• Round off the debate for the affirmative.
3rd negative must:
• Reaffirm the negative's team line.
• Rebut all the remaining points of the affirmative's case.
• The 3rd negative should spend about two thirds to three quarters of their time rebutting.
 17

• Present a summary of the negative's case.

• Round off the debate for the negative.

Rebuttal
In debating each team will present points in favor of their case. They will also spend some time criticizing the arguments
presented by the other team. This is called rebuttal. There are a few things to remember about rebuttal:
The Individual Speaker
There are many techniques that each speaker can use in their speech but there are three main areas that you will be
marked on and they are matter, method and manner.
Matter
Matter is what you say; it is the substance of your speech. You should divide your matter into arguments and examples. An
argument is a statement "The topic is true (or false depending on which side you are on) because of x", where the argument
fills in for the x. Matter cannot be just a long list of examples. You do not win a debate by creating the biggest pile of facts.
Facts are like bricks in a wall, if you don't use them, cement them together properly then they are useless. Many debates
are on currently important issues so it is good for any debater to keep themselves informed of what is happening in the
world around them and what are the issues involved.
Sample Debate Topics
Whose Responsibility is Stress?
PRO: Employees who cannot take the stress inherent in a job should be relieved of their current duties (i.e., transferred,
demoted, or fired, as appropriate). Stress management should ultimately be the employees' responsibility.
CON: Employees with stress problems should be guaranteed not to lose their current positions while the company
provides or arranges for special treatment to alleviate their stress related problems. The corporation has an obligation to
provide significant assistance to employees in the area of stress management.
Employee Privacy
PRO: Employees of any organization should be accorded significant privacy rights relating to both their time and behavior
on the job, and the use of their personal information. Employee privacy on the job should be respected as much as it is in
their homes.
CON: By virtue of accepting employment in an organization, employees must relinquish many of the privacy rights that
they might enjoy in personal settings, such as their own home. The ability of an organization to function effectively and
meet its goals requires this limitation to personal privacy rights.
Romance in the Workplace
PRO: Workplace romances are private matters between the individuals involved. Organizations should not try to regulate
them in any significant way.
CON: Workplace romances can impact negatively on morale and productivity, and may result in charges of sexual
harassment. Organizations have the right to regulate them as they see fit.
Method
Where matter is what you say method is how you organize what you say. There are many pieces of the method.....
 18

1. TEAM. Good team method involves unity and logic. Unity is created by all members being aware of the definition,
what the other speakers have said and what the team line is.

2. INDIVIDUAL. You must structure your own speech well. The first step is to have a clear idea of your own
arguments and which examples you will be using to support those arguments. When you are presenting one
particular argument make sure that the argument is logical and that you make clear links between your team line
and the argument. Rebuttal should be organized the same way. Attack each argument that the opposition presents
in turn. Spend a little while on each and then move on to the next. Also organize your speech well in terms of time.
Adjudicators can pick up when you are waffling just to fill in time

Manner
Manner is how you present what you say and there are various aspects of manner that you need to be aware of.
1. CUE CARDS. Do not write out your speech on cue cards.
2. EYE CONTACT. Is very closely related to cue cards.
3. VOICE. There are many things you can do with your voice to make it effective.
4. BODY. Your body is a tool for you to use. Make hand gestures deliberately and with confidence.
5. NERVOUS HABITS. Avoid them like the plague.
6. ELOCUTION AND OTHER BIG WORDS. This is not an exercise in grammar or elocution.

Sample Proceedings of a Debate

Team line: We, on the Affirmative side, firmly support the banning of civilian gun ownership.

Thesis:
We should oppose gun ownership because guns are a weapon of violence and they increase the number of children who
die each year which in turn makes people blind to the fact they are killing their own children.

Introduction:
How many of you think guns are necessary to protect yourself? Would you feel the same way if you knew how often
guns kill children? I don't think so! Magazines usually tell people how beautiful and powerful guns are, and never mention
how many children get hurt by guns everyday. But I am here to ask all of you to oppose gun ownership because the fact is
that guns are a weapon of violence, they take more lives away every year, and they make people blind to the fact they are
killing their own children.

I. REASON ONE: Having guns around the house creates the opportunity for lethal violence.

A. People with guns who have unstable feelings or tempers can lead to violent consequences very easily.
1. My experience in a Chinese restaurant taught me a lot that temper and stable psychology is everything
when owning a gun. A lady who was seen by his lover having a dinner with his guy friend was shot four times
in the head because the lover was jealous.

2. A friend of my father shot his wife because of a simple argument, leaving three innocent and unassuming
children. According the Jenkinson study in 2012, 75% of the licensed gun owner used the guns under their
possession in domestic violence. This shows us a high percentage of casualties perpetuated through a gun.
 19

II. REASON TWO: Guns pose such a significant risk to children.

A. Thousands of children die by the gunfire each year, most of them are victims of stray bullets.
1. Statistic: According to Children's Defense Fund and National Center for Health Statistics, eight children
every day; and more than 50 children every week were killed by gunfire from 2008 to 2012. And every
year, at least 4 to 5 times as many kids and teens suffer from non-fatal firearm injuries.
2. Do we really need guns in our society? If people stop owning guns, there will be no threat coming from
anybody. With this, it means that gun ironically promotes potential insecurity and then leading to violence,
and worst, to war between nations.

B. The rate of firearm deaths of children 0-14 years old is nearly twelve times higher in the
Philippines than in other Southeast Asian countries combined.
1. Statistic: In the survey conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics in 1997, in one year,
firearms killed no children in Japan, 19 in Great Britain,57 in Germany, 109 in France, 153 in
Canada, and 458 in the Philippines.

2. A study led by the PNPA in 2013 found that in the Philippines where more guns are available, children
are more likely to be victims of firearm- related deaths. If we don’t ban guns for civilians, many children
may be endangered. You wouldn’t want your kids to be shot point blank and dead, would you?

a. Children aged 5 to 14 living in one of the five high-gun provinces were twice as likely to commit
suicide or to be murdered, three times as likely to die from firearm homicide, seven times as likely to die
from firearm suicide, and 16 times as likely to die from a firearm-related accident. The study suggests the
higher death rates are largely related to gun availability and are not due to difference in levels of
poverty, education, or urbanization in these states. (Humphries as cited in Miller study, p. 1)

b. People kill people with the use of guns…

III. REASON THREE: Guns create more family tragedies.

A. Life can be taken very easily by improper use of firearms…
B. People might think that they can keep their weapons properly, but if there are no guns at all, there
would be no chance of any gun-related accidents.
C. Just think of Roxas National High School in Bulacan and SM Pampangga and the senseless
shootings there and all the families impacted by that tragedy. The people involved in these shooting
incidents were children. Do we really need these incidents to take place again before we take action?

Conclusion:
Bullets cannot be taken back, and the profit of firearm businesses cannot buy the lives that have been taken by
firearms; therefore, we need to oppose gun ownership. I challenge you, the audience, to oppose gun ownership and save a
life!

(Ladies and gentlemen, I’ve forwarded my arguments and I am now ready for the interpellation.)
(Our side has spoken. I am ready for the interpellation.)
 20

The Physical Layout of a Debate

For a debate to occur the following is required:
1. Two teams, one Affirmative, one Negative, each with two or three people.
2. An odd number of judges, preferably three or five. No ties are awarded this way.
3. A Chairperson/Timekeeper. This person is like the host of a talk show. He introduces the debaters and topic,
starts the debate, introduces the respective speakers, and at the end, announces the Judges’ decision. The
Chairperson/Timekeeper also times the speeches and signals to the speaker, through a sign or signal, the
amount of speaking time left.
4. A room with sufficient furniture to ensure that everyone has a seat and a bit of table space. Only one debate
should occur at a time in a room; otherwise, it will be impossible to concentrate.

Below is the physical layout of a debate class.

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING

Abulencia, E. (2011). Fundamentals of public speaking. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.

Baraceros, E. &Lintao R. (2010).English 4: Oral communication in context. Manila:Rex Book Store, Inc.

Bauzon, P. (2004). Handbook in public speaking, argumentation, and debate. Mandaluyong: National Book Store.

Bovee, C. &Thill, J. (2011).Business communication today.110th Ed. Philippines.Pearson Education South Asia PTE.
LTD
 21

Gamble, M. & Gamble, T. (2010). Communication works. 10th Ed. New York. McGraw-Hill Companies

Gupit, F. (2011). Elements of public speaking. Manila: Rex Book Store

Pangilinan, E. &Dilig, M. (2008).Speech and drama.Mandaluyong: National Book Store

Verderber, R., Verderber, K., &Sellnow, D. (2009).Effective speaking: challenges and solutions. Singapore:
Wadsworth

________. Organizational communication and conflict management. Retrieved from

https://www.efst.hr/management/Vol18No1-2013/6-Spaho.pd. accessed October 15, 2015

MODERATING PANEL, FORUM AND FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

Lesson 6

Defining panel, forum, and focus group discussion

The purpose of a panel is to share information on a particular topic, and to stimulate discussion among the panel
members. The audience may ask questions of the panel members.

The purpose of a forum is to stimulate information exchange among the forum members and the audience, and as
such, they are expected to involve dialogue and commentary from audience members as well as forum members.
It is expected that in addition to providing direct answers by individual panel or forum members, that the questions
should stimulate discussion among them as well.

A focus group discussion (FGD) is an in-depth field method that brings together a small homogeneous group
(usually six to twelve persons) to discuss topics on a study agenda. The purpose of focus group discussion is to
use the social dynamics of the group, with the help of a moderator/ facilitator, to stimulate participants to reveal
underlying opinions, attitudes, and reasons for their behavior. In short, a well facilitated group can be helpful in
finding out the "hows" and "whys" of human behavior.
Roles and Responsibilities of the Moderator
The moderator plays a central role in the development and successful implementation of a public forum. It is the
moderator who sets the context, drives the discussion, and engages the panelists and audience in an interactive
dialogue.
The moderator creates the tone and tenor of the program, enabling all the participants to feel comfortable and
involved. Lastly, the he/she synthesizes what he or she hears throughout the program so that the discussion is
focused and the themes are illuminated.
In addition, he has the following roles and responsibilities:
1. PREPARATION. The moderator should be fully informed about the background and writings of the panelists
and the issues to be discussed during the forum. Preparation for the forum should include review of the topics and
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current trends related to the topic such as polls, reports and other materials that add depth and breadth to the
moderator’s knowledge and understanding of the themes.
2. PRE-INTERVIEW. The moderator should speak with each panelist prior to the program in order to determine
what the panelist is likely to say and to explain the format and direction of the program. It is recommend having
three panelists of diverse opinions and viewpoints.
3. WRITING INTRODUCTORY MATERIALS. The moderator will introduce each panelist and the general outlines
of the program as well as asking questions of the panelists and taking questions from the audience. He prepares
biographical material about the panelists which are short, interesting, and highlights each panelist’s life rather than
a long, factual rendering of their life and work.
4. PREPARING QUESTIONS. The moderator should still prepare additional questions aside from that of the
organizer based on the pre-interviews which will elicit interesting opinions from the guests.
5. GUIDING THE PANELISTS. Discussion should be conversational and informal. Prepared texts are
discouraged. The first round of questions from the moderator should be broad enough to give each panelist a few
minutes to state his/her general views without encouraging a speech. Follow-up questions from the moderator will
enable the panelists to develop their views before the audience chimes in with questions.
6. TAKING QUESTIONS FROM THE AUDIENCE. He should call on questioners from the floor, asking each
questioner to stand and identify themselves before asking a question. He should underscore the importance of
short, concise questions, either directed to one panelist or to the entire panel. The moderator should repeat or
rephrase the question so it is clear.
7. KEEPING AN EYE ON TIME. It is the moderator’s job to keep track of time and to make sure all the issues are
covered. While audience participation is a main goal of the forum, it is also important not to allow questions to veer
off topic.
8. CONCLUDING REMARKS. The moderator must synthesize various points and bring the program to closure,
re-capping key themes and reviewing the goals of the forum.
Qualities of a Moderator
The best moderators are individuals with a particular skill at drawing people out and keeping a conversation moving along.
Moderators are good listeners and assume neutral, nonpartisan roles in the discussion. Sometimes it is better to have a
broad thinker as a moderator rather than someone very steeped in the details of one subject area.
Here are some qualities to look for in a moderator:
• Neutrality—make sure your moderator respects open dialogue and will encourage a balanced view of the issues.
• Authority—the moderator must manage the speakers and control the audience—timidity and gentility will not work.
• Confidence—the moderator should be at ease with the medium, the issues and the format.
• Spontaneity—even the most rigid of event formats are not immune to the unexpected, and flexible formats require fast
thinking.
• Knowledge—the moderator should know the issues in sufficient depth to keep a response or a discussion on target—if the
format allows follow-up questions, the moderator should know when the topic has been covered and when the panelists’
positions are clear.
• Understanding—the moderator should take time to familiarize him/herself with the goals of the forum.

Tips for Good Moderators

1. Employ humor if appropriate. Although the subjects are serious and heavy, there is always room for some levity.
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2. Get the panelists to engage with one another and the audience by asking what each panel member thinks of the
comments of another panelist.
3. Avoid technical discussions that veer away from the major issue.
4. Make sure everyone can hear the panelists and the audience questions.
5. Make sure there are nameplates for the panelists.
6. Use your prerogative as the moderator to ask a questioner to get to the point of the question.
7. Use your prerogative as the moderator to clarify the question or answer.
8. Don’t become a panelist. Try to stay neutral.
9. Display energy and personal engagement in the program.
10. Use a warm, comfortable style that makes people feel at ease.
11. Be familiar with the goals of the people speak and its format and approach.
12. Know beforehand if media is covering the event so that the panelists are prepared.

Moderating Panel Discussion

1. Make your opening remarks and introduce yourself as the facilitator.

2. State the purpose of the discussion topic and the benefits for the audience. This will increase their attention, for
example: “We expect to have a lively discussion today on how scorecards support our business intelligence strategy. This
will help you....” “Our four panelists tonight represent... or have differing views on... Once you hear both sides you will be
able to decide how to proceed with...”
3. Review and visually show the objectives of the discussion.
4. Review and visually show the session format and/or outline, flow and timing.
5. Tell the audience the ground rules for the discussion “There will be a 15-minute question and answer period after the
panel discussion. Please reflect on what you hear, jot down your questions and ask them later during the Q&A period.”
6. Introduce the panellists giving their name, titles in their organizations and relevance to topic being discussed. If the
discussion is to be driven by the facilitator—using framework with questions to the panelists—introduce all panelists at the
same time. If the discussion involves individual presentations, then introduce the first panelist. After his/her presentation,
introduce the next panelist, and so on. Always use the panelists’ names when asking a question, getting clarification and
summarizing key points.

Moderating Forum

Forum moderators are responsible to ensure the Forum proceeds in an orderly and productive fashion. The moderator will
briefly introduce each participant on the forum and lead off the discussion with some comments, followed by an invitation to
the members to make their opening remarks. Moderators should prepare in advance several discussion themes and open-
ended questions, to ensure the discussion remains lively and focused on the topic of the forum. Additionally, they should
pose questions and request participation from the audience, as the forums are designed to cover topics where the audience
is expected to have considerable knowledge, interest and experience, and will contribute substantially to the commentary.

Moderating Focus Group Discussion

The climax of all the preparations made for the study is the actual focus group discussion (FGD).
In general, the session proceeds in the following main stages:
1. Introduction. The moderator's brief introduction is aimed at making respondents relaxed, initiating rapport, and
establishing the "ground rules" for the discussion to follow. In it the moderator:
a. speaks in a casual, friendly manner to help respondents relax;
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b. introduces himself/herself by giving his/her name and sometimes providing information about himself/herself;
c. explains the general purpose of the group meeting to foster group feeling;
d. encourages respondents to feel free to give their frank and honest opinions, explaining that there are no right or
wrong answers, and it is okay to have feelings different from others;
e. establishes neutrality by assuring respondents that he/she (moderator) has no connection with the subject of
discussion that will affect his/her feelings;
f. establishes neutrality by assuring respondents that he/she (moderator) has no connection with the subject of
discussion that will affect his/her feelings;
g. gives respondents the group rules: speak clearly and one at a time, avoid interrupting one another, and allow all
participants a chance to speak;
h. explains the purpose of any recording equipment that is being used;
i. assures the group of confidentiality.

2. Warm-up. This stage includes self-introductions by respondents. They are asked to give their names and other -
information about themselves. The moderator must show interest in what participants have to say, for example, by making
eye contact and attending to each introduction. The moderator must sometimes probe for clarity and understanding of
information. He or she must also confine discussion only to the introductory formalities to avoid digressions.
3. Discussion. This part begins the actual discussion of the study topic and efforts are directed at understanding the issues
surrounding each topic. The moderator’s role at this phase is very demanding. The following are some strategies the
moderator can use to generate a healthy discussion:
1. Maintain a friendly and warm attitude to make participants feel comfortable.
2. Do not behave like an expert.
3. Build rapport by showing sensitivity to the needs and feelings of participants.
4. Pretend to convey a lack of complete understanding sometimes with statements such as: “I didn’t know that.
Can you tell me more about it?”
5. Pause when necessary to allow participants to think more or provide additional information. It is helpful to use
incomplete statements like: “I don’t know, maybe in some cases …. and wait for response.
6. Use in-depth probes to clarify responses given by a participant, for example by asking: “Could you explain
further?” or “I don’t understand … “or by repeating the response as a question: “…It’s effective?”
7. Know when to keep quiet and use it to your advantage, and do not let quietness intimidate you.
8. Encourage participants to communicate among themselves.

4. Wrap-Up/Summary. The last five to ten minutes of the session consists mainly of summarizing and recapping the
identifying themes of the group. This is meant to assist the moderator, the recorder, and the respondents in understanding
what has occurred during the session. It also provides an opportunity for respondents to alter or clarify their positions or
add any remaining thoughts they may have.
The steps involved may be ordered as follows:
1. Inform participants that the meeting is closing and ask for any comments; relevant ones could be explored in
depth.
2. Thank the participants and acknowledge that their ideas have been valuable and will be utilized.
3. Serve refreshments and listen for additional comments as the group breaks up.
4. Provide participants with any information they need but do not feel obliged to comment on everything that
everyone says.
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GATHERING AND OUTLINING SPEECH MATERIALS

Lesson 7

Speech materials gathering and outlining

The gathering and outlining of speech materials are essential in speech building. After a speaker has chosen
the subject and purpose of his speech, he begins to gather materials. Having collected the necessary
materials, he assembles them in logical order and writes out a speech outline.
Five sources of speech materials
1) Personal Observations. These includes personal knowledge derived from the physical perceptions of the
speaker –what he has seen, heard, touched, or even tasted or smelled.
2) Printed Matter. It refers to newspapers, magazines, and books. Newspapers give us the events of the
day. Magazines cover general to specialized areas, professional and trade journals, and special documents
and reports. Basic textbooks provide the essentials of the topic. Books on special subjects, general
literature, history, biographies, and quotations are helpful too.
3) Interviews and discussions. Ideas may be obtained from an oral give-and-take with other people like
asking questions from experts on the topic. Public discussions are those conducted in the seminars,
symposia, conventions, forums, and other assemblies while private discussions include barbershop
discussions or those with friends.
4) Letters of inquiry and questionnaires. Information may be secured through written form like letters of
inquiry to those persons whom you think can give the necessary data. This manner of obtaining information
is resorted to when the libraries you go to cannot furnish answers to the queries.
5) Audiovisual Media. These are information taken from radio, television, movies and internet.
Classifying the Materials
Use index cards to classify materials. To facilitate classification, the cards should be given headings and sub-
headings and arranged according to the order of ideas they will be presented in the speech. Index cards may be used
directly to gather materials. A personal computer can be used to enter information directly for easy retrieval.
Outlining
A speech outline is the skeletal framework of a speech composition. It is a list of points. After a major statement,
succeeding main statements such answer as why, so what, what for, where, when, how, and similar questions.
The purpose of speech outlines are coherence, a logical order and clarity of ideas. It tells what must be included but
also what must be excluded in the treatment of data.
Kinds of Outlines
a) Key-word outline. It is a brief outline composed of words and phrase denoting general ideas. It does not reveal
what the speaker is going to talk about exactly.

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b) Full-content. It is a comprehensive outline composed of sentences expressing the ideas of the speech in a detailed
manner.
Principles of Good Outlining
1. Reduction to essentials. The materials at hand should be reduced to the basic ideas. Each item in an outline must
contain only one idea.
2. Consistency in form. Every statement should be prefixed by a symbol for identification. They should be uniformly
used.
Outline format
I. ________________________________________________________________
A. __________________________________________________________
1. ____________________________________________________
a. _______________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________
(1) _________________________________________
(2) ________________________________________
3. Proper Subordination. The items under a statement should be logically subordinated to the statement. Stated in
another way, a sub-item placed under a more general item should properly belong to that item.
4. Logical order. How ideas follow one another is important. Any kind of order may be employed as long as the
order is logical.
Sequencing the Materials
Five kinds of sequences used to achieve order in speech compositions:
1) Time sequence or chronological order is an order based on time usually found in narratives or historical account.
2) Place sequence is an order based on physical conditions used for descriptions of an object or place from left to
right, top to bottom, etc.
3) Cause and effect sequence is an order which conditions are first described and then their causes or effects.
4) Problem-solution sequence is an order which problems are first discussed and then the corresponding solution or
solutions.
5) Special topical sequence is an order based on the very nature of the topic itself.
General Parts of a Composition
The general parts of a speech are the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. The introduction introduces the
audience to what they were going to listen to. The body is composed of three parts, namely, exposition, proposition,
and argumentation. The exposition is the preliminary narration of the pertinent information; the proposition is the
message of the speech; and the argumentation is the process of proving or supporting the proposition. The
conclusion closes the speech and challenges listeners to perform action.

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DELIVERING EFFECTIVE PUBLIC PRESENTATIONS

Lesson 8

I. What the audience sees

Sight is an important as sound in oral communication. What the listeners see is just as important as what
listeners hear. Thought is transmitted through physical appearance, facial expressions, and gestures, all
separate and distinct from the words of speech.
The speaker should address himself mainly to two senses – the sense of hearing, and the sense of sight of
the listeners. The speaker finds support from what he shows to the audience or from how he acts. The
listeners attach significance to his actions, whether intentionally or unintentionally done.

II. Techniques in Public Speaking

A. Visual Aids. They help convey ideas with ease, make points vivid, and help emphasize materials that
might be ignored by the audience. Visuals are effective when you wish to present information with less time
and with less repetition.
Advantages of Visual Aids
1. Clear and interesting.
2. Decrease delivery time.
3. Increase self-confidence.
4. Improve speaker’s credibility.
5. Audience’s memoory retention is 65 percent

Planning Effective Visual Aids

1. Keep eye contact with your audience.

2. Prepare visual aids in advance.
3. Make sure your visual aids are proportionate to the venue.
4. Position your visual aids where everybody can see them.
5. Avoid distributing your handouts before delivery of the speech
6. Display only the information you are discussing.
7. Visual aids should be explained clearly and concisely.
8. Practice your visual aids orally.
9. use chalkboads or flipcharts as potional visual aids

Types of visual Aids

1. Objects - Objects like real ones clarify ideas and give the dramamtic impact.
2. Models – Objects which are scaled down or enlarged for small ones.
3. Photographs - gives a sense of authenticity in the basence of an object or model.

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4. Drawings – they are effective alternatives to photographs; examples are diagrams,
sketches, and maps.
5. maps – illustrates exact location or geographical location
6. Speaker – The speaker’s body could be used as a visual aid for demonstration.
7. Overhead transprencies – a plastic like material where a text cn be projected onto the
screen through the use of an overhead projector.
8. Flipcharts and posters – comonly used during classroom lectures
9. Slides and movies – great form of visual arts which are enjoyable and interesting.
10. Charts – used for summarizing large block of information either taken from a pie or a bar
graph; good also for presenting steps
11. Graphics – are effective way to simplify and calrify statistics.

B. Physical Appearance. Audience determine the speaker’s character from the way he looks, speaks, and acts.
Dressing neatly is important to project a positive image.
C. Personality. A desirable personality especially with charisma is gained through practice.
D. Bodily Behavior. The speaker’s movements – from the time he walks up to the platform to the time he leaves it –
are usually watched by listeners.
E. Eye Contact. A speaker must look at the individual audience straight in the eye so that they will feel that the
speaker is talking to them personally.
F. Posture. A speaker must be conscious of the way he stands.
G. Poise. It is synonymous with composure, bearing or tranquil self-possession.
H. Gesture. It is any act of the speaker that reinforces or demonstrates ideas.

There are four basic hand gestures.

• Palms-up gesture. The palm of the hand is either facing the audience or facing upwards. This is an
affirmative or giving or receiving gesture.
• Palms-down gesture. The back side of the palm is either facing the audience or facing upwards. This is a
negative or rejecting gesture.
• Index-finger gesture. The index finger is extended and all the other fingers are closed. This is the pointing
finger.
• Clenched fist gesture. All the fingers are closed with the thumb over the closed finger. This is the emphatic
gesture or one that denotes force and power.

There are four kinds of gestures clasified as to function:

• Locative gestures point out persons, places, or things within the sight of listeners or within the imagination.
• Picturing gestures describe or demosntrates objects, ideas, or action.
• Emphatic gestures stress or emphasize ideas. The index finger gesture, clenched fist gesture may be used.
• Suggestive gestures stimulate the imagination of the listeners.

There are three steps to make a complete gesture.

1) Approach – the movement of the hands from the sides of the body to the place where it will be made.
2) Stroke – the gesture proper
3) Return – movement of the hand from the place where the stroke is made back to the sides of the body

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The following are the principles of good gestures

1. Integration. The gesture must suit the idea it supports

2. Coordination. The gesture must be harmonized with the other parts of the body.
3. Timing. The gesture must be timed to the word it supports.
4. Control. The gesture muts be well-coordinated.
5. Definitiveness. The gesture must be precise.
6. Variety. The gesture must be varied.

CONSTRUCTING VISUAL AND GRAPHIC MATERIALS

LESSON 9

Graphic Materials
A picture is worth a thousand words. This adage is especially true in research papers and business
reports, where illustrations—tables, graphs, drawings, etc. – not only effectively support the text but also
break the monotony of a “gray” page.
Graphic or visual aids communicate facts to the readers, and it conveys a thousand words in just a
glance. Graphic or visual aids consist of tables, graphs, charts, etc. which are used to visually represent
information in a vivid, easily understood manner. Visuals emphasize material and can present material more
compactly and with less repetition than text.
Imagine if you use all texts in your presentatio, especially on statistics, you will run out of pages but
your reader may not still figure you out. But in graphic aids, your reader could easily get your point by just
looking at your table, chart, diagram, etc. The only thing you would do with the help of your visuals is to give
them legends and little explanation of the relationships of your data. Graphic aids have been a useful tool in
the presentation in research, reports, and business.
The two most commonly used methods of data presentation are the tabular method and the
graphical method.
The tabular presentation method uses a table, which is referred to by statisticians as a formal
statistical table. It is a systematic organization of data in column and rows. In the tabular form, each class or
subclass is assigned a column or row, and the numerical facts relating to appropriate classifications are
entered in proper cells. Tables simplify the presentation of data and allow the reader to grasp complex
relationships more easily and concisely.
On the other hand, the graphical presentation method uses figures. Also called graphs or charts,
figures are geometric representation of magnitudes. Figures give a quick overall impression of the
information contained in statistical results; thus, they are more effective in attracting attention and are more
appropriate for showing general situation at a glance. Furthermore, the help brings out relationships that may
be hidden in tables.

TABLES

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Tables contain titles and subheadings boxed by horizontal lines separating the title from the body of
data, the various subheadings from one another, and the table itself from the text on a page. Footnotes or
prefatory comments are used to explain symbols, to reveal sources of information, to point out trends, and to
note exceptions.
Table 1: 2000 Sales by Region (thousands of Pesos)
Northern Southern Luzon Visayas Mindanao
Luzon
1st Quarter 25.56 30.04 45.55 53.21
2 Quarter
nd 34.55 42.31 59.44 68.67
3rd Quarter 45.56 65.44 84.22 87. 23
4 Quarter
th 75.66 83.76 75.99 54.28

The formal statistical table is made up of a limited number of structural parts, most of which appear in all
formal tables:
1. Heading- consisting of the table number (in Arabic, not Roman), the title (placed above the table),
and headnotes.
2. Stub- consisting of the stubhead or box, center heads and subheads, and line captions.
3. Boxhead- consisting of the spanner heads and column heads.
4. Field- composed of cells, lines, and columns.
5. Footnotes
6. Source notes

The format of a formal statistical table looks like this:

Table 1- Title of Table

(Headnote)
Spanner Head Spanner Head
Stubhead Column Head Column Head Column Head Column Head
Center Head Cell Cell Cell Cell
(Total Line)
Stubhead Cell Cell Cell Cell
Line Caption Cell Cell Cell Cell
Line Caption Cell Cell Cell Cell

Constructing the Table:

1. Draw the columns and rows needed to make a table.
2. State a main title for it, writing on top of the drawn table.
3. The subheadings of the title must be stated horizontally with each one making a column.
4. The numerical data is meant to quantify vertically each subheading.
5. State the total numerical data laid down.
6. Compare the numerical data in terms of rank like from highest to lowest or vice-versa or biggest to
smallest or vice versa.
Interpreting the Table:
1. State the main title on top of the drawn line.
2. State the total figure involved if possible.
3. State the breakdown of the total figure from top row to bottom row.
4. Build up the comparison in terms of highest to lowest or of other comparable data.
5. Summarize the general impact of the whole table.

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FIGURES
The term figure usually refers to any kind of graphic representation or illustration. Figures include
charts, graphs, diagrams, drawings, blueprints, maps,photographs, and some kinds of computer print outs.
Titles or captions are sometimes put above or under a figure. However, some authorities on research writing
(Campbell, for instance) suggest the placement of captions below the figure.
Bar Graphs
Bar graphs are used mainly for purposes of comparison. Also called bar charts, they measure data
either horizontally or vertically against criteria that can denote value, quality, time, quantity, magnitude, or
any other variable. For horizontal bars, the units of measurement usually begin at point zero at the left
margin. For vertical bars, point zero begins at the bottom. All bar charts must contain a title as well as
identifying captions or labels for each bar for the reader’s convenience.

The grouped or multiple bar chart depicts information on more than one characteristic in the same diagram. The bars
representing different characteristics are put together for each time period or region.

Subdivided bar charts present comparisons of data within individual bars. Either varying degrees of shading or
hatching can disitinguish the data each bar is measuring. Subdivide bars show not only varieties in the total of a gien
classification of values but also the changes in the component parts of the total. The lenght of each sub-bar or section
of a bar is proportional to the magnitude of the component sequences by it.

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Duo-directional or bilateral bar charts are versatile in that they are able to show the increase and decrease or
positive and negative qualities or percentage changes from one time period to the next.

Line Graph , also called point to poin graph, is a pictorial rendition of data in which specific values of a function are
plotted as dots on a coordinate plane. Adjacent pairs of dots are connected by straight lines. Line graphs are
commonly used for portyaing functions in which time is the independent variable.

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Pie Graph represents 100% which shows how parts are broken into different percentages. This is usually used in
budget, distributions, and comparisons of items that represent the whole.

Pictograph is a graph that shows numerical information by using picture symbols or icons to represent data sets. The
advantage of using a pitograph is that it is easy to read.

Organizational Charts is a diagram that shows the structure of an organization and the relationships and relative
ranks of its parts and positions/ jobs. The term is also used for similar diagrams, for example, one showing the
different elements of a field of knowledge oor a group of languages.

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Gantt chart is a horizontal bar chart developed as a production control tool in 1917 by Henry L. Gantt, an American
engineer and social scientist. Frequently used in project management, a Gantt chart provides a graphical illustration of
a schedule that helps to plan, coordinate, and track specific task in a project.

Dot Chart shows distribution or correlation.

Diagram is an illustration or drawing if the object or system with its parts being pointed out and labeled for easy
identification with some explanations.

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Drawing is very useful to enhance the understanding and imagination of the reader, especially if the object is rare or
impossible to see in an ordinary condition. It can also show dimensions and emphasize details.

Map emphasizes location. It is difficult to describe the location to the reader without the help of a map. A map gives a
clear image to the mind of the reader the exact location of the place being pointed out.

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Picture or Photograph like the drawing, helps to enhance the imagination of the reader and gives more idea than
words could. It can show an item in use and create a sense of auhtenticity.

SUGGESTION IN USING GRAPHIC AIDS

Graphic aids are easier to understand than thousands of words. They often convey information or provide
dramatic emphasis with an effectiveness that would be difficult or impossible to achieve in writing. On the other hand,
if they are relied on too much, they may become a hindrance rather than a help.

In using graphic aids for presenting data or figures, consider the following suggestions:
1. Make them appropriate to the situation. It must be in consonance with the need of the readers or audience (if
oral report) for esy understanding.
2. Label them completely. Capitalize the word Figure, Table, Chart, etc. Under the visual include information
about the source of the data used in the visual, legends, explanations, and any notes.
Figures, charts, graphs, pictures, any graphic that is not a table, title should be placed at the bottom.
On the other hand, title of the table should be at the top and must be numbered separately from figures.
3. Place them in an appropriate location for proper formatting.
4. Integrate them with the text. Be sure to refer to every visual in your text and embed your visual in the text as
close to the reference as you can. Introduce then explain or summarize the main point of the visual in your
text. How much you discuss the visual depends upon audience, the complexity of the visual, and the
importance of the point it makes.
5. Report accurately.
STEPS TO READING GRAPHICS
1. Read the title or the caption: The title will identify the subject and may suggest what relationship is being
described.
2. Determine how the graphic is organized: Read the column headings or labels on the horizontal and
vertical axes.
3. Identify the variables: Decide what is being compared to what or what relationship is being described.
4. Anticipate the purpose: On the basis of what you’ve seen, predict what the graphic is intended to show. Is
its purpose to show change over time, describe a process, compare costs, or present statistics?
5. Determine scale, value or units of measurement.
6. Study the data to determine trends or patterns: Note changes, unusual statistics and any unexplained
variations.
7. Draw connections and draw conclusions about the chapter content: Take a moment to discover why
the graphic was included and what concepts or key points it illustrates or explains.
8. Make a brief summary note: In the margin, jot a brief note about the trend or pattern the graphic
emphasizes. Writing will crystallize the idea in your mind, and your note will be useful when you review.

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INTERPRETATION
Interpretation is the act of finding out the meaning of a certain fact, situation, or data. In research, this is very
useful. It is in the analysis and interpretation of the data where a certain inquiry could be established.
We do a lot of interpretation in our daily life. For example, if we see that the sky is dark in the morning, we
say it would rain. When we see a couple holding hands, we could say that they have a relationship. In business, we
used to interpret according to the pattern of occurrence in everyday transactions whether there is a good prospect or
not. The symbols and pictures around could be interpreted according to our experience and background knowledge.
In technical writing, interpretation is used as a basis for our proposal and recommendation of the thing we
interpreted about a result on the research, investigation, and inquiry. It is also useful as a tool to analyze the diagram,
chart, table and symbols.
The following are the steps to make a proper interpretation.
1. State your problem
2. Gather data related to the problem.
3. Test every evidence and data gathered.
4. Make an interpretation based on the evidence and data gathered.
5. Conclusion.

WRITING INSTRUCTIONS
LESSON 10
Writing Instruction
Instructions tend to follow a consistent step-by-step pattern, whether you are describing how to
make coffee or how to assemble an automobile engine.
Following instructions is important to make tasks simpler, to ensure things are done
effectively, to eliminate confusion and to save time. When instructions are properly followed, things work
well. People who follow instructions show that they are cooperative, intelligent and dependable, while not
following instructions can lead to life and death situations that may end tragically.

Here are the basic features of instructions:

- Specific and precise title
- Introduction with background information
- List of parts, tools, and conditions required
- Sequentially ordered steps
- Graphics
- Safety information
- Conclusion that signals completion of task

Checklist for Writing Instructions

1. Use short sentences and short paragraphs.
2. Arrange your points in logical order.
3. Make your statements specific.
4. Use the imperative mood.
5. Put the most important item in each sentence at the beginning.
6. Say one thing in each sentence.
7. Choose your words carefully, avoiding jargon and technical terms if you can.
8. Give an example or an analogy, if you think a statement may puzzle a reader.

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9. Check your completed draft for logic of presentation.
10. Don't omit steps or take shortcuts.
Clear, accurate instructions are essential to mostly everyone, from consumers to employees on the
job. Instructions are found everywhere, from short product inserts to long owner’s manuals. Many companies
are now putting instructions for their products on the Web for easier consumer access. Instructions are
important for reasons of safety, efficiency, and convenience. Employers stand to gain or lose much from the
quality of the instructions their employees write.
Assessing Your Audiences Needs
To prepare effective instructions, learn all you can about your audience. Ask yourself these questions:
• How and why will readers use my instructions?
• What language skills do they possess? Is English their first (native) language?
• How much do they already know about the procedure my instructions will cover?
• How much background information will they need?
• What steps will most likely cause them trouble?
• Where will they likely be following the instructions?
• What resources tools or equipment will they need to follow the instructions?
The Process of Writing Instructions
To make sure your instructions are accurate and clear, follow these steps:
➢ Know exactly how to do the task. You must be very familiar with the steps of the process before you can
write instructions. That means you know how to do this- you're not guessing or reading someone else's
ideas. You have done this yourself!
• Know how to begin the process. This may include gathering needed materials or supplies, or laying
out a work area. You must explain this first.
• Know what the end result looks like or does. You have seen the result (a baked cake, a radiator
installed, a bicycle put together, the web page changing colour, etc.) You must make sure the
reader will end up with the same results.
➢ Plan how to write the steps in order. Instructions are written in small increments (manageable tasks that
are clear, easy to follow to completion). You must know what is done first, second, third.
➢ Write instructions beginning with a verb. The reader must DO something each time.
➢ Write each step as a small piece. That means, each step should be small, a baby step in the whole
process. It should be easy to read at once, and then turn and DO it right away. It shouldn't contain multiple
things to do at the same time.
➢ Include warnings as pre-steps. If it's critical that something be done (or NOT be done) before something
else, write it as a step to do before the next step. For example, "check (or close) the drain plug," must be a
step before "add oil to the tank."
➢ Write the steps logically in order. Don't depend on the reader going down the page and reading all the tips
and warnings before beginning to do the process. Or the reader going to read all the fine points in small print
before starting. Include each point in its own step that begins with a verb.
➢ Review and edit your instructions carefully. Make sure your writing is complete and correct. We've all
seen poorly written instructions for assembling that Christmas toy that make us laugh, but don't get the toy
assembled. Don't repeat that mistake.
➢ Express steps in the positive. It's much preferable to say DO something rather than DON'T do something.
For example, instead of saying "don't forget the salt," write "add salt when the eggs boil."

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➢ Avoid expressing opinions, preferences or choices. Instructions are not about what might happen, what
someone could choose, what you personally prefer. Instructions are factual statements that give an action to
perform. Options can be explained in another section of the document.

Instructions are usual in the world of work. Examples are fire drills, grievance procedures, and instructions for
using equipment.
Here are some guidelines to help you to write clear instructions:
• Prefix the instructions with a clear heading that summarizes the task.
• Show clearly who does what. If a process involves more than one person, write a different procedure for each
person.
• Start each instruction with a verb that tells the reader to do something. Examples: "Open the valve…", "Press
the emergency button…", "Tell your supervisor…"
• Use a numbered list when the order is important. Use a bulleted list when the order is not important (for
example, when the reader can choose between different options).
• Put notes and warnings at the start of the instructions, or before the list item to which they refer.
• Specify conditions before the primary part of the instructions. For example, at step 5 of some stocktaking
instructions, do not write, "Before you start the stock take, make sure that…" (This type of problem frequently
occurs.)
• Do not mix instructions with conceptual information. Give the necessary background information before the
instructions.
• Write for your audience and use a level of detail that is suitable to their skill level.
• Avoid lists of more than approximately ten steps. If possible, divide a long list of instructions into two or more
different tasks.
• Specify what the reader does when the task is complete. If a reader asks, "Now what? the instructions are
not complete.

Here’s an example of writing an instruction in going to the airport smoothly.

As a result of the 9/11 terror attacks, airport security has heightened drastically. It leaves most travellers
dreading the once enjoyable airport experience. Long lines, intrusive officers, and grumpy flyers make the Airport
Security Checkpoint a less than desirable aspect of air travel. By following these steps, you will 'soar' through this
portion of your journey with ease.
• Be prepared. Before you get to the airport, take the necessary precautions to make your experience as
simple as possible.
• Make sure you have your boarding pass and Photo ID (driver's license or passport) in your hand or pocket
before you get in the security line.
• Pay close attention to directions while you wait in line.
• Put your boarding pass and ID away as soon as they have been checked.
• Remove the necessary items from your carry-on as soon as you get to the belt, placing these items, along
with your carry-on, directly on the belt or in the provided bins.
• Make removing your shoes easy.
• Remove all necessary clothing and accessories from your body. Take off any metal objects, as well as
jackets and hats, depending on the airport.
• Step through the metal detector after an employee of the airport has waved you through.
• Collect your belongings and put them away.

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IDENTIFYING PURPOSE AND KEY POINTS IN BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCES

LESSON 11

Analytical Reading
The success of a business or an organization is largely dependent on how efficient and quick
information is shared. In the workplace, people read to create and share knowledge about important issues
confronting them as individuals and as members of the organization. They analyze texts, chiefly from
business correspondences, as they read: that is, they take texts apart and study organization as well as
content in order to deepen their understanding and properly respond to correspondences. This kind of
reading – called “close reading” or “analytical reading” – demands a willingness to slow down and suspend
final judgment.

Just as effective writing is a process of coming to know and then shaping an idea about a topic, so
too is reading a process by which people understand and consider topics and ideas. The reader works
through a process (pre-reading, questioning, reading, responding, and reviewing) in order to build coherent
understanding. In this way, writers and readers are both creators: writers create texts, and readers create
meaning.

Steps in Analytical Reading of Business Correspondences

Learning to read analytically a business correspondence is a skill and, as such, requires time and conscious
practice. To develop that skill, you may wish to try a process many experienced analytical readers use.

I. Consider your purpose for reading. Are you reading in order to gather information for a specific
sales letter? Are you reviewing a minute of a recent meeting? Are you reading a memo? Why are you
reading? Every act of reading begins with the answer to this question.
II. Consider the type text you will read. Is it a letter of request, letter of inquiry, memo, or minutes of
the meeting? If so, you know to read for certain requests, imperatives, important facts, dates, or
figures. Through this, you can also review your knowledge about the basic structure of the business
communication. The text type will help you acknowledge your expectations.

A. Study the structure of the business letter below. Each part is labelled. The labels in all caps are the basic
parts while the ones italicized are optional parts.

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Sample Business Letter

LETTERHEAD ACC Language Center

(HEADING) Aklan Catholic College
Archbishop Gabriel M. Reyes St.
Kalibo, Aklan 5600
Tel. No. (036) 268-4154
www.acc.edu.ph
DATELINE October 19, 2015 ■ 1 to 10 blank lines
■
■
Confidential CONFIDENTIAL
Notation ■ 1 blank line
INSIDE KALAYAAN MARKETING, INC.
ADDRESS Gutierez Building
Roxas Avenue
Kalibo, Aklan 5600

Attention Line Attention: Planning Committee

■ 1 blank line
SALUTATION Gentlemen:
■ 1 blank line

Subject Line Subject: The business correspondence parts

■ 1 blank line
This is to inform you on the correct placement of business letter parts.
■ 1 blank line
BODY It is really important to take note of the correct form because you will soon be writing letters within

given communication situation.

■ 1 blank line

Should you have any clarification, please ask me in person.

Keep on studying.

■ 1 blank line
COMPLEMEN- Cordially yours,
TARY CLOSE ■ 3 blank lines
■
■

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SIGNATURE Juan Dela Cruz
BLOCK Manager
■ 1 blank line
Reference Initials JD/mcb
■ 1 blank line
Enclosure Notation Encl: Lecture Notes
■ 1 blank line
Cc Notation Cc: Mr. Sandy Salazar
■ 1 blank line
Ps Notation PS: Please study letter parts for they will be include in the examination.

Business Letters

Business Letters are brief written messages generally sent to recipient outside the organization. In addition to
conveying particular message, they perform an important public relations function in fostering good working
relationship with customer, suppliers, and others.

The Parts of a Business Letter

1. Basic Parts
a. The heading contains the address of the writer.
b. The dateline or date indicates information when the letter is written.
c. The inside address identifies the person or organization that writes the letter.
d. The salutation is a form of common courtesy extended in business.
e. The body is the full message of the letter.
f. The complimentary close is a form of saying goodbye.
g. The signature block is composed of the writer’s name, his signature and his position in the company.
2. Optional Parts
a. The reference initials refer to writer’s or secretary’s initials.
b. The attention line is part of the address and should be typed two spaces below the inside address.
c. The subject line tells the readers immediately the purpose or content of the letter.
d. The enclosure notation indicates that something accompanies the letter, such as documents, records,
etc.
e. The carbon copy notation shows that copy of the letter is sent to another person/s.
f. The blind carbon copy notation appears only on the original copy of the letter, not on duplicate/
triplicate copies.
g. The confidential notation is used when the nature of the letter has confidentiality.
h. The P.S. (Postscript) is used business and must only be used to re-emphasize an important point that
has been mentioned in the body of the letter.

B. Study the structure of a memo below.

Sample Memo

MEMORANDUM

To: All Staff Members

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Heading Cc: HRD Officer
From: Argo Santos, President
Date: November 5, 2015
Re: Company Merger

_______________________________________________________________________________

Introduction The management like to set the record straight. Perhaps you have heard rumours of all sorts
to the effect that the company is going out of business, is being sold, or is merging. You will be
pleased to hear that the last is true. We are merging.

Statement Effective January 1, we will become a wholly owned subsidiary of ABC, Inc. Principals at ABC
of Facts have asked our administration to let you know of their sincere intentions to continue operating
this division on an autonomous basis and to retain all the employees who are currently on
the payroll.

Argument There are many benefits to be gained by the merger. There will be a company-wide meeting in
the auditorium on Monday, November 12, 2015 at noon. The meeting will be over lunch
(provided by ABC), and members of the ABC team will be on hand to personally answer any
questions.

Conclusion You'll approve of the merger wholeheartedly once you understand what we have to gain. I look
forward to seeing each of you at the luncheon on November 12.

Memo
Memo (short for memorandum) is a business-oriented style that is best suited for interoffice or intercolleague
correspondence. More informal in tone and organization than a letter, memos are generally used to provide or ask for
information, announce a new policy, update on personnel transfers, or for any other internal issues.

Memo Parts

A memo is set up in a special format. Headings, lists, tables or graphs are often used to make the information more
readable.

All memos consist of two sections: the heading and the body.

1. The heading indicates who is writing to whom, when, and why. The heading should include the following
parts:
a. To: – lists the names of everyone who will receive the memo
b. From: – lists the name of the writer(s) in the same way as the name(s) of the recipient(s)
c. Date: – lists the month, date, and year the memo was written
d. Re: or Subject –indicates the main subject of the letter
e. Cc: or c: – lists those readers who should have a copy of the memo for theirinformation or reference but
are not expected to carry out the same action as the recipients listed in the to: line

2. The body of the memo conveys the message and generally consists of 4 parts:
a. Introduction – states the general problem or main idea
b. Statement of facts – states the facts or discusses the problem or issue
c. Argument – explains importance or relevance of facts

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d. Conclusion – summarizes the main idea, suggests or requests action –
memos end with a call to action

C. Study the structure of the minutes of meeting below.

Sample Minutes of Meeting

MINUTES of Aklan Catholic College

Meeting date: October 28, 2015

Call to order: A staff meeting of the committee heads for accreditation preparation,
was held in Audio Visual Room of Aklan Catholic College on October 28, 2015. The
meeting convened at 1 o’clock in the afternoon, Rev. Fr. Jose Gualberto I. Villasis,
the head of the accreditation committee presiding, and Mr. Richard I. Diocena,
secretary.

Members in attendance: Rev. Fr. Gualberto I. Villasis, Ms. Marion Pescasiosa, Sr.
Delia S. Alcabasa, Mr. Richard Diocena, Mr. NoliResterio, Ms. Carolina Gonzales,
Ms. AizaNahil, Engr. Leo Patacsil, Ms. Darlene O. Braza
Members not in attendance: Mr. June B. Mijares

Approval of minutes: Motion was made by Ms. Carolina S. Gonzales, and

seconded to approve the minutes of the October 20, 2015 meeting. Motion carried.

Officers' reports:
Rev. Fr. Villasis recommends that if we are not able to find a new facility for the
Quality Assurance office by the end of this month, the organization should look into
converting Lab 1. After the brief discussion, the committee agreed.

Committee member, Richard Diocena attended the Meeting on PAASCU

Accreditation Updates. Mr. Diocena discussed the changes and updates in the
accreditation procedures.
Sr. Delia Alcabasa mentioned that the documentation of every department on the
teachers’ and student’s community involvement is 80% complete,

Unfinished business:
Finance Committee report provided by Chair, Ms. Marion Pescasiosa:
Pescasiosa explained that consultant, Marry Tosca, reviewed the organization's
bookkeeping procedures and found them to be satisfactory, in preparation for the
upcoming yearly financial audit. Finance committee suggests that our company
ensure the auditor provides a management letter along with the audit financial report.

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New business:
New information system
Mr. NoliReterio noted that he was working with committee member, Edward Gum
ban, to help develop an information management system plan, and that two weeks
ago he (Resterio) had e-mailed members three resumes from consultants to help
with the plan. In the e-mailing, Resterio asked members for their opinions to lay down
a time table for developing the project. Resterio asked members for their opinions.

Announcements:
Ms. Carolina Gonzales announced that the graduates of the College of 1994 are
donating P 200,000.00 for the rehabilitation of the College Gym.

Adjournment: The meeting was adjourned at 4:00 pm.

John Robert Vega Date of approval:

Aklan Catholic College

Minutes of Meeting
The minutes of a meeting is a formal record of a meeting. It contains the authorized and official version of
what has been discussed and agreed upon at the meeting. The minutes is written by the appointed secretary who,
during the meeting, takes down note the important remarks by various speakers. It may be a word-for-word record or
just a summary.

Parts of Minutes Meeting

The first paragraph must contain the following: kind of meeting (regular, special, etc.); the name of the
organization; the date, time and place of the meeting; the name of the presiding officer and secretary; approximate
number of members present; establishment of a quorum; and recording of the action taken on the minutes of the
previous meeting.

The body should include, with each motion being a separate paragraph the following:
• The exact wording of motions, whether passed or failed, and the way they were disposed of, along with the
name of the maker
• If the vote was counted, the count should be recorded. The secretary reports, if there are any, are included.
In roll call votes the record of each person’s vote is included
• Notices of motions – previous notice is sometimes required e.g. amendments of the bylaws
• Points of order and appeals
• Last paragraph: hour of adjournment

III. Preview the text.

a. Read the letterhead, inside address, subject line and attention line (if present). Note the writer and his or
her identifying biographical details.
b. Look up any terms or acronyms that may be unfamiliar to you.
c. If there are any graphics or images, look at them closely, “read” them, and note the captions. Consider
why they are included.
d. Read the first paragraph and find the topic and main purpose as this paragraph most often contains the
main purpose of the correspondences.
e. Read the following paragraphs for further details.

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f. Read the closing paragraph or two, and ask yourself what the point of the text is.
g. Skim the whole text. From beginning to end, quickly read the first and last sentences of each paragraph
to get an overall idea of the organization of the composition and its purpose.
h. Now open a notebook or new document on your computer and make notes about what you think the
main idea of the correspondence is. Note any questions you have. Make as many observations as you
can without looking back at the text.

IV. Read the text slowly and patiently. Expect that introductory paragraphs, thesis statement and key points (if
there is an explicit thesis), topic sentences, and conclusions.
a. Hold a conversation with the text as you read. Keep a pen or pencil in your hand so you can write
questions, comments, and summarizing notes in the margins as you read. Write specific responses.
Some readers find it helpful to note each paragraph’s main idea in the margin; in this way the structure
of the writing and its claims and evidence will emerge.
b. Consider why, when, and for what audience the text was written. A cover letter for a resume is
quite different from a letter of complaint. A resume is intended for personnel with key positions in hiring
and placement like the manager or the human resource manager while a complaint letter is mostly read
by a quality assurance officer or a public relations officer.
c. If a specific paragraph confuses you, note it so you can return to it after completing your reading.
d. Circle or highlight all important words you can’t understand from context clues and look them
up. You will know they’re important if they recur or are found in key areas like the introduction or
conclusion.

V. When you finish, return to your notes and summarize the main idea. Write down the purpose of the
correspondence and key points. Note any memorable supporting evidence offered. Compare this text to
others you have read on the topic.

VI. Now re-read the text. All skilful readers re-read, but not all of them re-read texts immediately. Some like to
let ideas settle before returning to a text. Others like to re-read immediately while a text is still active in the
mind. Over time, you will discover what process works best for you.

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IDENTIFYING ERRORS IN BUSINESS DOCUMENTS

LESSON 12

Kinds of Errors
Common errors in business documents may be classified as either mechanical or content. To
identify these different kinds of errors, it is important to read the material once for mechanical errors and for
the second time for content errors.
1.Mechanical errors. They are those errors that can be recognized when looking at the material without
referring to the meaning. Mechanical errors include transposition, capitalization, spacing, punctuation, and
spelling. Mechanical errors could be identified by slow reading rate to “low gear”. The printed copy should be
read by letter, word by word, phrase by phrase, or line by line, pronouncing each word as one reads.
Reading from right to left is another technique in proofreading for mechanical errors.
2. Content errors. They are information or fact errors and often cause confusion and misunderstanding.
They are more difficult to locate than mechanical errors because once information is in print, one tends to
think of it as being correct. Content errors are identified by reading the material more slowly than the normal
rate. Concentrate on the meaning while reading the complete sentence instead of reading word for word.
Check the accuracy of the information against the original source when proofreading for dates, numbers,
names and other details.

Common Errors in Business Documents

The following are common errors in business documents and their examples
1. Sentence Structure
a. Incomplete Sentences (Because he wasn’t at work that day.)
b. Run-on sentences (The meeting was adjourned we all left right after that.
c. Comma splices (Julie presented the layout to the clients, they liked it.)
2. Spelling and Punctuation
a. Errors using capitals (She works in the ford building.)
b. Incorrect punctuation (Don’t use the photocopier.)
c. Spelling mistakes (Punctuality is very important.)
3. Grammar
a. Incorrect use of verb forms (I seen the client yesterday.)
b. Incorrect subject-verb agreement (Every manager and employee in the company agree with the
decision.)
c. Improper use of transitions (The meeting was long although the team talked a lot.)
d. Pronoun references that are unclear (Sam went to the manager’s office to pick up his report.)
e. Improper use of articles (They discussed advantages and disadvantages of the proposal.)
f. Incorrect use of subject/object pronouns (The boss gave a raise to Julia and I.)
4. Word Choice
a. Incorrect use of similar words (Their very concerned about how the layoffs will affect their
morale.)
5. Improper tone, style or level of formality
a. Use of informal style or casual language (He’s really ticked off that people continue that is not
appropriate in business writing to come late.)
Checklist of Errors in Business Documents

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A. Look for writing errors
1. Typographical mistakes
2. Misspelled words
3. Grammatical errors
4. Punctuation mistakes
B. Look for missing elements
1. Missing text section
2. Missing exhibits (drawings, tables, photographs, charts, graphs, online messages, and so on)
3. Missing source notes, copyright notices, or other reference items
C. Look for design, formatting, and programming mistakes
1. Incorrect or inconsistent font selections
2. Problems with column sizing, spacing and alignment
3. Incorrect special character
4. Clumsy lines and page breaks
5. Problems with page numbers
6. Incorrect margins
7. Problems with page headers and footers
8. Lack of adherence to company standards
9. Inactive or incorrect links
10. Downloadable files not stored in the appropriate folder

Methods of Proofreading
Proofreading methods could be improved. The first two methods below should be read when proofreading by
yourself and the third when proofreading with another person.
1. Comparative Proofreading Method. This involves comparing one document with another. It is mostly
used to proofread statistical or technical material that contains numbers or specialized vocabulary like medical,
legal, and scientific material. It follows the following steps:
a. Place the document to be proof read next to the original copy.
b. Place the documents being compared as close to each other as possible. This decreases
unnecessary eye and/or neck movement and allows for more accurate proofreading.
2. On- Screen Method. This is proofreading documents on a computer. The following steps are
recommended:
a. Proofread on screen once for mechanical errors and once for content errors.
b. Move cursor and carefully pronounce each word as you read when proofreading for mechanical
errors.
c. Check for words that may have been omitted or added when copy was revised.
d. Check hyphenated words
e. Use spelling checker to speck the spelling in the entire document.
f. Print the document and proofread it again.
3. Team Method. This involves two people and ensures that the copy has been proofread carefully because
two people have checked it. One person reads the draft or original copy aloud while another person follows
along reading and marking the other copy. Editors take turns to reading aloud and checking the copy when
the document is quite long or complex. This method is effective when checking the accuracy of technical or
statistical copy or copy that has long lists, many names or numbers.

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Proofreading Symbols
The following symbols are useful when proofreading business documents.

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING

1. Hall, S. and Blappert, T. (2012). First class service 1: English for the tourism and hospitality industry
(Philippine ed). Pasig City: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd (Philippine Branch).
2. Jaderstrom, S. & Miller, J.M. (2000). Business English at work. California: Glencoe/ McGraw Hill
3. Locker, O. and KyoKaczmarek, S. (2009). Business communication: Building critical skills (4thed). McGraw-
Hill

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ORGANIZING INFORMATION
Lesson 13

Organizing Information

Do you feel overwhelmed by the volumes of information you have to learn? Do you wonder if you will be able
to learn all of them?

The key to learning large amounts of information is to organize and condense it. Basically, this involves
looking for patterns, differences, similarities, or shared characteristics and then grouping, rearranging, and
reducing the information into manageable pieces. To do this, you will have to think about the information and
look for the relationships and connections. This is in itself is a form of review and rehearsal that will facilitate
learning.

Two methods of organizing- outlining and mapping will be discussed here. The method you select for a
particular course will depend on the type of material, the type of learning required, and the characteristics of
your learning style.

The first step in using any of these methods is to sort the information and to identify what is to be learned. If
you have underlined and marked your reading assignments and have taken notes of important ideas in class
lectures, you have completed the first step.

Reading the Entire Selection Effectively

The role of organization is to help you identify the essentials. It should help you spot all-important ideas,
facts, and supporting materials for an entire article, chapter or unit.

But to identify is not enough. Visualize if you will have a thousand pounds of crushed ore. It’s not enough to
identify the presence of gold in that ore. You need to extract it. After all, it’s not the thousand pounds of ore
that are important. It’s the seventy ounces of gold it contains. But, can you imagine trying to extract
something you don’t even know is there? No. Keep both in mind. First, identify. Next, extract- the second of
the two roles of organization.

What is the role of Outlining? It’s to make organization clear- to help you identify and extract essentials. The
outline form sets major points out and shrinks supporting materials into a clearly visible subordinate position.
Take a split-second glance at an outline. You can determine the main points in no time.

Furthermore, notice what making an outline does. It forces you to think in terms of main and subordinate
points. It forces you to go through the mental gymnastics needed to discover and identify the author’s plan.
Writing the outline proves how skilfully you can extract the essentials. Such a combination of reading and
thinking contributes much to comprehension.

How is organization revealed? As you read, what signs or spcial devices mark the writer’s plan? Reading is
just the reverse of writing. The author sends; the reader receives. The author uses certain devices to help
the readers. Just looking at them more closely will facilitate progress. There are three kinds: typographical,
rhetorical, and verbal.

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Take typographical devices. Think what can be one with type. You can put an important point in CAPITAL
LETTERS. See how they stand out in the page. Something a bit less important can be set in boldface type.
This too stand out. Even italics differ enough from regular type to be spotted easily on the page.

Now for the rhetorical devices, turn instead to repetition, parallelism , or balance.

Repeating a word or phrase helps the reader for what is said into a more orderly, easily remembered pattern.
Here’s an illustration. Do you know the three secrets of a successful speech? Stand up! Speak up! Shut up!
The repetition of s’s in stand, speak and shut puts this advice into neat, orderly form.

Lincoln’s government, “of the people, by the people, and for the people” relies on parallelism as well as on
repetition. Each of these phrases is in parallel form- preposition-article-noun- to accent the threefold pattern
he had in mind. Repetition of “the people” helps still further to make the phrase unforgettable.

With the rhetorical device of balance, think of the old- fashioned scales or balance. Or just think of what you
do to balance a pencil across your finger. It has to be placed right in the middle in order to balance. Similarly,
balance in sentence has to have an exact middle spot, both sides equal. Patrick Henry did it nicely. Listen to
him.” Give me liberty or give me death!”

The word or marks the middle, or fulcrum. And on either side exactly three words to balance three words.
Furthermore, the repetition of “give me... give me” makes it even stronger. You know he’s talking about two
alternatives.

Verbal devices make up the third and last of these special road signs. Dozens of English words have the
following as their chief function: marking transitions, indicating methods of development, or noting outline
form. The word another , for example, moves the reader easily from one point to the next, a real help in
outlining. Consequently suggests a cause-effect development. And such words as first, next and finally
strongly indicate outline form.

All of these devices- typographical, rhetorical and verbal- function as highway signs to a driver. They keep
the road.

Still another major way to determine organization is through paragraph structure. In each paragraph look for
(1) a topic sentence or idea and (2) supporting details. And if a writer mentions three reasons, expect three
paragraphs, if the reasons are important. If one reason is complex, or multi-sided, look for two or more
paragraphs to suggest subdivisions of that major point. In short, lean heavily on paragraphing as you outline.

What does organization contribute? Why bother with it, anyway? Well, you get two sets of benefits. For one,
you open the way to capturing main ideas and relationships between parts. For another, you gain improved
aids to both understanding and remembering.

When you complete the outline, getting the main ideas is no longer a problem. You’ve reduced the 1000-
word chapter to a mere handful of essentials- the gold.

And the outline lets you see the relationship between parts very clearly. Subordinate parts are in subordinate
position in outline form.

Finally, outlining does amazing things for understanding and remembering. Getting details and understanding
them are not the same. Organization adds understanding to details. Furthermore, you will remember
CAPITALS, boldface, italics better because they are grouped in orderly fashion under the heading,

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typographical. If Patrick Henry had not used balance, think of the added difficulty of remembering exactly
what he said: “Give me liberty, or I’d just as soon be killed.” That rephrasing doesn’t remember itself. The
other does.

So, to summarize, make outlining your follow-up for reading. It will help you identify and extract the
essentials. It will help you identify and extract the essentials. It will help you understand and remember them
much better. It will turn into meaning, the obscure into the obvious.

A. Outlining
Outlining is a framework of related ideas. In an outline, the visual pattern in which information appears on a page
is significant. It indicates how the ideas in a reading assignment or lecture relate to each other and to work as a
whole.

Outlining is a valuable note-taking technique, particularly for students who find that marking the text does not
meet their note-taking needs. An outline permits rapid review of detailed material. It eliminates the need to
thoroughly reread lengthy text passages. It helps students to be selective about what they wish to reread in
preparation for examinations. Also many students find that writing notes in outline form clarifies and assists
retention of ideas.

How to develop outlines

To be effective, an outline must show (1) the relative importance of ideas, and (2) the relationship between ideas. The
easiest way to achieve this is to use the following format.

I. Major Topic
A. First major idea
1. First subordinate idea
2. Second subordinate idea
B. Second major idea
1. First subordinate idea
2. Second subordinate idea
a. First minor idea or example
b. Second minor idea or example

II. Second Major Topic

A. First Major Idea
B. Second Major Idea

Notice that the more important ideas are closer to the left margin, while less important details are indented toward the
middle of the page. A quick glance at an outline indicates what is most important, and how ideas support or explain
one another.

Here are a few more suggestions:

1. Don’t get caught up in the numbering and lettering system. How you number or letter an idea is not as
important as showing what other ideas it supports or explains.
2. Be brief; use words and phrases, never complete sentences.
3. Use your own words. Avoid lifting most of the materials from the text.
4. Be sure that all information underneath a heading supports or explains it.

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5. Outline information in the order in which it is written in a passage. If you rearrange the sequence of
information in your outlines, you will create unnecessary problems for yourself.
6. All headings that are aligned vertically should be of equal importance.

B. MAPPING
Mapping is a visual means of organizing information. It involves drawing of diagrams to show how ideas or concepts in
an article or chapter are related, how ideas are developed and connected, making it easier for one to learn. The extent
to which you use mapping will depend on your learning style. Some students, especially those with visual learning
style, prefer mapping to outlining. Other students find mapping to be freer and less tightly structured than outlining.

How to draw maps:

1. Identify the overall topic or subject and write it in the center or at the top of the page.
2. Identify the major supporting that relates to the topic. State each fact or idea on a line connected to the
central topic.
3. As you discover details, draw a new line branching from the idea it explains.

CHARTS
Charts are visual representations of thought patterns. Charting logically and effectively comes after underscoring and
annotating. Some students chart passages in their notebooks as they read and mark the text. Others review noted
materials by charting them just prior to a quiz or examination.

The title of the chart is its topic or subject; the form reflects one or more thought patterns; the content is a
concentration of the important points noted in the paragraph or passage. Study the examples that follow.
Time Order
Arrows indicate progression from the beginning to the end of a process or procedure. The order of
presentation of items is crucial for meaning and for accurate memorization.

To visualize a sequence of events, the student may also draw a single horizontal line and mark it off in yearly
intervals. Just as a ruler is marked off in inches, then write events next to the appropriate year.

Organizational Charts.
When previewing material that is composed of relationship and structure, organizational charts are useful
study aids. In a business management course, suppose you are studying the organization of a small
employment agency. If you look at the sample that follows, the structure would become apparent and easy to
remember.

Cause- Effect Charts

Arrows indicate a cause-effect relationship. The direction of the arrow indicates whether the passage
stresses cause or whether it stress effect. An arrow pointing toward the topic indicates that the passage
explains or traces the causes of an event. An arrow pointing away from a topic indicates that the passage
stresses the effect or results of an event or situation. When, it is also evident that the effects or outcomes of
particular situations become causes of subsequent situations, it is possible to use a circular diagram to chart
the reciprocal nature of the cause-effect relationship.

Comparison- Contrast
This pattern lends itself to a visual representation. The tile indicates the topic of the comparison. It may
indicate whether the comparison focuses on similarities, differences, or both.

Study Frames

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The study frame organizes and summarizes extensive notes on one page. It is used for efficient review of
noted material in preparation for examinations. To design a study frame, you must determine the topic and
categories. To complete the study frame, you must record notes within the appropriate categories. It may
incorporate several organizational patterns. Details are listed within each category; similarities and
differences can be observed among categories; cause and effect relationships can be inferred within and
across categories.

Diagrams
In the natural sciences as well as other courses such as economics and data processing, processes are an
important part of course content. A diagram that describes visually the steps, variables, or parts of a process
will aid learning.

In courses that deal with the use and description of physical objects, labelled drawings are also an important
learning tool. These drawings may be called part, function diagrams.

Writing a Summary

A common requirement given to students in college is writing summaries of articles read from books, journals, and
other related materials. You may have written summaries before; but were they correctly written?

Summarizing is just like fusing the idea in a shorter version without injecting any of your opinions or insights. It is an
accurate restatement of a material presented in a condensed form.

In tertiary level, a lot of written requirements like writing plain summaries, reaction papers, book reviews, film reviews,
etc. are given. In the process of writing your on view or stand on an issue, you basically write the summary of the
article of any original text. When you write a reaction paper, you weave into your summary reactions and evaluation.
You can write a good reaction paper once you basically know how to summarize.

Writing summaries is a fundamental skill that a college student is expected to do well.

A summary is a brief account or composition that states the main ideas of a longer piece of writing. It is expected to be
one third the length of the original text.

A SUMMARY is a brief composition that states the main idea of the longer text.
Prepare your summary according to the following steps:
1. Read the article carefully.
2. Go through the article again, jotting down the main ideas and important details.
3. Omit examples, minor details, and illustrations.
4. Be sure that the order of your ideas is the same as the order of ideas in the original article.
5. Do not add any of your ideas.
6. Put the articles out of sight.
7. Write your summary in your own words referring to the list of ideas you made.

Brief steps to follow in writing a summary

Step 1. Read the article. Skim by browsing over the article, noting ideas in bold type or italics. Then read the entire
article carefully.

Step 2. Go through the Article Again. This time take down the main ideas and important details. Identify the main topic
of each paragraph whether stated or implied. When reading each paragraph, the first and the last sentences usually
contain the topic or summarizing sentences.
• The last paragraph of a good article usually presents the main points contained in the preceding paragraphs.

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• Be sure to note expressions like a major point is, the primary reason is, another effect will be, etc. They
usually signal major ideas.
• As you write down ideas, be sure that they are in the same order as the ones in original article. You are
rewriting an article written by an author who probably has reasons for his organization and style.

Step 3. Write the summary in your own words. Keep the article out of sight. Using the list of ideas and major
points, start writing the summary in your own words.
Do not begin by saying “ The article is about the Law of Conversation of Matter.” Write it as if you were the author
of the original article, “Matter is neither created nor destroyed.”
Check your summary using the checklist below:
• Did you include all the main ideas?
• Did you omit all the examples?
• Are your ideas in the same order as the ideas presented in the original article?
• Did you write the summary in your own words?
• Did you follow the rules governing grammar and mechanic?

WRITING MATERIALS ACCORDING TO RULES, STANDARDS AND FORMATS

Lesson 14

Parts of a Technical Report

1. Title Page.
The page that bears the title of the report, the writer’s name, and the date of the report transmission. The
title may be presented in any of the following styles: one-line, parallel-line (lines of the same length),
pyramid (lines increasing in length), and inverted pyramid (lines decreasing in length).
2. Dedication line.
An offering of the report to an individual or a group of individuals.
3. Acknowledgment Page.
A page that contains words of thanks to those who have helped in the completion of the report.
4. Preface
States the purpose and the scope of the report.
5. Foreword.
Contains words of person other than the writer about the report
6. Abstract
A condensed version of the report.; it is either descriptive (short) or informative (long)
7. Table of Contents
A chronological list of the items contained in the report with corresponding pages.
8. List of Figures
A chronological list of tables, charts, maps, and other graphic aids with corresponding pages.
9. Body/ Report Proper.
Contains the introduction, discussion proper (presentation of data), and conclusion and recommendation
of the report.
10. Appendix.

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A supplementary material added at the end of the report.
11. Glossary.
An alphabetical list of technical terms and their corresponding meaning.
12. Bibliography
An alphabetical list of reference materials (books, magazines, newspapers, journals, etc.) used in the report.
13. Index
An alphabetical list of topics discussed in the report with corresponding pages.

Technical reports are of different types. There are informational reports, analytical reports and persuasive reports.
Because their number is great, technical writing students must learn how to make them. This chapter deals with the
more common technical reports, these include progress report, annual reports, recommendation reports, analytical
reports, feasibility studies, and proposals.

Recommendation Reports
Almost all reports have recommendations. This is because after some findings it is natural for the reporter to
recommend something if a problem is found. But the type of recommendation reports to be discussed here starts from
a stated need, a selection of choices, or both and then recommends one, some, or none. For example, a company
might be looking at grammar checking software and wants a recommendation as to which product is the best. As the
report writer on this project, you could study the market for this type of application and recommend one particular
product, a couple of products (differing perhaps in their strengths and their weaknesses), or none (maybe none of
them are any good). The recommendation report answers the question: “Which option should we choose?,” (or in
some cases “Which are the best options?”) by recommending Product B, or maybe both Products B and C, or none of
the products.
In writing the recommendation report, here are some suggestions:
1. Identify a client with workplace problem, situation, or opportunity.
2. Develop a plan for investigating the situation and the means for resolving it.
3. Establish the criteria required for your client to make an effective decision.
4. Develop and implement a project plan for completing your research (investigation)
5. Interpret and present your findings in a recommendation report to your client.

The usual outline of recommendation reports is the following.

I. Introduction
A. Statement of the need
B. Statement of recommendation
C. Statement of scope and plan of the report
II. Expanded statement, and explanation of the recommendation..
III. Options to be considered
IV. Discussion of each option (comparison of advantage and disadvantage)
V. Summary of conclusions
VI. Restatement of recommendation

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Consider the following example of recommendation report below on the purchase of the safest sport utility vehicle.
The italicized words at the left side are not part of the original script; they are inserted for students to see some parts
of the recommendation reports. The amount listed for the vehicles is converted to peso but the original price was in
dollars.
Recommendation Report on the Purchase of the Safest Sport Utility Vehicle

Introduction, This is a recommendation report for any individual looking to purchase a sport utility
statement of vehicle with safety in mind. More and more people today are drawn to utility vehicles for
recommendation reasons such as durability, roominess, and invulnerability. These vehicles may give the
user a false feeling of security and pose serious danger to other vehicles. Many families
today are trading in their minivans and purchasing sport utilities with the impression they
gave bought a safe vehicle. These families want luxury and safety from their sport utilities.
The purchase of a sport utility vehicle would need to take into consideration the following
Need criteria:

• Overall driving experience

• Vehicle cockpit
• Safety
• Price

The four vehicles that were tested all fell in the price range of P1,500,000 to
P1,800,000. The vehicles were equipped with either all-wheel drive, which can be used at
all times, under any driving condition, or four-wheel drive, which should be used only part
time on loose surfaces such as mud. All of the vehicles were of the highest luxury model
available.
Scope and plan of Comparisons
the report
There are many so-called sport utility vehicles in the market today. Some of these such
as the GMC Jimmy and the Chevrolet Blazer do not fit into the luxury category but are very
good sport utility vehicles. The Land Rover and the Toyota 4Runner are not considered
because they fall out of our price range. The four sport utility vehicles that will be
considered are the Jeep Grand Cherokee, the Mitsubishi Montero Sport, the Ford
Expedition, and the Ford Explorer.

Expanded statement Overall driving experience. The Jeep Grand Cherokee rides more comfortably than most
of the utility vehicles even with a full load. The ride is overall pretty quiet but there but there is an
recommendation occasional gear changing sound from the transmission, the jeep’s handling is sound. The
Mitsubishi Montero Sport rides more like a pickup truck than a luxury sport utility. Bumps in
city driving are pronounced and highway driving is jittery. The interior sound is overall quiet
and the handling is less than graceful. The Ford Expedition, despite its size, is a responsive
vehicle. Sharp turning does not cause the Expedition to do excessive leaning. The ride is
firm and bit jittery, but with a full load it gets better. The Ford Explorer handles soundly. The
body doesn’t lean in turns and when the vehicle turns wide it is easy to recover. The ride is
stiff and when on bumpy roads it is choppy. Overall, the Ford Explorer and the Jeep
Option to be Cherokee performed above average compared to the other vehicles.
considered Vehicle cockpit. In the Jeep Grand Cherokee, the optional power seat helps tall and short
people get comfortable, with a good view of the road. The rear seat offers adequate room
with average comfort. The steering wheel hides some of the instruments for any size user.

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The Mitsubishi Montero Sport cockpit offers an average leg and head room, and the driver
side seat adjustment will fit almost any user. The rear seat is a split bench and in a pinch
can hold three six-footers. The gauges are readable and are within reach. Just about
anyone should feel comfortable in the Ford Expedition’s driver seat. The Expedition comes
with an added seta and steering wheel adjustments. Getting to the back seats of the
Expedition can be somewhat of a task. There are numerous latches one must undo to
arrive at the split bench back seat. The controls are easy to see day or night. The Ford
Explorer is equipped with a six-way power driver’s seat which should help any user get
comfortable. The explorer has a split rear bench seat which will hold three adults. The
gauges on the Explorer are easy to read but at times some switches are hard to reach.
Discussion of each
There is no question here that the Ford Expedition superseded all vehicles on the inside
option
due to its size compared to the other vehicles.
Safety. Safety equipment on the Jeep Grand Cherokee includes dual air bags along with
four three-point safety belts. Each seat has four head restraints that do not lock in their
raised position. The Mitsubishi Montero Sport is equipped with dual air bags and four three-
point safety belts. The four head restraints are high enough even when lowered and they
lock in place. The Ford Expedition comes with dual air bags and three-point seat belts with
adjustable height positions. The head restraints on the Expedition are fixed and are high
enough. The safety equipment on the Ford Explorer includes dual air bags and four three-
point safety belts. The rear three-point belts on the Explorer have an adjustable latch for
child safety seats. The fixed head restraints are adequate. All compare the same in safety
but the Explorer offers the child safety seat option.
Price. The Jeep Grand Cherokee tested price was P1,594,250. The Mitsubishi Montero
Sport tested price was P1,577,700. The Ford Expedition tested price was P1, 723,250 and
the Ford Explorer tested price was P1,576,750. The Expedition is considerably more
expensive than the other three, which are almost of the same price range.

Summary
The following is a summary of the comparison of the Jeep Grand Cherokee, the Mitsubishi
Montero Sport, the Ford Expedition, and the Ford Explorer:
1. All four vehicles fall under the sport utility vehicle category.
2. The Ford Explorer and the Jeep Cherokee outperformed the other two in handling
and maneuvering.
3. The Ford Expedition crushed the other competition when it came to the inside leg
room, head room, and overall instrument layout.
4. The Montero Sport and the Ford Expedition did not handle as well as the other
two but made up for this in the overall comfort of the interior.
5. All three vehicles except the Ford Expedition had equal amounts of comfort for the
driver and the passengers.
6. The Ford Explorer gained an advantage overall with the child safety seat restraint
option.
7. Three out of the four fall within P1,500,000 (of each other) which is the lowest
priced of the tested vehicles. The Ford Expedition is much higher priced than the
other three.
Summary of
conclusion 8. Although the Ford Expedition is superior in terms of comfort and cockpit layout,

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these advantages do not justify its greater cost.
9. Because it meets the requirements stated earlier in this report and because of its
relatively lower price, the Ford Explorer is best choice of the four vehicles
compared.

Table 1. Testing results of the Jeep Grand Cherokee, the Mitsubishi Montero
Sport, the Ford Expedition, and the Ford Explorer

Category Jeep Mitsubishi Ford Ford

Grand Expedition Explorer
Cherokee Montero
Sport

Performance 2 2 2 2
Comfort 2 2 3 2

Ride 2 1 3 3
Noise 3 2 2 3

Controls and 4 4 4 4
display

TOTAL 2.6 2.2 2.8 3.0

Note: 1-Poor, 2-Good, 3-Very Good, 4- Excellent

Recommendations
Based on the testing results previously discussed in this report and the
ratings from Table 1, I recommend the following:
➢ Purchase a Ford Explorer which meets all the minimum safety
requirements along with the added child safety option. The Explorer
performs well in the luxury and the performance test and is reasonably
priced (restatement of recommendation).

Source: Consumer Reports

Restatement of
Recommendation

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Progress Reports
Progress reports are documents about work that technical communications have begun but not yet completed. These
documents provide an accounting of the work that communicators have done and the future work they foresee to be
done. It is written for those who need to keep in touch with what is going on.
Readers may refer to progress reports for evaluative purposes, to aid them in making decisions for division of duties,
or to gather information in order to aid them in managing a project as one of man that most managers juggle
simultaneously (and for which they are ultimately responsible).
The progress report has the additional benefit of providing the wrier(s) of the document with a clear sense of what
they’ve accomplished so far and what yet needs to be completed. The document helps writers to be finished within a
set time frame.
As long as the project is not finished, all the reports about its work is progress report. But once it is finished, it is not
anymore progress report but rather an accomplishment report. There is no definite time as to the frequency of the
submission of the progress report; it may be monthly, quarterly, etc. it depends on the agency or the construction
requiring it.
There is no common format or form of the progress report. It may be in the form of a letter or memo of the report is
brief enough to be written in a few pages. If it is a long report that would need several pages, it must be written
formally with the cover, the title page, letter transmittal, table of contents, list of figures, abstract, headings, quotation
and listings, equations, and conclusion. (These parts of reports will be discussed in the latter part of this section).
Progress report differs from other reports that its introduction relates that present report to a previous one as a
background information which is called transitional introduction. Ts conclusion gives the anticipated words to be
done in the future which is called prophetic conclusion. The body contains the development of the work in detailed
form.
Below is the usual outline of the progress report.
I. Introduction- describes the purpose of the document and the previous work which includes a brief summary
of the document contents.
II. Facts and Discussion: Past work, Future work
a. Accounting of work completed- indicates whether the work is going as planned
b. Accounting of problems encountered with work not completed
c. Plans for handling problem areas
d. Evaluation of progress to date
III. Conclusions/ Recommendations- plans for completing tasks.

Below is an example of a progress report in the form of a letter. The italicized words beside it are not part of the
original script; it is inserted for students to see some parts of the progress report.

July 20, 2007

HealthSouth Rehabilitation Hospital of Austin

PO Box 13366
Austin, TX 78711

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Dr. David McMurrey

Director of Public Relations
United Cerebral Palsy Association of Texas, Inc.
900 Congress Ave.
Austin, TX 78710

Dear Mr. McMurrey:

I am writing to inform you about my progress on the report on Therapeutic Electrical

Purpose of the Stimulation Therapy (TES) for children with cerebral palsy, which ill be handed out at the
document as part of United Cerebral Palsy Program held at the Hilton Hotel. Immediately following are
introduction organization’s 15 June acceptance of my bid to present a seminar and background report
on this topic, I began researching and gathering information in all areas of this project.

After much research, I have gathered detailed information on the background on cerebral
palsy in children and the effects of TES as a treatment for these children. I have made
adjustments to the explanation about how cerebral palsy and TES affect the child
physiologically so that your clients, the parents, can fully understand this difficult topic
easily.

My colleagues at HealthSouth Rehabilitation Hospital have helped me put the project

Previous works together. With their help, I have completed one-third of the project; therefore, I expect to
mentioned have the final report before or on the determined deadline, August 8.

In the following sections of this progress report, I have included a brief project description
on what your clients can expect to receive at the seminar. I discuss the work that has been
completed, the work i am currently involved in, and the work that needs to be finished.
Summary of the Finally, i will give the overall assessment of how the project is going.
document contents
Project Description
Here is a review of the purpose and the scope of this project.

Facts and discussion Purpose

Not many parents who have a child with cerebral palsy know what treatments are
available. Once parents find all this information, they do not know what is best for their chid
and/or do not understand how these treatments improve their children’s physical and social
health, the purpose of this project is to educate parents about TES and its uses for children
with cerebral palsy.

Scope
This technical report will cover the basic background about cerebral palsy and Therapeutic
Electrical Stimulation Therapy. The report will be broken into two major topics: (1) cerebral
palsy and (2) TES therapy; however, each topic is described in detail. Cerebral palsy
section will be discussed in the following four areas:
• Terminology used
• Cause of cerebral palsy
• Forms of cerebral palsy
• Treatments available

TES section however will include four broad areas:

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• Background on Electrical Stimulation therapy
• Uses of TES therapy for children with cerebral palsy
• Studies done with TES therapy for children with cerebral palsy
• Advantages and risks of using TES

Work Completed
As of this time, i have completed most of the research work and an putting the sections of
the final report together. The following is what i have already done on the two major topics
of the technical report.

Cerebral palsy background

This topic describing cerebral palsy is fully written. I have described full detail the impact of
this developmental disorder on children. This section includes the physiological
background of cerebral palsy, the terminology needed to understand cerebral palsy, the
forms of cerebral palsy, and what treatment is available. All of these points will help
parents understand their children’s condition.

Therapeutic Electrical Stimulation Therapy

This topic of the paper has been fully researched. I have finished describing the history of
electrical stimulation therapy which will give background to how TES evolved. So far, I
have detailed information to discuss TES’s uses for children with cerebral palsy, the One 2
One Stimulator, studies done with TES therapy for children with cerebral palsy,
advantages and risk of using TES.

Current Work
Right now, I am mainly involved in the organization of the TES information. Also, I am
currently looking for graphics to illustrate cerebral palsy in a child and the TES effects.

Cerebral Palsy Background.

Since this section of the report is done, I am currently determining with areas of this topic
are lacking information. At this stage, I am asking my colleagues to proofread this topic of
the report for proper grammar, accuracy of the information, and easy comprehension.

Therapeutic Electrical Stimulation Therapy.

For this section of the report, I am in the process of finishing the written portion of the
background on TES, its apparatus, the studies done with TES, and the advantages and
risks of suing TES. Most of my time is devoted in this topic since it is the purpose of the
technical report. I am also putting the finishing touches on the history and physiological
background of electrical stimulation therapy and the differences between functional
Electrical Stimulation therapy and TES therapy.

Future Work
I have planned to ask colleagues to proofread the finished report so that the information in
the report is explained accurately and understandably. I will also do some fine-tuning on
the main part of the report, the effects of TES on children with cerebral palsy.

Cerebral Palsy Background.

I will need to insert my graphics in the text of this section. I plan to use graphic illustrating
Prophetic conclusion the nervous system of the human body so that a terminology used in the report can be fully
understood. I will also make tables about the risks of cerebral palsy, so that parents have a

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reference as to what signs to look for to prevent other complications.

Therapeutic Electrical Stimulation Therapy

In this section of the report, I will include graphics in the text. I plan to put graphics
illustrating the physiological effects of TES on the body, the apparatus, and the tables or
graphics demonstrating studies done on children with cerebral palsy. I am however
concerned that there will be technical terminology that might be confusing to the reader;
therefore, I plan to have non-specialist read this section so I can receive feedback.

Overall Assessment of the Report

The project to give a seminar and technical background report on TES for children with
cerebral palsy is coming along well. I have not come across any obstacles and have found
a great amount of material on this subject.

Enclosed is a full detailed outline of the report as it stands now. If you have any questions
or suggestions about the outline, or if you would like to read the report in its current state,
please let me know. As it stands, the progress of the report is coming together well; thus, I
expect the final report to be turn in before or on the scheduled date.

Sincerely,

Lisa Candales, P.T.

HealthSouth Rehabilitation Hospital

Encl: Outline of the Current Progress of the Report

Annual Report

Annual reports or executive reports are made on a yearly basis to show the performance of a company at the end
of the period. Usually, these reports include a comparison of the company’s present performance with that of the
previous year’s; hence, they are also called annual reports. Annual reports usually contain:
a. The Company Profile
b. Financial Highlight
c. The President’s Report
d. Board of Directors and Officers
e. Auditor’s Report
Proposal
Proposals come under many different guises. They range from casual, one-page memos to multiple-volumes
that are hundreds of pages long. Usually, a proposal is a document written by a person, business, or agency who
wishes to perform a job or solve a problem for another person, business, or agency and receive funding or money for
the proposed task, despite the differences, though, all proposals have one thing in common; they all offer to perform a
particular task or project to solve a technical problem in a particular way, under a specified plan of management, for a
specified compensation.

A proposal is a technical report, which is persuasive in character. The solution offered is discussed in detail,
and supported by designs or plans with alternative plans and designs. Such a proposal is known as technical
proposal. Another kind of proposal comes from the management, which explains the prospective client the way a

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project is to be carried out, the person or persons who will direct it, and the time schedule for the different phases of
project. Such a proposal is called management proposal.
Proposals may be simple or complex. They may originate from an individual, who sees a need for change in
the present system. Proposals may advocate an alternative for the management of society or of the economy.
Therefore, the degree of formality of a proposal is in direct proportion to the situation that gives rise to it. If the
proposal is just within the organization ( a business, a government agency, etc), it may not include some of the
sections of it like qualification, etc. But if it is external, a proposal written for other company or agency, it must be
complete.
When writing a proposal, you must be very careful to write as formal and complete a proposal as the situation
calls for. Proposals differ from most other business and technical writing in one important way- they deal with the
future. It must convince the reader that there is a situation or problem and that the proposal writer is the best person to
solve the problem or repair the situation. A final issue that proposal must face is the idea that, more often than not,
proposals are legally binding offers.
Proposals are commonly referred to as solicited (invited) or unsolicited (uninvited). The former are submitted
in response to an invitation to bid by big companies or the government agencies. When the government agency
makes an invitation to bid, it means that the agency is giving exact specifications for project or service it is seeking.
Unsolicited proposals are prepared by a company in the hope that the excellence of the idea or plan they are
proposing will persuade the potential client of the need for the service or product being proposed. Sometimes, the
unsolicited proposal is precede by an informal proposal results in what is often called a “”sole-source” procurement.
Such noncompetitive proposals are commonly restricted to those rare circumstances in which it is believed the
proposing organization possesses a unique capability.
How can a proposal be made effective? According to John A. Walter of the University of Texas, a good
proposal consists of the following stages: preliminary study, drafting a plan or outline; writing a rough draft; planning
illustrations and lay-out; and review and revision.
Proposals have the following characteristics:
➢ Proposals deal with the future.
➢ Proposals must convince the reader that there is a problem and the writer can do something about it.
➢ Proposals must convince the reader that the writer is best person to fix the problem.
➢ Proposals vary in length and formality.
➢ Proposals are often legally binding offers.
You can improve your proposal by carefully answering the following questions:
➢ What do I propose to do?
➢ Can I do it?
➢ How do I propose to do it?
➢ Is this possible or feasible?
➢ What evidence can I introduce to demonstrate that what I propose to do will actually get the desired results?
➢ What evidence can I use to convince my reader that my way is the best way to obtain the desired results?
➢ How can I show my ability to do what I propose to do?
➢ How much will it cost me to do the task?
➢ How much shall I charge to perform the task?
➢ What evidence must I show to convince the reader that this cost is acceptable?
➢ Is my time schedule appropriate?
➢ What evidence must I include to convince the reader that the time schedule is satisfactory?
There is no fix format or form of the proposal but most of them have the following parts.

1. Introduction. Indicate the purpose and contents of the proposal. Mention prior contact with the recipient, or
how you found out about the project. Give an overview of the contents of the proposal.
2. Background. Discuss the background of the project—the problem or opportunity that has brought about this
proposal.

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3. Proposal. State what you propose to do about the problem, how you plan to help the readers take
advantage of the opportunity, how you intend to help them with the situation.
4. Benefits. Discuss the benefits of doing the proposed project, the advantages that come from approving it.
5. Procedure. Describe exactly what the completed project would consist of, what it would look like, how it
would work- describe the results of the project.
6. Results. Discuss or describe what the finished product will look like, how it will work (in the case of the report
project, describe the report in terms of page count, graphics, audience, contents, etc.)
7. Feasibility. Either here or in the benefits section discuss the likelihood of the full benefits of the projects-
particularly if it’s a business venture.
8. Schedule. Provide a schedule, including major milestones or checkpoints in the project.
9. Qualifications. Briefly list your qualifications for the project; provide a mini-resume of the background you
have that makes you right for the project.
10. Costs and Fees. List the costs of the project, the resources you’ll need to do the project.
11. Conclusion. Create a closing for the proposal, in which you urge the reader to contact you, possibly review
the benefits of doing the project and having your organization do the work.

Consider the following example of proposal. In this proposal, the writer is bidding on a contact to develop a user
guide for an Army rifle. This is a fairly common situation: a manufacturer does not have publication staff on hand to
write the manuals for its new and updated products. The manufacturer sends out a request for proposals (RFP) to its
customary vendors, receives proposals, and selects the best one.
The first part is the cover letter. This cover letter refers to previous contact with the potential client, the purpose of
the attached document, and an overview of its contents. This proposal uses the report format, which means it’s
separate document with headings and all the other elements of formal report. Notice that the introduction to the
proposal repeats some of the content in the cover letter. That’s because the cover letter could be detached from the
proposal as it is circulated around the potential client’s organization.
The italicized words are not included in the original script. It is written there for the students to see how the
proposal is organized.

Technical Writers Inc.

1234 Center Lane, Suite 301
Austin, TX 78758

Febrary 28, 2010

John Jackson, Marketing V.P.

Colt Manufacturing
456 Altimont Road
Vicksburg, TN 66780

SUBJ: Proposal to Write the Operation and Maintenance Handbook for Purchasers of the M-16A2 Rifle.

Dear Mr. Jackson:

The following proposal outlines the details discussed in our prior conversation on the proposal. It also gives
information deadlines, our bid, the graphics, and a tentative outline of the handbook. This report also includes our
sources for information on the rifle. Thank you for your time and you may contact me during business hours at the
following number: 512-259-3930.

Sincerely,

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Elena Stokes, Vice President
Technical Writers, Inc.
Attached: proposal
Introduction
Background
Proposals, benefits,
procedure, and result
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PROPOSAL: HANDBOOK FOR THE M-16A2 RIFLE
The following is a proposal to develop a handbook that will cover the operation and
maintenance of the M-16A2 rifle. This proposal contains information on the contents
of the proposed manual, the audience level we are assuming, our schedule to
complete this project, our costs and charges, and our qualifications to produce a high-
quality finished handbook.
Audience and Purpose
The handbook will be written primarily to purchasers but may also be used by
gunsmiths, gun enthusiast, the military, gun clubs, and anyone else wishing to train
people in operation and maintenance of this rifle. No technical knowledge about
firearms on the reader’s part will be assumed. It will assume that readers have never
used any firearm previously. Also, we will develop the handbook at the standard 8th-
grade reading level.
Description of the Handbook
This handbook should enable any person with a high school diploma to operate and
perform preventive maintenance on the M-16A2. This handbook will contain graphics;
technical background; firing techniques; and information on how to clean,
disassemble, and reassemble the rifle. We project the length of the handbook to be 98
pages in standard8-inch by 5-inch format.
Graphics. The graphics used in this report will consist of tables, drawings, and
pictures. The tables will show the reader technical characteristics such as bullet size,
chamber pressure, muzzle velocity, types of ammunition, and information on the
sighting of the weapon for different distances such as 200 m, 300 m, and 500 m. Also,
many pictures or drawings will be used to illustrate the various stages of disassembly,
and cleaning of the rifle.
Technical Background. The handbook will give technical background on the rifle in
the form of all the information involving the firing of the weapon, such as muzzle
velocity, maximum effective range and different size target and other technical
information that is of value to an owner, operator, or collector. This handbook will have
information on how to clean and do preventive maintenance on the weapon but will
not contain any information on major maintenance such as bent barrels, bent sights,
and worn-out firing pins. For all major repairs, the owner will be directed to take the
rifle to an authorized dealer.
Handbook outline. The instruction in the handbook will focus mainly on disassembly,
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reassembly, and cleaning instructions. These instructions will be in detail so as to give
first time gun buyer enough instructions to clean the rifle properly. Following is a
working outline describing how the handbook will be produced and laid out. This
outline will include enough detail to explain the major sections and any minor sections
that may not be obvious.

I. Introduction: will contain information on the history of the rifle and its
manufacturer. It also will have illustrations of rife parts.
A. Technical characteristics: will contain information on the technical
characteristics of the rifle and this information will be backed up with
charts.
B. Ammunition: will contain information on different types of
ammunition that can be used with this weapon and their technical
characteristics.
II. Operation
A. Loading: procedure to load the weapon and safety warnings will be
included.
B. Firing. Will include what to do in case of a misfire or jamming.
Safety warning and how to adjust sights will also be included.
III. Maintenance.
A. Cleaning the weapon. Will include disassembly and assembly.
1. Disassembly
2. Cleaning
3. Assembly
IV. Proper Storage: how to store rifle for long periods
V. Repairs and Warranty: where to get rifle repaired whether or not warranty is
in effect.

Qualifications Qualifications
Technical Writers, Inc. (TWI) qualifications for this handbook are as follows:
• The corporation has eighty years combined experience among six partners.
• TWI has won ten other contracts for weapons handbooks from Colt
Manufacturing.
• Experienced typesetters and artists who can do drawings and charts.
• Five of six partners are experienced with this weapon through military
experience.
Detailed resumes of our staff are available upon request.
Cost and Fees
Cost
We calculate the cost to develop this 98-page manual assuming 4 hours of writing
time per page at P50.00 per hour. Editing, graphics, and supervision we calculate at 1
hour per 10 pages at P25.00 per hour:

Writing (4 hrs/pg @ P50.00/hr) 18,800

Editing, graphics, supervision ( 245

TOTAL P19,045

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Our company will write, edit, and correct any errors found in the initial draft or in later
drafts. This includes correcting technical errors or improving comprehension as
requested by your technical staff and developers.

Information Sources
The bibliography will consist of many military pamphlets. The partners of our
corporation have written to friends, who are still in the military, for the latest
information and pamphlets. Following are some books we have found to use for
research:

1. Ezell, Edward Clinton. The Great Rifle Controversy. Harrisburg: Halsted

Press, 2004.
2. Ezell, Edward Clinton. Small Arms Today. Harrisburg: Halsted Press, 2004.
3. Ferber, Steve, ed. All About Rifle Hunting and Shooting in America. New
York: Winchester Press, 2007.
4. O’Neill, Richard, ed. An Illustrated Guide to US Army. New York: Arco, 2004.

More books will be obtained for this research.

Project Checkpoint Dates

Schedule The time schedule for this project will be as follows:

March 5 Proposal returned, begin work.

March 12 Outline section on Introduction completed. Sent to Mr. Jackson for
review.
March 19 Outline section on Operation completed. Sent to Mr. Jackson for
review. Correct problems in Introduction section.
March 26 Outline section on Maintenance completed. Sent to Mr. Jackson for
review. Correct problems in other sections.
April 9 Completed copy sent to Mr. Jackson
April 12 Meeting with Mr. Jackson to review possible corrections.
April 16 Meeting with Mr. Jackson for final review.
April 23 First order sent to Mr. Jackson.

These dates are not set, but are tentative around Mr. Cook’s and Mr. Jackson’s
schedules.

Sample Proposal 2: Proposal to Organize a Barangay Cooperative

April 15, 2011

To the Barangay Council

Canlubang, Calamba City
Laguna

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Subject: Putting Up a Barangay Cooperative
A cooperative is an organization of men and women in a community with the primary objective of pooling and sharing
their resources to meet a common need. Cooperatives have uplifted the financial standing of individuals and
communities and fostered cooperation and unity. The operation of loan sharks has been eliminated and individual
savings are encouraged. In the country today, many cooperatives that started with a few thousand pesos chipped in
by a few members have grown to multimillion cooperatives.

Proposal
Our barangay needs a cooperative to lift our people from poverty, and to enable them to have a small capital for
some economic venture without resorting to borrowing from loan sharks. I have invited a group of students to conduct
a survey. Of the 500 households included in the survey, 90% agreed to the establishment of a multi-purpose
cooperative. Fifty men and women have agreed to be incorporators and to subscribe to at least P1,000.00 each as
share capital. The following steps have to be taken to start the cooperative:

Requirements for Registration

A two-day pre-membership seminar will be held, to be attended by the incorporators.

The Articles of Cooperation and By-Laws have to be drawn up by the incorporators.

The incorporators will elect 11 Board of Directors who will elect from among themselves a chairman, a vice-chairman,
and a secretary. A treasurer will be appointed outside the Board.

How to Register the Cooperative

In order to acquire a legal personality, the cooperative has to be registered with the National Capital Region of the
Cooperative Development Authority. Four copies (original) of each of the following wil be submitted:

1. Economic survey;
2. Articles of Incorporation and By-Laws duly notarized;
3. Fidelity bonds of the Treasurer and the Manager; and
4. Sworn statement of the Treasurer duly notarized showing that 25% of the authorized share capital has been
subscribed and at least 25% of the total subscription has been paid.

Operation of the Cooperative

Within 90 days upon receipt of the Certificates of Registration, Cooperatives are mandated to call a Special General
Assembly meeting to prepare a Development Plan and formulate Policies on Membership, Loan, Capital Build-up,
Depository Banks, etc. Two incorporators who have had experience in cooperativism will serve as guide.

Barangay Endorsement
The organizers of this project believe that when established, the cooperative can contribute to productive endeavours
in the community, help eradicate poverty, and foster values that will enhance self-reliance, initiative, cooperation, and
unity.

The endorsement of this proposal by the Barangay Council will be the first step towards the realization of this project.

(Sgd.) Eric Q. Manaig

Proponent

Feasibility Study

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A feasibility study, also known as feasibility analysis, is a preliminary study undertaken to determine and
document a project’s viability. It comes from the word feasible which means “capable of being accomplished;
practicable; or likely.” The term feasibility study is also used to refer to the resulting document. The results of this
study are used to make a decision, whether or not to proceed with the project. If it indeed leads to a project being
approved, it will--- before the real work of the proposed project starts--- be used to ascertain the likelihood of the
project’s success. It is an analysis of possible alternative solutions to a problem and a recommendation on the best
alternative. It, for example, can decide whether an order processing be carried out by a new system more efficiently
than the previous one.

In business, a feasibility study is an important part of creating a business plan for a new enterprise, since it has
been estimated that only one idea in fifty is commercially viable. If a project is seen to be feasible from the results of
the study, the next logical step is to proceed with it. The research and information uncovered in the feasibility study will
support the detailed planning and reduce the research time,
A feasibility study may involve these steps:
• Stating the purpose and scope of the study
• Gathering and checking information
• Analyzing data
• Reaching conclusions
• Arriving at a decision or recommendation

Like the other reports, recommendation, progress and proposal, feasibility study has no universal format for
all. This depends on the writer, company or agency producing it. They may include some of the following parts:
• Letter of Transmittal
• Title page • Discussion
• Abstract • Factual or summary
• Table of Contents • Conclusions
• List of Illustrations • Recommendations
• Glossary of Terms • References
• Introduction • Appendixes

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DOCUMENTING SOURCES
Lesson 15
Documenting Sources
Documenting means showing where you got source information that's not your own. Remember, a research
paper blends your ideas with ideas and information from other sources.

Documentation shows the reader what ideas are yours and what information and ideas you've taken from a
source to support your point of view.
Importance of documentation
▪ By correctly documenting, you establish your credibility as a writer and researcher.
▪ When you don't document correctly, your academic integrity can be called into question, because it may
seem as though you're passing off others' ideas as your own.
▪ If you don't document, you could inadvertently plagiarize, which is grounds for dismissal from college.

Academic Integrity

Academic integrity involves not only acknowledging your sources, but also creating your own ideas. Academic
integrity, explained in this way, sounds relatively simple. But the particular applications are a bit more tricky. The
most common academic integrity problems that most students encounter are:

1. relying too heavily on others' information in a research paper

2. relying too heavily on others' words in a paraphrase or summary
3. citing and documenting sources incorrectly
4. relying too heavily on help from other sources

What to Document

The basic rule for documentation is: Document any specific ideas, opinions, and facts that are not your own. The only
thing you don't have to document is common knowledge.

If you find yourself needing to document almost every sentence, then it means you have not thought enough about
your topic to develop your own ideas. A paper should not be just a collection of others' ideas and facts. Sources
should only support or substantiate your ideas.

You must identify your sources in two places in your research paper:

▪ at the end
▪ in your paper as you use direct quotations or paraphrases and summaries of ideas and information from the
sources you've researched

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Citing at the end of the paper: Put your notecards with the source information on them in alphabetical order
according to the authors' last names, then follow the correct format for providing the essential source information.

Documenting your sources within the text of your paper: Most current research papers insert the basic source
information inside parentheses within the text of the paper either at the end of the sentence, or group of sentences,
that contain the source's information.

Plagiarism

According to the "American Heritage Dictionary," plagiarism means "to steal and use [the ideas and writings of
another] as one's own. To appropriate passages or ideas from [another] and use them as one's own."

Plagiarism is a serious offense within the academic community. You plagiarize whether you intend to or not when you
don't credit others' ideas within/at the end of your paper. Even though you may have rewritten ideas and information
using your own words in a paraphrase or summary, the ideas and information are not yours. You must cite your
source.

EDITING TEXT
Lesson 16

Editing refers to structural changes (the big stuff) and rewriting sections of the manuscript, article, or blog
post.

Editing also focuses on changes at the chapter, section, and sentence level. Examining and correcting content,
organization, style, and logic as well as grammar, spelling, punctuation, and more are all part of the editing process.

Proofreading, on the other hand, is about little stuff that’s hard to see.
Proofing does not include changes beyond spelling errors or typos, minor punctuation errors that don’t require text
changes, spacing, format, numbering, or stylistic matters such as italics and underlining.
Set aside separate time blocks for the editing and proofreading stages to maintain focus.
You should allow time in between writing and editing. A few hours is good. A few days is even better.
Thorough editing should be done before proofreading (even though they do overlap a little). You shouldn’t do any
rewriting or rewording during the proofreading stage. If you do, you’re still editing, and you risk losing your focus and
introducing mistakes.
Make sure your writing contains the basic elements of a “five-point essay” even if you don’t use an outline to
write or hate outlines.
This means an introduction with your main point, three supporting points (this can vary widely from one main point
with multiple subpoints to 50 or more items in a list), and a conclusion or summary. Almost any type of writing follows
this basic structure, though it varies.
Consider additional elements that might expand the five-point outline and check that they’re in logical order.

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Variations include an opposing opinion and evidence against it, comparisons to other ideas that support yours, and
background information to support your opinion or advice. Your main point might even be revealed as a surprise at the
end rather than at the beginning.
A novel or short story generally includes similar points: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and
dénouement.
Check that the subsections of an outline are clear and orderly.
If you present examples A, B, and C to support Point 1, be sure Point 2 also has several examples. If you’re offering
solutions to problem X, don’t go off on a rant about related problem Y if you’re not going to develop it.
Remember, if you introduce a gun at the beginning of your article or story, make sure it goes off—or doesn’t and why.
In other words, follow up with any big concept mentioned early on and give it weight that’s approximately equal to
similar concepts.
Be certain your supporting points clearly reflect and support the main objective.
It’s easy to go off topic even in lists. If your blog post is called 20 ways to keep love alive, don’t include a tip on how to
find your true love or how to survive a breakup. Save it for another list.
If your subject is personal and emotional, you might find it very difficult to stay on topic. Consider avoiding the subject
until you have some emotional distance.
Examine your supporting points to make sure they’re accurate and convincing.
Make sure you know your topic inside and out. Do research, and check facts. Be aware of cultural myths, stereotypes,
and urban legends that are often passed along as “fact.” For example, popular arguments against monogamy claim
that wild animals aren’t monogamous when, in fact, some are.
Ask who, what, when, where, why, and how and make sure each is answered if applicable.
What questions would a reader need answered in an article about pruning roses? Who might mean the type or age of
rose bush. Did you explain when this is best done (time of year)? What branches should the reader trim
and why? What tool should he use? Where should he cut them? How should he cut them (at an angle or straight
across)? How should he protect himself from the thorny branches?
Use transitional devices between sections and ideas.
These are words or groups of words that guide the reader smoothly from one idea to the next. In this case, as in the
previous example, however, furthermore, even though, and finally are some examples. And and but are often used as
well as on top of that, plus, don’t forget, and on the other hand.
Cut the fluff.
Slash prepositional phrases (CEO of the company becomes company CEO) and minimize adverbs, adjectives, and
other modifiers. Use strong verbs (sprinted instead of ran fast) and precise nouns (cottage instead of small house) to
avoid lengthy descriptions and create sharper, more focused writing.

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Remove off-topic items.

This includes opinions that don’t add value to the main point, sidetracks, rants, why I haven’t posted on my blog for
three months, references to the article or blog post itself (this is short, but…), and unnecessary statements like in my
opinion (anything you write is your opinion).
Slash everything in each paragraph and sentence that’s not strictly needed.
Less is more, as the saying goes. You’re better off writing a tight, 500-word blog post than rambling on for 1,000
words with every thought that comes to mind. Refer to tips No. 4, No. 5, and No. 6 about outlines.
Set a word count limit and stick to it.
Then cut it all down by 10–20percent or more. Forcing yourself to stay within set boundaries helps to keep your focus.
Plus, reducing word count means you’ll work harder to remove verbiage that detracts.
Check for parallelism in lists.
Use all nouns (flowers, tables, vases) or all verbs (arrange flowers, position tables, polish vases) to start each item in
a list. Other parts of speech are fine too, such as infinitives (to plus verb: to arrange the flowers you should…) but be
consistent.
Perform the steps in a process to make sure you’ve included them all.
Make sure all questions that apply are answered clearly, at every step. This applies, in particular, to “how to” articles
and blog posts. If you don’t make things very clear, and if you’re not thorough, readers will get frustrated.
Ask someone not familiar with the process to perform the steps exactly as described, evaluate the process, and check
the result.
Check all facts.
Names, places, dates, numbers, mathematical computations, names of companies, titles, authors of books or articles,
and all factual information should be checked for accuracy.
Keep in mind that a lot of incorrect or misleading information goes around, especially on the Internet, so be careful
with what you think is fact and what you’re presenting as fact.
Check quotations for accuracy and give appropriate attribution with quotes or italics.
Lists of quotations are popular and plentiful, but they’re not always accurate with the quote itself or the author. Don’t
assume what you read is always 100 percent true.
In addition, don’t plagiarize by changing a few words around in someone else’s writing. If it’s not common knowledge
found in numerous publications (Queen Elizabeth was born in 1926, for example), provide a name and a source.
(Follow guidelines in a style manual; see tip No. 25.)
Don’t trust grammar or spell check in your word processing application.
That includes online grammar checkers, too, unless they’re human. A word processing spell checker can be useful to
clean up the worst of typos and mistakes, but it will never catch homonyms (for example, they’re, their, and there) and
misspelled words that are, in fact, words: donut truss spiel chick will get through just fine.
Take breaks.

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Staying alert is important during the editing process. Go for a walk. Stretch. Rotate wrists and shoulders. Briefly do
something different (but mindless) if you’re losing focus, you start daydreaming, or you start checking Facebook and
Twitter. Get active for a few minutes every 30–40 minutes or so.
Edit for one type of issue at a time. For example:
Check for an outline framework
Slash irrelevant content or add missing elements
Review paragraphs and divide by topic, if necessary
Check for transitions between sections and paragraphs
Combine similar paragraphs/sentences and delete anything repetitive
Examine sentences for grammar and punctuation

Check for rhythm and flow

Take notes when you notice issues other than the type you’re working on.
Rather than break your focus on transitions, for example, make a note to return to some other problem you noticed
along the way.

Use the “Track Changes” feature in your word processing application for comments. Highlight, bold, or change
the color of a word or sentence so you remember to go back to it. Circle or underline if you’re working with a printed
page. Then just keep going with what you were originally working on.
Check for gender, racial, national, sexual orientation, and other bias.
Bias and stereotypes might also concern age, hair color, weight, income, life situation, and anything that assumes
personality characteristics or qualities based on outward appearance and other factors. What you assume or believe
is true (even if you just haven’t thought about it) may be offensive to others.
This can be subtle. For example, don’t describe someone or something as “cute” or “adorable” unless you’re talking
about a puppy or a baby, a toddler’s scribbles, or baby booties someone knitted. Don’t say someone is “surprisingly
smart” or “unusually emotional” if that group is generally looked down upon as less-than-intelligent or unemotional.
Check for rhythm.
Read out loud. Does it flow smoothly? If you hesitate and stumble, the section may need reworking. Check
subject/verb agreement, try varying sentence lengths, reword awkward phrases or sentences, or eliminate too many
“little words” like to, of, it, at, in, on, off, for, and or by condensing a long description.
Use a reputable style manual consistently.
A respected, authoritative style guide or manual provides a set of standards for writers and publishers. It’s like a
dictionary for grammar, style, and formatting, and it’s all you really need. The Chicago Manual of Style, the New
Oxford Style Manual, and the AP Stylebook are all good choices, but it’s best to stick with just one. Online style
manual subscriptions are great—your best friend next to Google.
Streamlining the process
Many experienced writers edit as they go along, but they still go over their writing once again when it’s finished and
before a final proofreading. Plus, some editing steps can be eliminated just by developing good writing habits.
If you’re just starting out, though, or if you want to improve your writing, keep the steps separate. It really helps to
focus on one thing at a time and do each task well.

Common Proofreading Symbols

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Symbol Meaning Example

insert a comma

apostrophe or single
quotation mark

insert something

use double quotation marks

use a period here

Delete

transpose elements

close up this space

a space needed here

begin new paragraph

no paragraph

Common Proofreading Abbreviations

(The abbreviation would appear in the margin,

probably with a line or arrow pointing to the offending element.)

Abbreviation Meaning Example

Ab a faulty abbreviation She had earned a Phd along with her M.D.

Agr agreement problem:

The piano as well as the guitar need tuning.
See also P/A and subject/verb or
The student lost their book.
S/V pronoun/antecedent

awkward expression The storm had the effect of causing

Awk
or construction millions of dollars in damage.

Cap faulty capitalization We spent the Fall in Southern spain.

Raoul tried his best, this time that

CS comma splice
wasn't good enough

English Language Proficiency 2| Module 1 Aklan Catholic College HED

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Due to the fact that we were wondering

DICT faulty diction
as to whether it would rain, we stayed home.

Working harder than ever, this job

Dgl dangling construction
proved to be too much for him to handle.

problem with
- ed Last summer he walk all the way to Birmingham.
final –ed

Depending on the amount of snow we get this

Frag Fragment
winter and whether the towns buy new trucks.

|| problem in parallel form My income is bigger than my wife.

pronoun/antecedent A student in accounting would be wise to see

P/A
agreement their advisor this month.

My aunt and my mother have wrecked her car

The committee has lost their chance to change
Pron problem with pronoun
things.
You'll have to do this on one's own time.

Rep unnecessary repetition The car was blue in color.

Raoul tried his best this time

R-O run-on sentence
that wasn't good enough.

Sp spelling error This sentence is flaude with two mispellings.

-s problem with final –s He wonder what these teacher think of him.

The proofreader uses this Latin term to indicate

that proofreading marks calling for a change
STET Let it stand
should be ignored and the text as originally
written should be "let stand."

S/V subject/verb agreement The problem with these cities are leadership.

T verb tense problem He comes into the room, and he pulled his gun.

Seldom have we perused a document so

verbose,
Wdy Wordy
so ostentatious in phrasing, so burdened with
too many words.

What affect did the movie have on Sheila?

WW wrong word
She tried to hard to analyze its conclusion.

English Language Proficiency 2| Module 1 Aklan Catholic College HED