Rotating Machinery Engineering

Rotating Machinery Engineering
Code OGS-ZTP-ME-TRM-0001
MAIN TOPICS
 INTRODUCTION
 PUMPS – ROTATING
 PUMPS – RECIPROCATING
 COMPRESSORS – RADIAL FLOW
 COMPRESSORS – AXIAL FLOW
 COMPRESSORS – RECIPROCATING
• Vacuum pumps
 TURBINES – GAS
 Condition Monitoring
 CONCLUSIONS
2
INTRODUCTION: COURSE OBJECTIVE 1
This training module is intended to provide a full understanding of rotating and
reciprocating machinery involved in a Oil & Gas Plant
The objectives of this course is to gain a more comprehensive knowledge of plant

machinery and single machine design.
3
Trainees should understand:
 Differences between Engine Machinery.
 Differences between Reciprocating and Rotating Machinery.
 Installation pre-commissioning and commissioning .
 Types, architecture, design and operating conditions Rotating and Reciprocating

Pumps.
 Rotating and Reciprocating Compressors.
 Gas Turbines.
 Ref. standard and Check list for each equipment
4
 When to choose a reciprocating pump instead of a rotating one.
 When to chose a reciprocating compressor instead of a rotating one.
 When to use a steam/gas turbine as an expander.
 Machinery Efficiency
 Machinery Control Systems
 Machinery Lubrication System
5
Definitions (1)
Machine: a system of moving organs, which interact each other to produce a useful effect.
Fluid Machines
Engines Mills
Reciprocating Rotating
6
Definitions (2)
Relating to machinery in general we can define following parameters:
Useful Effect
Efficiency
Specific Consumption
Boundary Conditions
Ambient Conditions
Power
Load
7
Main Criteria of Design (1)
To select the best machine according to process requirements it is essential to define:
• Useful Effect • Kind of Energy Drop
• Load • Operating Costs.
• Product Composition • Initial Investment.
• Boundary Conditions • Necessary Maintenance.
• Ambient Conditions • Materials
• Draw Power/Provided Power • Auxiliaries
• Efficiency
8
Main Criteria of Design (2)
When we select a machine normally we refer these parameters in shape that permit us to
compare the solutions of those ones proposed by the market.
It is a consuetude to define machine characteristic through criteria of similitude, where

parameters are normalised in reference to:
• “normalised flow rate”,
• “normalised diameter”,
• “normalised rpm”
• ... and so on.
9
Operating Conditions
Machinery are able to produce a useful effect whose magnitude is closely related to:
• Boundary conditions;
• Availability;
• Efficiency.
Design Point is the operating condition, at ISO reference (T = 288.15 K, p=101,325 kPa, 50%
humidity, New & Clean), at which the machine can reach the designed magnitude of useful
effect prescribed by the constructor.
To identify the operating point at different ambient condition, the constructor provides
Performances Maps, that indicate the efficiency and the workload of machine at various
conditions.
10
Pumps Overview (1)
PUMPS :  Win losses

 Reach a specific process point of
pressure
PUMPS TYPES :  Rotating

 Reciprocating
 Rotary
 Volumetric Flow
PUMPS CHOICE
CRITERIA :  Geodetic Drop
 Machine Efficiency/Draw Power
 Cost
11
Pumps Overview (2)
Type Volumetric Flow Geodetic Drop
Reciprocating  
Rotating  
Reciprocating pumps are less efficient Reciprocating pumps are less

than rotating ones. expensive.
12
Pumps Overview (3)
System-Pump
Coupling
Starting from Total Losses

dH and desired Volumetric
Flow Rate Q we define
operating RPM
13
Start
Yes
Pumps shall be API 610 See B.4.2.3
Pumped fluid Hydrocarbon ?
No Yes
Pumped T° sup 150° C ?
No
Yes
Discharge Pressure sup 16 barg ?
No Yes
Suction Pressure sup 5 barg ?
No
Yes
Rotation Speed sup 3000 rpm ?
No
Pumps could be ISO 5199 or Yes

ANSI B73see B4.2.4
14
ACTIVITY - Pumps
Series or Parallel Configuration?
15
Compressors Overview (1)
 to win losses
COMPRESSORS:  to reach a specific process point of
pressure
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Type Mass Flow Pressure Drop
Reciprocating  
Rotating  
17
Can compressors be installed in series and

parallel configurations?
With which purpose?
Radial Flow Compressor Characteristics
18
Turbines Overview (1)
Turbines: use a drop of available pressure to develop mechanical work on
the annexed shaft.
Turbine
Types
Hydraulic Gas/Steam
Kaplan Pelton Francis
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 Mass Flow Rate

CRITERIA OF CHOICE:
 Pressure Drop Available
 Machine Efficiency/Draw
Power
 Cost
20
Type Mass Flow Drop of Pressure

Radial Flow Turbines  
Axial flow Turbines  
 Steam turbine profiles are designed to sustain temperature lower than 1000°C
 Gas turbine profiles can sustain temperature of 1400 °C.
The choice depends on the overall efficiency and moreover on the sustainable conditions of the
machine.
21
ACTIVITY – Contents Review
22
Safety requirement during Mechanical work activities
Site inspection
Issuing the work procedure
Risk assessment to Identify the associated hazards and existing controls and additional required
controls including Simultaneous Operations (SIMOPS) Hazards and Emergency Procedure in cases
of spill leakage, fire, explosion
evolved personnel competency
To issue mechanical or electrical certificate if required
Lifting plane has been done by Authorized lifting supervisor.
Work Permit and associated Certificates when the work specified has been completed and the
work site is in a safe condition.
To ensure that the conditions and precautions specified on a Work Permit are understood and
are strictly adhered to by those carrying out the job covered by a Work Permit.
TBT – Tool Box Talk, is conducted to communicate the procedure steps, risk assessments sections
and to ensure that the conditions and precautions specified on a
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) are understood and are strictly adhered to by those carrying
out the job covered
Ensure that the work environment is monitored on continues basis and ensure no deviation from
the approved work scope covered by the permit
To ensure plant and equipment is handed back to operations in a safe condition.
23
PUMPS
PUMPS
24
Pumps
Pumps
Rotating pumps: Reciprocating pumps:
 develop fluid at constant mass flow  develop fluid at finite volumes as well as
rotary pumps
 use profile to give the drop of pressure
 use gears to give the drop of pressure
25
Pump Drive Selection
 The driver selection for process pumps is normally made between the two following types:
Electric motor induction type
Steam turbine back-pressure type
26
Pump drive selection: Electric
Motor Induction Type(1)
This motor is favoured because of its low installation cost and low maintenance.
Electric motors can be installed for the main and spare pumps even in critical services in the
following cases:
 When electric power is supplied to the plant from two external, independent sources and
the electric system is designed in order to have an automatic shifting from one source to the
other.
 When the spare pump is fed from a preferential electrical supply line and it has automatic
starting.
27
Pump drive selection: Electric Motor
Induction Type (2)
The electric motor driven pumps in the process units are classified as follows:
 Vital loads: pump services to keep the unit in operation

without equipment damage and without safety valves
blowing, but not necessary the product on specifications.
 Semi-vital loads: Additional pump services to keep unit

products on specification.
 No vital loads: Normal restart is sufficient without

adverse effect on unit or product specifications.
28
Pump drive selection: Electric Motor
Induction Type (3)
The electric motors of the majority of the pump are included in the following categories:
 Explosion proof motors: they are used in areas where

hazardous concentration of flammable vapours can be reached
during normal plant operation.
 Weather proof motors without sparking contacts: they are

used in areas where the hazardous concentration of flammable
vapour can be reached only accidentally and the risk of danger
is limited.
29
Pump drive selection: Steam Turbine
Steam turbines are used as pump drivers for the following reasons:
 vital service of pump is a plant where the electric system

is not reliable
 steam balance of the plant.
The steam turbines used for pump drivers are generally back-pressure type because condensation
is usually not justified for the limited power involved.
30
ROTATING PUMPS
PUMPS - ROTATING
31
Pump Classification type identification and API 610
for Centrifugal pumps
This International Standard specifies requirements for centrifugal pumps, including pumps
running in reverse as
hydraulic power recovery turbines, for use in petroleum, petrochemical, and gas industry process
services. It does
not cover seal less pumps. This International Standard is applicable to overhung pumps,
between-bearings pumps,
and vertically-suspended pumps (see Table 1). Clause 8 applies to specific types of pumps. All
other clauses of
32
Rotating Pumps 1
API 610 standard for Centrifugal pumps for petroleum,
petrochemical and natural gas industries
• KINETIC PUMPS
• POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT PUMPS.
Kinetic pumps are divided into:
 Centrifugal Pumps (which in turn can be radial

flow, axial flow or mixed flow)
 Regenerative Pumps (turbine).
33
Rotating Pumps 2
Fields of application of the various types of pumps
34
Rotating Pumps 3
35
Rotating Pumps – Machinery
Description 1
Pumping vanes are also sometimes used on the back of an impeller to

reduce thrust load and the pressure acting on the seal chamber
36
Description 2
Vertical single stage :
 has a vertically mounted rotor
 has a casing designed to be bolted directly into the piping like a valve
 has a single overhung impeller
 has a single bearing housing with an option for water cooling
 The pressure casing is radially split
37
Description 3
Vertical Single Stage

Overhung (In-line)
Pump
38
Description 4
Horizontal Single
Stage Overhung
Pump
39
Description 5
Horizontal Multistage
Between Bearings Pump
40
Description 6
Most commercial pumps have diverging channels called volutes cast into the
discharge portion of the casing.
Liquid leaving the impeller at a high velocity enters the volute and has its velocity
reduced causing a pressure rise
In most pump the following designs are used:

 The single volute
 Double volute
 Vaned diffused
41
Description 7
The single volute design In cases where this radial force In order to have balanced radial
imposes a radial force on the results in excessive shaft deflection, force, higher efficiency and
impeller due to variations of a double volute design is used. compact size, some process
pressure around the impeller pump designs employ a vaned
periphery. diffuser
42
Description 8
Conventional centrifugal pumps are they cannot evacuate vapor from their
not Self priming. suction line so that liquid can fill the line
and pump casing
Their suction lines must be filled before starting
43
Description 9
 Most of the centrifugal pump types are self venting by the arrangement of
the suction and discharge nozzles.
A pump is considered self venting if the nozzle arrangement and casing

configuration permit adequate venting of gases from the first stage
impeller and volute area to prevent loss of prime during the starting
sequence.
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Description 10
 Some centrifugal pump types having inlet and discharge connections in
the bottom casing half are not self venting
 They are provided with valved vents which require manual operation to
release trapped vapour and adequately fill the casing with liquid for
starting.
SINGLE STAGE CENTRIFUGAL

PUMPS WITH TOP DISCHARGE
ARE GENERALLY SELF VENTING.
45
ACTIVITY – Centrifugal pump
components
A. Stuffing Box
B. Packing
C. Shaft
D. Shaft Sleeve
E. Vane
F. Casing
G. Eye of impeller
H. Impeller
I. Casing wear ring
J. Impeller
K. Discharge nozzle
46
Rotating Pumps – Design 1
 Cavitation is a process which involves the formation and subsequent

collapse of vapour-filled cavities in a liquid.
 In pumps, the cavities are formed when the total pressure of the liquid falls
below the vapour pressure due to the dynamic action of the impeller in
centrifugal pumps
Exposure to cavitation can cause:
1. High vibration and noise caused by the implosions;

2. Reduced capacity due to the vapour present;
3. Cavitation erosion or pitting on the internal metal surfaces that can even arrive to the
point of destroying the impeller;
4. Losses in pump head and efficiency and erratic power consumption
47
 The force that tends to overcome cavitation is provided by the difference
between the liquid’s static suction pressure and its vapour pressure at the
operating temperature  Net Positive Suction Head
 Available NPSH (NPSHa) = difference between the effective pressure at

the pump’s inlet flange and the vapour pressure of the pumped liquid at
the pumping temperature.
 Required NPSH (NPSHr) = necessary head for the liquid to flow without
vaporization from the pump inlet to the point where the static pressure is
lowest.
 For satisfactory pump operation  NPSHa > NPSHr
48
When the available NPSH is low (0,3÷2 m), it must be accurately calculated because the type of
pump, the choice of model and its cost are very sensitive to the available NPSH value.
1. Increase the height above ground of the vessel from which

the pump sucks.
2. Reduce the pressure drops on the suction piping by
Possible action to increasing its diameter and/or reducing its equivalent length.
be done: 3. Provide cooling on the suction piping to lower the vapour
pressure.
4. Install a vertical pump and suction tank.
49
The consequences of having NPSHa<NPSHr are not the same for all
liquids:
 The consequences are more serious for pure liquids because all of the
liquid tends to vaporize at the same pressure and temperature;
 Mixtures, instead, have a boiling curve for which only a minimal part of the
liquid starts to vaporize after dropping below the boiling pressure.
The gradient of the vapour pressure curve against temperature at pumping conditions
influences the sensitivity of the required NPSH. Why?
50
Barrel-type vertical pumps
Advantages: Drawbacks:
 Lower height above ground of  Head-flow curve with a steeper

the suction vessel. gradient and therefore a larger
shutoff head.
 Utilization of a single pump with

high flow rates.  More maintenance on vertical
pumps required with respect to
horizontal ones.
 Greater operational reliability.
 Higher installation costs.
51
Rotating Pumps – Operating
Conditions 1
Components of
differential pressure
Static: Variable:
Dynamic:
Static level calculated as the The pressure drop of
Pressure drop through the
difference between the control valve that is
delivery-side equipment
maximum level in the modulated according to
between the pump and the
discharge vessel and the process requirements. It is
final vessel and including heat
minimum level in the suction only present in centrifugal
exchangers, ovens, filters, etc.
vessel. pumps.
52
Conditions 2
Characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump
53
Conditions 3
Pump Impeller Classification (Low Specific Speed)
54
Conditions 4
Pump Impeller Classification (High Specific Speed)
55
Conditions 5
Max
Max
Max head discharge Max viscosity Efficiency Max temp.
Pump type capacity
(m) pressure (Pa s) % (°C)
(m3/h)
(kPa)
Horizontal
Single stage 1.100 150 4.000 0,650 20 ÷ 80 450
Two stage 300 400 4.000 0,450 20 ÷ 75 450
Chemical 250 70 1.500 0,650 20 ÷ 75 200
Slurry 250 100 4.000 0,650 20 ÷ 80 450
Monobloc 4.500 1.500 70.000 0,450 20 ÷ 70 550
Multi stage 2.500 4.000 40.000 0,450 65 ÷ 90 450
Vertical
Single stage 2.500 250 4.000 0,650 20 ÷ 85 350
Multi stage 18.000 1.800 5.000 0,450 25 ÷ 90 250
In line 2.700 200 3.500 0,450 20 ÷ 80 250
High speed 90 1.800 14.000 0,100 55 ÷ 85 200
Axial 100.000 5 1.000 0,650 65 ÷ 85 65
56
Installation pre-commissioning and Centrifugal Pumps
commissioning Refer to API RP686
1. Install weatherproof protective covers of such construction to provide a

watertight seal on all openings PLastic plugs and flange covers are not permitted.
2. Fill bearing housings to the bottom of shaft with the manufacturer’s
recommended oil.
3 .For cast iron, carbon steel, and low alloy pumps, fill the pump casing with type C
preservative and rotate to coat the internals.
4 Mark shaft and rotate 2’/4 revolutions weekly. Record protective activity in the
inspection record shaft rotation must be accomplished with a strap wrench or
other no marring device.
5 Type D preservative shall be removed with solvent
from all surfaces with solvent prior to installation of pump.
6 Fill the piping loop for the barrier fluid of a dual seal pump with a process
compatible fluid if it contains any carbon steel components.
57
Centrifugal pumps check list
In addition to the general points, the following particular
points are also of importance:
Sealing
- Check that soft packing rings in the stuffing box are of correct material and the
packing and gland are properly installed.
- Check the location and connections of the lantern ring and check whether proper
seal liquid is used, if applicable.
- Check that the type of mechanical seal and its material are in accordance with
specification.
- Check whether the seal piping arrangement is correctly installed in accordance
with the specified API plan.
Utilities
Safety devices Function testing
58
HAZARD ASSESSMENT
The hazards associated with a large centrifugal pump have to be
considered over its complete operating / maintenance cycle, and not
just steady load operations.
Mal-operation / excursions / drive system failures and emergencies
must all be covered.
The majority of hazards relate to the process fluid, either by a direct
release, or by the consequent effects on upstream & downstream
systems from a pump failure.
Failure of static components through fatigue, erosion or corrosion.
Failure of dynamic components leading to high fatigue loads on
other components with potentially rapid catastrophic deterioration of
seal or nozzles.
Failure of the pipe system due to extreme pressures or temperatures
– either externally applied or generated by the operating pump or
system, resulting from events such as pressure surges, process
density, or composition changes.
59
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
RECIPROCATING - PUMPS
60
API STANDARD 674 for Positive Displacement
Pumps-Reciprocating
This standard covers the minimum requirements for reciprocating positive

displacement pumps for use in service in the petroleum, chemical, and gas
industries. Both direct-acting and power-frame types are included. See API
Standard 675 for controlled-volume pumps and Standard 676 for rotary pumps.
61
Reciprocating Pumps - Machinery
Description 1
Positive-displacement pumps work by imparting a propelling force to a fixed volume
of liquid from the inlet conditions to the outlet conditions.
RECIPROCATING PUMP
ROTARY PUMP PROPORTIONING PUMP
62
Description 2
Positive-displacement pumps have a lower speed of rotation than kinetic pumps
and are therefore physically larger for a given capacity.
In general centrifugal pumps are used for capacity higher than 2-5 m3/hr and for
differential pressure up to 30-40 kg/cm2.
Higher differential pressure requires normally reciprocating pump.
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Description 3
64
Description 4
 A flexible seal around the periphery of the piston prevents leakage of

mobile phase out the back of the pump.
 Check valves, mounted in the head, open and close in response to small
changes in pressure to maintain a one-way flow of liquid.
 The pump cylinder with its check valves is often accessible from the
outside to allow easier servicing of the check valves and replacement of
the pump seals. This part of the pump is called the pump head.
65
Description 5
Pump flow varies with time:
flow increases from zero up to a maximum, then

During the delivery stroke
decreases back to zero
During the intake stroke flow is zero
The pressure inside the pump changes in the same way as flow
 going from zero to a maximum value;
 staying at zero during the intake stroke.
66
Description 6
67
Description 7
USE OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS:

 Pumping of very viscous liquids.
 Simultaneous requirement of low capacity (0.5÷5 m3/h) and high head.
 Intermittent services, when the characteristics of the pumped liquids
permit and when a sufficient NPSH is available.
 Services with sludge and slurry.
 Pumping services in which there can be a wide range of flow and
discharge pressure.
 Injection of additives.
68
Description 8
TYPES OF RECIPROCATING PUMP
 Single acting: it pumps one cylinder volume per shaft revolution (action
on one side of the piston).
 Double acting: it pumps two cylinder volumes per shaft revolution
(action on both sides of the piston)
69
Description 9
70
ACTIVITY – Reciprocating Pump
Components
71
Reciprocating Pumps - Guidelines 1
Guidelines for reciprocating pumps
 Any reciprocating pump in conjunction with a piping system forms an

interactive dynamic system that cannot be accurately analysed as two
separate systems.
 Communication between:
 the piping system designer,
 the pump vendor,
 the pulsation control device designer
 is important to minimizing problems and developing the best overall

pump system installation
72
ACOUSTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN PIPING DESIGN
“The interaction of the pump, pulsation control devices, and piping system produces potentially
harmful pulsations when there is resonant interaction between the various elements in the
system”
The system designer can help to minimize this interaction by avoiding resonant lengths of
constant diameter pipe for constant speed pumps.
When resonant lengths of constant diameter pipe are used and the resonant frequency
matches multiples of plunger frequency, one can expect major changes to the system as a
result of the acoustical simulation analysis.
73
ACOUSTICAL SIMULATION REQUIRES:

 A data sheet is required showing all pump operating conditions (speed,
pressures, etc.) and all fluids to be pumped.
 Isometric drawings are required showing all lengths (between bends,

valves, diameter changes, and so forth).
 Piping and Instrument Diagrams (P&IDs) are required to ensure that

all piping and equipment that may affect the study are included.
74

 Layout drawings are required to help determine the practicality of any
proposed modifications.
 Complete information must be supplied on all of the piping up to and

including the first large volume in the suction and the discharge piping to
a large vessel or to an acoustical infinite line. Every branch must be
included up to a shutoff valve or a large volume.
 Any orifice or other flow resistive device must be shown and

complete details on pressure drop provided.
75
 Detailed drawings of each vessel, showing:
 the location of all nozzles,
 the internal diameter,
 the length
 details of any vessel internals.
 If there are different fluid routings, a complete description must be

included to show the relative positions of all the valves for each routing.
 When two or more pumps are connected to the same piping system, a
clear description is required explaining how they will operate.
76
Reciprocating Pumps - Design 1
MECHANICAL DESIGN CONDITIONS
DESIGN TEMPERATURE
 It is normally specified with a margin of 25°C above the rated pumping

temperature.
 For pumps which operate below 15°C, such as cryogenic pumps, it is

necessary to specify a design minimum temperature, based on the
characteristics of the particular service.
77
DESIGN PRESSURE
 The design pressure for these pumps is fixed by the set of the safety
valve on the pump discharge.
 The set point of the safety valve is normally obtained by adding to the
maximum operating pressure 10% or 2 kg/cm2 whichever is greater.
78
FLANGE RATINGS
 The design temperature and pressure ratings determined above provide

the pump vendor and piping system designer with the basis for selecting
flange ratings.
 The pump vendor usually selects the same rating for the suction flange
as for the discharge flange.
 In the case of high differential pressure pumps a lower suction flange

rating is sometimes used.
79
Typical speed ratings values for reciprocating pumps
Stroke Length Single-Acting Plunger Type Pumps Double-Acting Piston type Pumps
Revolutions per Meters per Feet per Revolutions per Meters per Feet per
(mm) (in)
Minute Minute Minute Minute Minute Minute
50 2 450 45 150 140 14 46.5

75 3 400 60 200 - - -
100 4 350 71 233 116 23 77
125 5 310 73 258 - - -
150 6 270 82 270 100 30 100
175 7 240 85 280 - - -
200 8 210 85 280 - - -
250 10 - - - 83 42 138
300 12 - - - 78 48 156
350 14 - - - 74 53 173
400 16 - - - 70 57 186
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SPARE EQUIPMENT
ELEMENTS TO GUIDE TO DECIDE COMMON SPARING
 The required head capacity point of each service must lie within the
performance range of the common spare
 Normal temperature should not differ by more than 50-65°C.
 Suction pressure should not differ by more than 3.5 kg/cm2.
 NPSH available to the common spare must be greater than its

requirement for each service.
81
 If a high flow service is common spared with a low flow service, the
common spare must be designed for high flow, and, when operating as a
spare for the low flow service, may need low flow recycle to avoid
cavitation and overheating.
 Design pressure and temperature, and resulting flange ratings for the
common spare must be adequate for both services.
 If a high head service is common spared with a low head service,

the common spare must be designed for high head, and a high pressure
drop must be taken across the control valve. Adequate overpressure
protection for the low head circuit must also be provided.
 Shaft seal design must be adequate for both services.
82
CASES IN WHICH COMMON SPARING SHOULD NOT BE EMPLOYED:
 Where one of the service liquids contains water and the other acid  the
possibilities for the two streams mixing through the suction and discharge
piping manifolding and causing severe corrosion are too great.
 Service where continuous fluid flow is required but high pump

maintenance requirements must be expected, such as cat plant and coker
slurry services.
83
NPSH IN RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Maximum possible NPSH requirements of Calculation of

reciprocating pumps available NPSH
suction height
Maximum Suction Lift typical required

Allowable 3.5 metres
(mm of mercury in a
vacuum)
84
CALCULATION OF AVAILABLE NPSH:
 In reciprocating pumps, there is a reduction in available NPSH due to the
pulsations accompanied by a cyclic acceleration of the liquid.
 The acceleration height is function of the liquid’s moment in the suction
system.
 In cases where the acceleration head is excessive, it is possible to:
 Reduce the pump suction piping
 Increase the diameter of the suction piping to reduce the speed
 Reduce pump rpm by increasing piston capacity
 Increase the number of pump heads (a triplex has a smaller C value than a
duplex, etc.)
 Install pulsation dampers on the suction piping, close to the pump inlet nozzle.
85
MATERIAL CLASS SELECTION GUIDE
I-1 I-2 S-1 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-8 S-9 C-6 A-7 A-8 D-1
Cast Cast Carb. Carb. Carb. Carb. Carb. Carb. Carb. 12% 316
AUS Duplex
Iron iron steel steel steel steel steel steel steel CHR AUS
86
Temperature °C Pressure range Material class
Service
Fresh water, condensate, cooling tower water < 100 All I- 1 or 1-2
< 120 All I- 1 or 1-2
Boiling water and process water 120 to 175 All S- 5
> 175 All S- 6, G6

Boiler feed water:
Axially-split > 95 All C-6
Double-casing (barrel) > 95 All S-6

Boiler circulator > 95 All C-6
Foul water, reflux drum water, water draw, and < 175 All S- 3 or S- 6
hydrocarbons containing these waters, including reflux
streams > 175 All C-6
230 All S-1
> –46 All S- 1(LCB)

Propane, butane, liquefied petroleum gas, ammonia,
ethylene, low temperature services (minimum metal > –73 All S- 1(LC2)
temperature)
> –100 All S- 1(LC3)
> –196 All A-7 orA-8
87
Temperature °C Pressure range Material class

Service
< 230 All S-1

Diesel oil; gasoline: naphtha; kerosene: gas oils; light,
medium, and heavy lube oils, fuel oil; residuum; crude 230 to 370 All S-6
oil; asphalt; synthetic crude bottoms >370
All C-6
Non-corrosive hydrocarbons, e.g., catalytic reformate,
230 to 370 All S-4
isomaxate, desulfurized oils
Xylene, toluene, acetone, benzene, furfural, MEK,
< 230 All S-1
cumene
Sodium carbonate < 175 All I-1
< 100 All S-1
Caustic (sodium hydroxide), concentration <20 %
> 100 All —
Seawater < 95 All —
Sour water <260 All D-1
Produced water, formation water and brine All All D-1 or D-2
Sulphur (liquid state) All All S- 1
FCC slurry < 370 All C-6
88
LUBRICATION:
 Bearings and bearing housings shall be arranged for hydrocarbon oil
lubrication.
 The following auxiliary equipment shall be furnished when required by the
vendor or when specified:
 Oil flow indicator
 Oil pressure gauge (downstream of filter and cooler),
 Oil temperature gauge (downstream of cooler)
 Oil strainer
 Oil cooler
 Auxiliary oil pump and driver
 Additional instrumentation (alarms, switches, and so forth)
89
LUBRICATION:
 Unless otherwise specified, bearing oil temperature shall not exceed 70°C
(160°F) anywhere in the system.
 When necessary or when specified, an oil cooler shall be supplied.
 An oil reservoir shall be supplied:
 With a sufficient capacity to avoid frequent refilling
 To provide adequate allowance for system rundown
 To provide a retention time of at least three minutes
 To settle moisture and foreign matter adequately
 To eliminate air and to minimize flotation of foreign matter to the pump suction
 Fill connections, an armoured gauge glass, a level indicator, and breathers

suitable for outdoor use
 Sloped bottoms and connections for complete drainage
 Cleanout openings as large as practical
90
91
Reciprocating Pumps - Operating
Conditions 1
RECIPROCATING PUMP EFFICIENCY
 The efficiency of a pump is given by the product of the hydraulic,
volumetric and mechanical efficiencies.
 The hydraulic efficiency of a reciprocating pump is given by the ratio:
H
i  (1)
H  Hp
H = pump head
Hp = total pressure drop due to traversing the inlet and outlet valves.
92
Conditions 2
Volumetric efficiency
 Is given by the ratio between the flow effectively pumped and the
theoretical one
 Is also expressed as its complement to one and, in this case, it is called
slippage. Slippage must not be greater than 5%, but in new pumps or
ones in good condition, it is around 1%.
Mechanical efficiency
 Varies from approximately 50% for small pumps and from approximately
90% for larger pumps.
 The efficiency of a reciprocating pump can be estimated with relevant
software.
93
Conditions 3
Influence of viscosity, density and solids content
The effective flow of reciprocating pumps decreases when the viscosity

increases because the speed must be reduced.
The efficiency of reciprocating pumps decreases with high viscosity.
Unlike centrifugal pumps, the pressure differential produced by a reciprocating

pump is independent of the liquid’s density.
94
Conditions 4
Typical performance values for piston pumps
Max Discharge
Capacity Max Head Max Viscosity Max Temp.
Pump type Pressure (kPa Efficiency (%)
(m3/h) (m) (Pa·s) (°C)
abs)
Piston plunger 2-3000 3500 350000 1.000 55-85 290
Metering 0-2.0 500 50000 1.000 20 290
Diaphragm 1-20 350 25000 0.750 20 260
95
Conditions 5
EFFECTS OF LIQUID CHARACTERISTICS ON PUMP PERFORMANCE
LIQUID VISCOSITY:
 The effect of viscosity on the rate at which the liquid flows into the
cylinder of direct acting pumps can affect the piston speed requirements.
 For power pumps handling viscous liquids of 4000 SSU and greater a
mechanical efficiency correction factor of 90% should be used.
96
Conditions 6
LIQUID DENSITY:
 Reciprocating pumps generate a differential pressure which is

independent of fluid density and depends only on how much force is
exerted on the piston.
 Thus if the pump will develop a differential of 20 kg/cm2g with a 0.5

specific gravity fluid, it will do the same with a 1.0 specific gravity fluid 
 the head and the motor BHP will double
 the capacity (as m3/hr) will remain the same.
97
Conditions 7
FLUID TYPE:
 When reciprocating pumps are used for sludge or slurry services it is

important to specify:
 type
 amount
 size of the solids.
 A slurry is defined as a stream containing more than 50-100 mg/l of

solids.
98
Conditions 8
RECIPROCATING PUMP CONTROL
Typical Reciprocating Pump Flow Control through Recycling
99
Conditions 9
Typical Reciprocating Pump Flow Control (Steam Drive)
100
Conditions 10
Typical Reciprocating Pump Pressure and Flow Control (Steam Drive)
101
ACTIVITY - Miniquiz
 In an axial flow centrifugal pump, the liquid enters at the centre of the
impeller and is directed out along the impeller blades in a direction at
right angles to the pump shaft
 True
 False
 All of the following are indications that a centrifugal pump is cavitating

EXCEPT ___________.
 constantly decreasing liquid temperature
 fluctuating pump motor current
 noise
 fluctuating discharge pressure and flow
 In general, the effective flow rate of reciprocating positive displacement

pumps increases as the viscosity of the fluid being pumped decreases.
 True
 False
102
Installation pre-commissioning and commissioning
GENERAL
Allowance shall be made for grouting between the rough surface of the
concrete and the underside of the base plate Whereas most pump units and
small compressors are mounted on base plates, some Equipment may be
mounted directly on the foundations. In these cases, sole plates shall be
Provided, which are grouted on the foundation to facilitate easy removal and
re-installation Of the equipment during maintenance.
Vertical close-coupled pumps shall be mounted on sole plates. A foundation
layout and a Sole plate should be applied.
Lifting of the base plate during installation shall be done in accordance with
the
Manufacturer's instructions to prevent permanent distortion.
Refer to API RP686
FOUNDATION BOLTS
LEVELLING
GROUTING
103
Check list
Lubrication
- Check the bearings and the bearing housings for cleanliness and ensure that
lubricating rings have adequate free movement.
- Check the correct position and level of the constant-level oiler.
- Check that the bearing housing contains oil up to the correct level or is properly
greased.
If oil-mist lubrication is applied, check that the system is lined up correctly and is
clean.
Sealing
- Check that soft packing rings in the stuffing box are of correct material and the
packing and gland are properly installed.
- Check the location and connections of the lantern ring and check whether proper
seal liquid is used, if applicable.
- Check that the type of mechanical seal and its material are in accordance with
specification.
-Check that the seal piping arrangement is correctly installed in accordance with
the specified API plan.
Utilities
Safety device - Check whether a safety/relief valve is installed and check the set
pressure.
Function testing
104
COMPRESSORS
COMPRESSORS
105
API standards 617 for Axial and Centrifugal Compressors
This standard covers the minimum requirements for axial

compressors, single-shaft and integrally geared process centrifugal
compressors and expander-compressor for use in the petroleum,
chemical, and gas industries services that handle air or gas.
This standard does not apply to fans (covered by API Std 673) or
blowers that develop less than 34 kPa (5 psi) pressure rise above
atmospheric pressure. This standard also does not apply to
packaged, integrally-geared centrifugal plant and instrument air
compressors, which are covered by API Std 672. Hot gas expanders
over 300°C (570°F) are not covered in this standard.
106
Compressors
Compressors
Rotating compressors are Reciprocating compressors develop

continuous; they develop fluid at fluid at finite volumes
constant mass flow.
Axial Flow Radial Flow
107
RADIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
COMPRESSORS
-
RADIAL FLOW
108
Radial Flow Compressors
 Centrifugal compressors handle more compression service flow in

hydrocarbon processing plants, than all other compressor types
combined.
 They are applied in approximately the same numbers as reciprocating
compressors, but each machine handles typically between 10 to 50 times
as much gas volume as does each reciprocating compressor.
 The centrifugal machine:

 Is a compact unit;
 Due to its high level of reliability, is normally installed as a single un-spared

machine.
109
Compressors
Positive displacement Dynamic compressor

compressor
Reciprocating Rotary Radial flow Axial flow Mixed flow

compressors positive compressor compressor compressor
displacement (centrifugal
compressors compressor)
Trunk Cross head
110
Radial Flow Compressors –
Machinery Description 1
End View of a Centrifugal Compressor Gas Inlet Path
111
Side View of a Centrifugal Compressor Gas Inlet Path
112
Centrifugal Compressor Diffuser and Return Channel Passages
113
Final Impeller of a Centrifugal Compressor Section
114
Centrifugal Compressor Discharge Volute
115
 Single Stage  Radial split machines

Types
 Multistage  Axial split machines
116
Single Stage
117
Axial split machines
118
Radial split machines
119
Integrally Geared Centrifugal Compressor
120
Radial Flow Compressors – Design 1
 Design is realised starting from the knowledge of:
 mass flow “m”
 drop of pressure β
 total inlet temperature
 total inlet pressure
 kind & composition of developing fluid
Low Drop Single Stage
β
High Drop Multistage
121
Multistage split
Multistage < 17000 m3/h >17000 m3/h
< 21 barg Axial split Axial split
< 41 barg Axial split Radially split
> 41 barg Radially split Radially split
122
Impeller Design
123
Impeller Design
124
 Bearing brackets are attached to the

casing which is nominally center line Multistage
supported.
Rotor Support
 Single bearing housing containing a
thrust bearing and a pair of radial Single Stage
bearings.
125
Multistage centrifugal compressors develop a
considerable thrust load from the discharge end toward
Balance Pistons
the inlet due to the pressure difference across each of the
impellers.
An alternative is to arrange To minimize the load a cylinder

the compressor stages in two (balance piston) is installed on the
axially opposed groups shaft at the discharge end of the
rotor.
126
Main shaft seals
Balance piston seal
Seals
Function is either to reduce or eliminate

the outward leakage of process gas
and/or to prevent inward leakage of air.
127
IGV have to be designed for permitting mass flow control

IGV
IGV are provided to permit a major variable range of flow rate.
Rotor support system parts shall be:

 separable from the casing,
BEARINGS  axially split,
HOUSING
 non-pressurized,
 furnished with plugged connections for dry air or
inert gas purge to any atmospheric labyrinth seals.
128
A pressurized oil system shall be furnished to supply oil to:
 The bearings of the driver and of the driven

equipment .
LUBE OIL & SEAL OIL  The continuously lubricated couplings.

SYSTEMS
 The governing and control-oil system.
 The shaft seal-oil system.
 The purchaser’s control system (if hydraulic).
129
Radial Flow Compressors – Design
10
Unless otherwise specified, instrumentation shall
Controls & conform to the requirements of API Standard 614,
Instrumentation including supplied API 614 data sheets.
The piping shall terminate with flanged connections

at the edge of the base-plate.
Piping Instrument lines shall be provided with shutoff
valves at the points of measurement
130
Radial Flow Compressors – Design
11
Electrical equipment be suitable for the hazard
classification specified.
Electrical starting and supervisory controls may be

either AC or DC
Electrical System Power and control wiring shall be resistant to heat,

moisture, and abrasion.
Measurement and remote-control panel wiring may

be solid conductor.
Wiring shall be suitable for environmental

temperature.
131
Operating Conditions 1
Characteristics of a Radial Flow Compressor
132
Curve Slope
 For a compressor stage is determined by impeller blade geometry and the
characteristics of the compressed gas.
 For a compressor section is further influenced by rotational speed and the
number of compressor stages that make up the compressor section.
 Speed and gas characteristics affect the curve slope due to their impact
on gas volume reduction for a single compressor stage.
 Changes in curve shape and operating range will become more significant
as the number of impellers in a compressor section increases.
Choke
 the maximum flow limit that is approached as the velocity of the gas
stream relative to the impeller blades nears the sonic velocity of the gas
mixture being compressed.
133
Surge
 The minimum flow limit of a compressor stage is determined by the
unstable cyclic phenomenon known as surge.
Stability & Turndown
 The term “stability” is used to define the available operating range from
the Normal duty point to surge flow.
 Turndown takes into account the effects of control methods such as
suction throttling or speed control
Head Capacity Curves for Variable Speed Machines
 By variation of speed, a wide range of operating conditions are
achievable.
134
ACTIVITY – What is this?
135
Checklist
Lube oil/seal oil or seal gas system
- Check that the gaskets fitted are of the correct material and pressure
class.
- Fill the system with the correct amount of flushing oil. Start flushing the
system after any special instructions of the Manufacturer have been
followed (e.g. concerning bearings and/or seals etc.), and continue flushing
until API 614 cleanliness criteria have been met.
- After the lubrication and sealing system has been properly flushed, drain
the flushing oil.
Oil tanks shall be cleaned and inspected after the flushing procedure.
Replace filter elements and clean the filters. Remove all the special
precautions installed for the system flushing.
- Check precharge pressure of accumulators.
- Fill the lube and seal oil system with the correct amount of oil of the
specified grade.
- Check the levels throughout the system (overhead system properly
filled/vented).
- Check tightness of the seal
136
HAZARD ASSESSMENT
Process Gas Hazards
Gas Compressors are used to increase the pressure of a process gas, in
order to drive it into a pipeline system to an onshore process plant, to use
on the producing well as gas lift, to re-inject gas for reservoir pressure
maintenance and for use as a fuel gas.
Turbo compressors are preferred for high mass flow systems because of their simplicity and
reliability compared with screw or reciprocating compressors. In order to achieve the
required pressure ratio, several compression stages may be required, in one or more
casings. Each compression stage is carried out by a rotor in a matching diffuser.
This document focuses on the single shaft multi-stage "Barrel" design of
compressor typically used for hydrocarbon gas compression in the oil & gas
industry. Materials of construction must be mechanically capable, and compatible with
process fluids anticipated throughout the field lifetime.
Mechanically linked compressors, working together with drive and support
equipment, may be regarded as a single system for design and safety purposes.
The major hazards relate to the inventory of flammable gas that can be released if there is
an equipment failure. Hazard assessment must relate to the complete package and not just
the compressor body. The injury risk from a mechanical failure is relatively low, as the robust
casing will retain parts. Hot / moving parts may still cause injury local to the machine. Most
compressors have gas seals on moving drive shafts or piston rods. These are safety critical
items when handling hazardous materials.
137
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
COMPRESSOR –AXIAL FLOW
138
Axial Flow Compressors 1
 Axial compressor = the flow is parallel to the machine axis with the
gas passing through alternating rows of stationary and rotating blades.
 Kinetic energy is imparted to the gas by the rotating blades and is
converted into pressure by diffusion in the space between individual
rotating and stationary blades.
139
Axial Flow Compressors – Design 1
 Axial compressors with multiple compressor stages
have cast or fabricated casings which are horizontally
split to facilitate rotor removal.
 The stator blading is supported by either the main
Casings pressure casing or by an inner casing called a blade
carrier.
 Most casing designs are limited to 100 to 150 psig (7
to 10 barg).
 May be fixed or adjustable.

 The position of stator blades can be varied by an
Stator actuator.
Blades  Stator blades can be rotated altering the compressor
performance characteristics to achieve the desired
change in compressor delivered flow.
140
 The rotors are usually of forged solid design.
 Welded hollow rotors may be applied to limit the
moment of inertia in larger capacity compressors.
Rotor  Balancing pistons to achieve equalization of rotor

axial thrust loads are generally integral with the
rotor.
 Rotating blades are located in peripheral grooves in
the rotor.
 Standard axial compressors are designed with

Seals labyrinth seals.
141
Number of process compression stages is influenced by:
 Discharge Temperature
 Head Capability
 Side Streams
142
 Discharge Temperature - The maximum discharge temperature of a

process compression stage should be limited to approximately 450°F.
 Head Capability - As a rule of thumb two axial compressor stages,

where a compressor stage consists of one rotating blade row and the
following stationary blade row, are required to produce the same head as
one centrifugal compressor stage.
 Side Streams -Almost all axial compressor models have simple straight
through gas flow paths using one casing for one process compression
stage.
143
Specifying Curve Shape
 Designers should consult machinery specialists to obtain vendor typical performance curves
showing:
 the effect of speed range (if speed is variable)
 the effects of including variable stator blade control.
Manufacturers Performance Curves

 API-617 requires the vendor to provide process compression stage characteristic curves.
 In addition to this the manufacturer must provide curves for variable speed machines at
minimum speed, 80, 90, 100 and, 105% of rated speed.
144
 Identify the orientation of the compressor main process connections.
 Main Process Connection Orientation
 Shaft Seals
 Specify the shaft seals as labyrinth type for axial compressors in air service.
 Lube Oil Systems

 Provide an uninterrupted supply of clean and cooled lube oil to the bearings of the
compressor and driver.
Common Oil Oil System Pump Drivers Seal Oil and Gas Seal
Systems Systems
145
 Controls and Instrumentation
1. Control System Design.
Control system is defined by: 2. Critical Service Requirements.
3. Capacity Control Methods.
Adjustable Stator Blades
Capacity Control Methods
Variable Speed
146
Piping Arrangements
 Physical arrangement and mechanical design of the piping system associated with compression
services are performed during project detail engineering.
 The main features of compression service designers are given in the following requirements:
1. Access for Compressor Maintenance
2. Assurance of Line Cleanliness
3. Minimum Loading of Compressor Flanges
4. Liquid Removal at Low Points
5. Designing Compressor Piping Connections for Smooth Flow
147
Axial Flow Compressors – Operating
Conditions 1
The operating conditions of an axial flow compressors are defined regarding to desired
performances.
The operating conditions depend on:
Ambient/Inlet conditions
Desired mass flow
Compressor efficiency
148
Axial Flow Compressors – Operating
Conditions 2
Ambient/Inlet conditions
Ambient/Inlet conditions may varies in terms of pressure, temperature and humidity. These
parameters act on the fluid modifying its density at the inlet.
Desired mass flow

Mass flow variation has a serious impact on compressor’s efficiency. Cause the machine is
normally designed to operate at design mass flow and phenomena of surging or stall can rapidly
erase at different conditions.
Compressor efficiency
The efficiency of a compressor depends on operating conditions (mass flow, ambient
conditions/inlet conditions) and moreover on fouling and blade degradation.
149
Check list
1. Check the bearings and bearing housings for cleanliness.
2. Check that the lube oil system is in accordance with the flow diagram.
3. Check that the entire lube oil system has been properly flushed and is clean.
4. If a separate seal oil system is installed, check that it is in accordance with the flow
diagram.
5. Check that the entire seal oil system has been properly flushed and is clean.
6. Check that the cooling water system is in accordance with the flow diagram.
7. Check that the entire cooling water system has been properly flushed and is clean.
8. If the compressor is driven by means of V-belts, check the tension of these belts
and the pulley alignment.
9. Check the suction line for absolute cleanliness. Any dirt or welding scale from the
suction line is disastrous for a screw compressor.
10. Check the discharge line for cleanliness and check valve orientation.
11. Check whether safety devices are properly installed and in accordance with data
sheets and flow diagram.
150
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSOR
151
API STANDARD 618 for Reciprocating compressors
This standard covers the minimum requirements for reciprocating

compressors and their drivers used in petroleum, chemical, and gas industry
services for handling process air or gas with either lubricated or non
lubricated cylinders. Compressors covered by this standard are of moderate-
to-low speed and in critical services. Also covered are related lubricating
systems, controls, instrumentation, intercoolers, after coolers, pulsation
suppression devices, and
other auxiliary equipment. Compressors not covered are (a) integral gas-
engine-driven compressors with single-acting trunk-type (automotive-type)
pistons that also serve as crossheads and (b) either plant or instrument-air
compressors that discharge at a gauge pressure of 9 bar (125 pounds per
square inch) or less. Also not covered are gas engine and steam engine
drivers.
152
Reciprocating Compressors
153
Reciprocating Compressors –
Description 1
Oil System of a Reciprocating Compressor (1)
154
Description 2

155
Description 3
156
Description 4
Main types of compressors:
Trunk or automotive piston:
 Description: The piston is connected to a connecting rod, which is in turn connected

directly to the crankshaft.
 Advantage: it allows to be inserted inside a small space
 Limit: This type of compressor has a single-acting cylinder and is limited to

refrigeration service and to smaller air compressors.
157
Description 5
Single Reciprocating Compressor
158
Description 6
Main types of compressors:
Crosshead piston:
• Description: The piston is driven by a fixed piston rod that passes through a stuffing or
packing box and is connected to a crosshead. The crosshead, in turn, is connected to the
crankshaft by a connecting rod.
• Advantage: A variable length or double distance piece is used to keep crankcase lubrication
from being exposed to the process gas
159
Description 7
Multistage Compressor
160
Description 8
Angle Engine Compressor
161
Reciprocating Compressors – Design
GENERAL DESIGN
1
excitation of torsional, acoustical,
Constant speed operation TO AVOID and/or mechanical resonances
TO MINIMIZE contamination by moisture, dust and

Design of oil reservoirs other foreign matter
accurate alignment on reassembly

TO ENSURE for a rapid and economical
Design of compressor frames maintenance
adequate clearance areas and safe

The arrangement of equipment TO PROVIDE
access for operation and
maintenance
162
Reciprocating Compressors – Design
2
Other design parameters:
• Allowable speed
• Allowable Discharge Temperature
• Critical Speed
• Compressor Cylinder
• Cylinder Cooling
• Cylinder Connection
• Compressor Frame Lubrication
• Cylinder and Packing Lubrication
• Materials
163
Reciprocating Compressors -
164
CONTROL DEVICES
Automatic-start-and-
Constant-speed control
stop control
165
Inlet-Valve Unloaded
166
Clearance-Control Cylinder
167
Actual Indicator Diagram of a Two-Stage

Compressor Showing the Operation of
Clearance Control at Five Load Points.
168
Sectional view of a cylinder equipped with a hand-operated valve lifter on one end and a variable-
volume clearance pocket at other end
169
Starting Stopping
compressor compressor
Start with A and D Close C
open
Close D Close B
Close A Open A and D
Open B
Slowly open C
170
Piston Equipped with Carbon Piston and Forged-Steel Single-Acting High-Pressure

Wearing Rings Cylinder
171
Typical Packing Arrangements for Low-Pressure Cylinders:

Soft Packing (left) – Metallic Packing (right)
172
Typical Packing Arrangement for High-

pressure Cylinders
173
Soft Packing in an Auxiliary Stuffing Box

for Handling Gases
174
ACTIVITY - Metallic Diaphragm
Compressors
175
Check list
1. Check the crankcase and crossheads for cleanliness and make sure the crankcase can be properly
vented.
2. Check line-up of lube oil system and that it is in accordance with flow diagram.
3. Check that the entire lube oil system has been properly flushed and is clean.
4. Check line-up of cooling water system and that it is in accordance with flow diagram.
5. Check that the cooling water system has been properly flushed and is clean.
6. Check line-up of vent and drain system of cylinder stuffing box and cylinder
compartment distance pieces, taking into account local safety regulations for disposal of hazardous
or toxic gases.
7. Check line-up of purge system to cylinder stuffing-box gland or cylinder compartment distance
pieces.
8. Check the barring gear for correct functioning.
9. Check crankshaft deflection before and after coupling-up of driver.
10. Check the suction and discharge valve assembly and valve housing for cleanliness and check
valve lift. Check that valves are assembled correctly. If valve unloaders are mounted, check correct
functioning and sequence.
176
HAZARD ASSESSMENT
Most early gas compressors were of reciprocating design; more recently even high-pressure
applications can be met with high-speed multi stage centrifugal compressors.
"Barrel" casing design is preferred for high-pressure hazardous applications.

Other designs of compressor may be selected according to process duty and designer / user
preference.
Typical modern process compressors have shaft speeds in the range 5000 – 20000 rev/minute
and are tailor made to the required duty.
The hazards associated with a gas compressor have to be considered over its complete
operating/ maintenance cycle, not just full steady load operations. Maloperation / excursions /
drive system failures and emergencies must all be covered. The hazards must be seen in context
with the installation as a whole, and be compared with alternative compression strategies. As
an example, a single large turbo compressor may offer a much lower risk of gas leakage (fewer
and more reliable process gas seals) than 4 smaller reciprocating compressors. It would,
however, be much less flexible.
177
GAS TURBINES
GAS TURBINES
178
API STANDARD 616 for Gas Turbines
This standard covers the minimum requirements for open, simple, and
regenerative-cycle combustion gas turbine units for services of mechanical drive,
generator drive, or process as generation. All auxiliary equipment required for
operating, starting, and controlling gas turbine units and for turbine protection is
either discussed directly in this standard or referred to in this standard through
references to other publications.
Specifically, gas turbine units that are capable of continuous service firing gas or
liquid fuel or both are covered by this standard.
179
Gas Turbines
Gas Turbines are commonly implemented inside of a Power Plant as SCGT or CCGT.
The kind of Gas Turbines Engines are principally divided in

two categories:
 HD Gas Turbines Single shaft
 AD Gas Turbines Two or three shafts
180
Gas Turbines – Description 1
Radial-Flow Turbine: It is normally used for smaller loads and over a smaller
operational range than the axial turbine
 Little loads and low operational range
 Axially Shorter then Axial Flow Turbines
 Low cost of production
 More robust
 Difficulties in realising a Cooling System
181
Axial-Flow Turbine have flow that enters and leaves in an axial direction
 95% of the Gas Turbines are Axial-Flow
 Efficiency = 88 – 92 % (> Radial-Flow Turbines)
 Operating Conditions display a greater range
 Simplicity to realize a Cooling System
182
The available drop of
pressure is entirely
consumed through nozzle
path
Axial-Flow Turbine  Impulse/Curtis

Types
 Reaction
The available drop of pressure

is divided between nozzle and
impeller
183
The impulse turbine consists of a group of nozzles followed by a row of blades
 The gas is expanded in the nozzle, converting the high thermal energy into kinetic energy
 The static pressure decreases in the nozzle with a corresponding increase in the absolute
velocity.
 The absolute velocity is then reduced in the rotor, but the static pressure and the relative
velocity remain constant
184
In a Reaction Turbine, both the nozzles and blades act as expanding nozzles.
 The static pressure decreases in both the fixed and moving blades.
 The fixed blades act as nozzles and direct the flow to the moving blades at a velocity
slightly higher than the moving-blade velocity.
 The velocities are usually much lower
 The entering blade relative velocities are nearly axial
185
Turbine-Blade Cooling:
 Air is bled from the compressor and is directed to the stator, the rotor, and other parts of
the turbine rotor and casing to provide adequate cooling.
 The effect of the coolant on the aerodynamic, and thermodynamics depends on the type of
cooling involved
Five basic air-cooling schemes are:

 Convection Cooling
 Impingement Cooling
 Film Cooling
 Transpiration Cooling
 Water Cooling
186
187
The most frequently used blade cooling designs are:
The strut insert design has a midchord section

Convection and Impingement that is convection cooled through horizontal fins,
Cooling and a leading edge that is impingement cooled.
Film and Convection Cooling This type of blade design has a midchord region
that is convection cooled, and the leading edges
which are both convection and film cooled
188
Gas Turbines – Design 1
Major Cycles - The major application of most gas turbines is in an open cycle in
which air is the working medium
 Single Shaft
The gas turbine can be  Two Shafts
 Three Shafts
189
The simple cycle, or the Brayton cycle, is the most common type of cycle being used in the gas-
turbine field today.
Efficiency
 Efficiency can be improved by increasing the pressure ratio or the turbine inlet temperature
 The efficiency of the various components such as the compressor, combustor, and turbine
affects the overall thermal efficiency
190
The Regenerative Cycle:
 The amount of fuel needed can be reduced by the use of a regenerator in which the hot
turbine exhaust gas is used to preheat the air between the compressor and the combustion
chamber.
 The work output per pound of air is about the same or slightly less than that experienced
with the simple cycle
 The point of maximum efficiency in the regenerative cycle occurs at a lower pressure ratio
191
The reheat cycle:
 Consists of a two-stage turbine with a combustion chamber before each stage
 The reheat is done between the power turbine and the compressor trains.
 Greater work
Reheat Cycle
 Only the high pressure turbine drives the
compressor
192
Intercooler Regenerative Reheat Cycle

 The insertion of an intercooler in the compressor moves the pressure ratio for maximum
efficiency to a much higher ratio
 Good approximation of Carnot Cycle
 Greater efficiency and work
 Greater thermal efficiency
193
The Combined Cycle the combination of gas turbine technologies with the steam
turbine
 Gas Turbine Exhaust are used to have steam with an HRSG
 1/3 total work comes from the Steam Turbine
 A percentage of steam could be injected into the boiler for Nox reduction
 IC = $800–$1200 per kW ( simple cycle>: $300–$600 )
 Repowering of single cycle with a steam turbine can increase overall efficiency
about 3-4 %
194
Turbine life is very sensitive to blade metal temperature and blade material.
 Alloys with large quantities of Ni, Cr, Co show low durability
 Blade coating of a platinum-aluminium intermetallic

Blade Materials composition can extend life by nearly 70-80%
 Platinum electroplated layer + diffusion layers of aluminium and

chromium
195
Gas Turbines – Operating Condition
1
 50-70% of Turbine work load is for the compressor
 The increase of Tamb causes the reduction of Power Load
 Humidity must be lesser then a 30 % in mass. If the treated fluid is air and it is dry an
evaporative cooler have to be provided before the compressor entrance.
 Periodical water solvent cleaning of turbine airfoils have to be provided to save the machine
from fouling, that decreases the efficiency.
196
Gas Turbines – Operating Condition
2
 Design of airfoils have to be done to reduce Losses
 GT needs an auxiliary drive up to 1200-2000 rpm to start
 A shut down monitor have to be provided in case of acceleration rate is not maintained
 Bleed valves for avoiding compressor surges in start-up and shut-down modes have to be
provided.
 Breakaway torque at about 50 – 60 % design speed have to be provided
197
ACTIVITY – Combined Cycle
Write down the process diagram of a

combined cycle
198
check list 1
Since construction details and auxiliary equipment can vary widely from
Manufacturer to Manufacturer, it is important to consult the Manufacturer's
instruction manual for any additional checking not mentioned below.
1. Check the equipment supplied against the schedule of auxiliary and associated
equipment for correct calibration and settings.
2. Check that the casing, shaft and exhaust duct can expand with increasing
temperatures. However, transverse movement of the casing should be prevented.
The casing foundation bolts should have adequate clearance under their heads to
allow for expansion of the casing.
3. Check that the cooling system is in accordance with the flow diagram.
4. Check that the entire cooling system has been properly cleaned.
5. Check that the entire lube oil oil system has been properly flushed and is clean.
6. Check that the entire hydraulic oil system has been properly flushed and is
clean.
7. Check that the fuel supply system is in accordance with the flow diagram.
8. Check that the entire fuel supply system has been properly flushed and is clean.
199
check list 2
9. Check the correct functioning and setting of gas fuel supply system pressure regulators and
isolating/venting valves.
10. Operate the fuel control system statically and check for correct equipment response.
11. After commissioning the compressor washing system, ensure that it operates correctly
according to the Manufacturer's manual.
12. Check all air intake bypass doors and mechanized shutters for cleanliness and correct
operation.
13. Check whether safety devices are properly installed and in accordance with the data sheets
and the flow diagram.
14. Check that the lube oil tanks contain oil up to the correct level.
15. Check that the auxiliary lube oil pump cuts in at the correct oil pressure.
16. Check that the line-up of the governing system is in accordance with the drawings. If
possible, operate the system and check the proper functioning of relay valves, control valves
and the main stop valve after correct hydraulic oil pressure is obtained. If the main stop valve is
operated without oil pressure, check proper functioning manually.
17. Check the proper functioning of all safety devices. Safety devices which cannot be tested
when machine is not running should be checked during the initial run.
18. Check fire protection and gas detection systems for correct operation according to the
Manufacturer's manual.
200
check list 3
19. Initial run (non-fired) All pre-commissioning runs shall take place under the supervision and
responsibility of the Supplier's engineer and in accordance with the Manufacturer's
instructions.
20. Second motoring run Repeat item 19 but with gas start selected.
21. Commissioning run This run is to take place under the supervision and responsibility of the
Supplier's engineer and in accordance with the Manufacturer's instructions.
22. Check whether noise exceeds specified limits.
23. Take a vibration frequency analysis for future reference.
24. Take an oil sample.
25. Compile a checklist of safety devices to be calibrated. This checklist shall include all test
information.
201
CONDITION MONITORING
Condition monitoring can provide very valuable information about the status and
safety of rotating equipment while it is running. The only hazards associated with
carrying out condition monitoring activities might relate to the manual taking of oil
samples, and attempting to maintain shaft sensors on running plant. Lack of
condition monitoring should not contribute to safety hazards, as condition
monitoring should not be a substitute for protective safety systems, though
effective monitoring will reduce the demand rate on the protective device.
Inspection & overhaul activity timing may be based on the assumption of
appropriate condition monitoring being in place. If this is not the case, these
intervals should be reduced.
Equally, there is a good case for extending maintenance intervals based on effective
condition monitoring, provided that favorable results are achieved, as in good oil
sample test results.
202
CONDITION MONITORING
General machine Systems
Thermal Inspection Techniques

Seal / Gland Leaks Acoustic Emission
Ultra sound Techniques
Seal Leak off monitoring
Shaft Seal Monitoring
Filtration
Vibration techniques
Hot/ Noisy bearings Lubricant Analysis
Ultra sound Techniques
Thermal Inspection Techniques
Look listen feel
203
MEG System overview
204
MEG recovered in the MEG recovery unit, is stored in the MEG
Storage Tank 230-TK-7660.
MEG is pumped to the subsea system especially the locations
where there is potential hydrate formation such as Joule-
Thompson expansion and temperature drops (upstream and / or
downstream X-tree choke valve and vent points…etc.)
MEG solution is typically pumped into the subsea system via high
duty reciprocating pumps through a set of MEG filters to remove
the solids and debris going to the subsea system, figure 2.2 is a
simple overview of MEG storage and injection system. MEG
makeup and charging is provided using MEG loading pump.
Corrosion inhibitor is injected into the MEG injection pumps
common suction line to inject the corrosion inhibitor into the
subsea flow line.
205
CHOKE VALVE
MEG Injection points
206
207
MEG injection pump.
Due to the criticality of the MEG injection continuity
process, it’s a mandatory to provide a sparing pump with
at least (2* 100 %) injection pumps. Two of these pumps
will run continuously and at a fixed flow rate (manual
adjustment of flow is possible). Provision should be made
in the pipe work manifolds to allow for future addition of
further MEG Injection Pumps if required.
The MEG Injection Pump shall be fed from the MEG
storage tank. MEG Injection Pump is provided with a high
enough capacity and operating pressures to overcome
the hydraulic losses to the subsea system.
208
MEG injection pump.
209
MEG RECOVERY UNIT
Large glycol reclamation plants that recover mono-
ethylene glycol (MEG) used for hydrate inhibition
typically apply flash vaporization under vacuum to
remove dissolved and suspended solid contaminants.
Heat is transferred to the salty rich glycol feed at the
lowest possible temperature by direct contact with hot
recycled liquid, followed by distillation to recover clean
salt-free re-concentrated glycol.
210
MEG RECOVERY UNIT
211
LIQUID SEA VACUUM RING PUMP
Liquid ring pumps are mainly composed of a rotor
positioned eccentrically in a cylindrical body. When the
rotor rotates, an annular ring of liquid is formed,
moving with the rotor. In the section where the rotor
axis and the body are closer, the liquid completely fills
the chamber. With proceeding the rotation, the liquid,
that follows the body contour, recedes from the axis,
leaving a space, connected to the pump inlet, that is
filled by the incoming gas.
212
LIQUID SEA VACUUM RING PUMP
213
CONCLUSION
214
Conclusion 1
Many of principles here exposed can be useful for the

understanding and the operating of single machine, according to
vendors manual and specifications.
This is ONLY a practical guide to remind basic concepts and

approaches to machinery.
215

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Rotating Machinery Engineering

 COMPRESSORS – RADIAL FLOW

 COMPRESSORS – AXIAL FLOW

The objectives of this course is to gain a more comprehensive knowledge of plant

 Differences between Engine Machinery.

 Differences between Reciprocating and Rotating Machinery.

 Installation pre-commissioning and commissioning .

 Types, architecture, design and operating conditions Rotating and Reciprocating

 Rotating and Reciprocating Compressors.

 Ref. standard and Check list for each equipment

 When to chose a reciprocating compressor instead of a rotating one.

 When to use a steam/gas turbine as an expander.

 Machinery Control Systems

 Machinery Lubrication System

Relating to machinery in general we can define following parameters:

• Useful Effect • Kind of Energy Drop

• Load • Operating Costs.

• Product Composition • Initial Investment.

• Boundary Conditions • Necessary Maintenance.

• Ambient Conditions • Materials

• Draw Power/Provided Power • Auxiliaries

It is a consuetude to define machine characteristic through criteria of similitude, where

• ... and so on.

PUMPS :  Win losses

PUMPS TYPES :  Rotating

Reciprocating pumps are less efficient Reciprocating pumps are less

Starting from Total Losses

Pumped T° sup 150° C ?

Suction Pressure sup 5 barg ?

Rotation Speed sup 3000 rpm ?

Pumps could be ISO 5199 or Yes

Type Mass Flow Pressure Drop

Can compressors be installed in series and

Radial Flow Compressor Characteristics

Kaplan Pelton Francis

 Mass Flow Rate

Type Mass Flow Drop of Pressure

 Gas turbine profiles can sustain temperature of 1400 °C.

Rotating pumps: Reciprocating pumps:

Electric motor induction type

Steam turbine back-pressure type

 Vital loads: pump services to keep the unit in operation

 Semi-vital loads: Additional pump services to keep unit

 No vital loads: Normal restart is sufficient without

 Explosion proof motors: they are used in areas where

 Weather proof motors without sparking contacts: they are

 vital service of pump is a plant where the electric system

 steam balance of the plant.

Kinetic pumps are divided into:

 Centrifugal Pumps (which in turn can be radial

 Regenerative Pumps (turbine).

Pumping vanes are also sometimes used on the back of an impeller to

 has a vertically mounted rotor

 has a single overhung impeller

 has a single bearing housing with an option for water cooling

 The pressure casing is radially split

Vertical Single Stage

In most pump the following designs are used:

Their suction lines must be filled before starting

A pump is considered self venting if the nozzle arrangement and casing

SINGLE STAGE CENTRIFUGAL

 Cavitation is a process which involves the formation and subsequent

Exposure to cavitation can cause:

1. High vibration and noise caused by the implosions;