CHAPTER 1

PN JUNCTION DIODES

1.1 PN JUNCTION DIODE

A junction between P-type and N-type semiconductors is called a PN junction. A diode is

a two-terminal electronic device with unidirectional conducting properties. (i.e., conducts
in one direction and does not conduct in the other direction). Because of this property, a
diode can be used for rectification, switching, etc.,

1.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN DRIFT CURRENT AND DIFFUSION CURRENT

The current flow due to an electric field is called drift current. Drift current is proportional
to the number of charge carriers available for conduction. The current due to the diffusion
of charge carriers is called diffusion current. Charge carriers (electrons and holes) diffuse
from the higher to the lower concentration side. Thus, diffusion current is proportional to
the gradient in carrier concentrations. It does not require an electric field. The diffusion
current does not depend on the number of charge carriers.

1.3 DIRECTION OF DRIFT AND DIFFUSION CURRENTS IN PN JUNCTION

In the PN junction, the electron and hole diffusion currents are from the P side to the N
side, and the electron and hole drift currents are from the N side to the P side. Hence, the
net current is the difference between diffusion current and drift current.
1
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2 PN JUNCTION DIODES

1.4 FORMATION OF DEPLETION REGION IN A PN JUNCTION

Figure 1.1: Formation of Depletion Region in a PN Junction

During the formation of the PN junction, as shown in Figure 1.1, the electron and hole
concentration gradients at the junction are very high. Therefore holes diffuse from the P
side to the N side and electrons from the N side to the P side. The diffused charge carriers
recombine and result in the formation of an immobile negative ion on the P side and a
positive ion on the N side. This region of immobile charges is called the depletion region.
The dipole effect of the depletion region results in a potential difference between its two
ends. This potential aids the flow of minority carriers (drift current) across the junction. At
the same time, the presence of a depletion region reduces the gradient of charge carriers
and hence decreases the diffusion current. As the diffusion continues, the depletion region
widens, and the potential across the depletion region increases. i.e., the diffusion current
decreases, and the drift current increases. The equilibrium condition is attained when the
drift current equals the diffusion current. Since the direction of drift and diffusion currents
are opposite, the net current at equilibrium is zero. The potential appearing across the two
ends of the depletion region at equilibrium is called built-in or barrier potential or contact
potential (V0 ). This potential is a barrier for the majority carrier flow across the junction.

1.4.1 PROPERTIES OF DEPLETION REGION

There are no mobile charges in the depletion region.

P side of the depletion layer consists of negative ions, and the N side of the depletion
region consists of positive ions.
Number of negative ions on the P side equals the number of positive ions on the N
side.
A potential difference exists between the two ends of the depletion region because of
the dipole effect of oppositely charged immobile ions.
The width of the depletion region decrease with an increase in dopings.
If the dopings are equal on the P and N sides, the widths of the depletion region are
equal on P and N sides (Wp = Wn ).
If one side is lightly doped and the other is heavily doped, the lightly doped side will
have more width, and the heavily doped side will have less width.
 V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A PN JUNCTION DIODE 3

The width of the depletion region increases with an increase in reverse bias and de-
creases with an increase in forward bias.

1.5 V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A PN JUNCTION DIODE

Equilibrium: A pn junction (or any semiconductor) is said to be at equilibrium if

it is kept in darkness with no field or force applied to it. At equilibrium, the drift
current equals the diffusion current, and the net current through the diode is zero. A
pn junction at equilibrium is shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: A PN Junction at Equilibrium

Figure 1.3: Forward Biased PN Junction

Forward bias: Applying a positive potential to the P side of the diode with respect
to the N side, as shown in Figure 1.3, is called forward bias. The barrier for majority
carrier flow is reduced to V0 − Vf . When forward-biased, holes on the P side are
repelled towards the junction, neutralizing the negative ions on the depletion layer.
Similarly, electrons are also repelled towards the junction, reducing depletion region
4 PN JUNCTION DIODES

width on the N side. Thus as forward bias increases, the width of the depletion layer
reduces. This increases the gradient of majority carrier concentration. Thus the dif-
fusion current increases. The drift current due to the thermally generated minority
carriers remains almost constant and negligible compared to the diffusion current.
Thus the net current increases as the forward bias increases and the direction are from
the P side to the N side (+ve).

Reverse bias: Applying a negative potential (-VR ) to the P side with respect to the
N side, as shown in Figure 1.4, is called reverse bias. Now the barrier for majority
carrier flow increases to V0 + VR . As the reverse bias increases, most carriers are
repelled away from the junction, and the width of the depletion region increases. This
reduces the gradient in majority carrier concentration and diffusion current to a value
negligible compared to the drift current due to thermally generated minority carriers.
Therefore the net current through the diode is the drift current from the N side to the
P side (-ve). The reverse current remains constant irrespective of the applied reverse
bias because the thermally generated minority carriers limit the reverse current. This
is a constant for a given temperature and material. Therefore, this is called reverse
saturation current (I0 ). The reverse saturation current is also known as the leakage
current.

Figure 1.4: Reverse Biased PN Junction

The forward current increases exponentially with applied forward bias. The rate of in-
crease in current is less at low forward voltages. The cut-in voltage of a diode is defined
as the forward voltage at which the forward current reaches a significant level. Cut in volt-
age for a silicon diode is approximately 0.7 V, and for a germanium diode is 0.3 V. The
reverse saturation current for silicon diodes is in the nano ampere ranges, and for germa-
nium diodes, in the microampere ranges. If the reverse voltage is increased to very large
values, the reverse current increases sharply at a particular voltage. This voltage is called
the breakdown voltage. Diodes with breakdown voltages of a few to hundreds of volts are
available. V-I characteristics of a PN junction are shown in Figure 1.5.
 BRIEF EXPLANATION OF DIODE EQUATION 5

Figure 1.5: V-I Characteristics of a PN Junction Diode

1.6 BRIEF EXPLANATION OF DIODE EQUATION

The characteristics of a PN junction diode are represented by the diode equation given by
V
I = I0 (exp VT −1) (1.1)

where I-diode current, I0 -reverse saturation current, V -applied potential (+ve for forward
bias, -ve for reverse bias)

VT = kT
q is the volt equivalent of temperature=0.026V at room temperature, k- Boltz-
mann constant, T - Absolute temperature, q- Charge of an electron at equilibrium.

At equilibrium

V = 0; I = 0

With forward bias

V = +Vf (1.2)
Vf

If = I0 (exp VT
−1) (1.3)
Vf

If = I0 exp VT
if Vf ≫ VT (1.4)
At Vf =0.26V,
If = exp10 I0 (1.5)

i.e., the forward current increases exponentially with applied forward bias.
6 PN JUNCTION DIODES

With reverse bias

V = −VR (1.6)
−VR
IR = I0 (exp VT
−1) (1.7)

If = −I0 if |VR | ≫ VT (1.8)

i.e., the reverse current remains constant for |VR | ≫ VT and is called the reverse
saturation current or leakage current.

1.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL DIODE

A diode with zero cut-in voltage, zero forward resistance, infinite reverse resistance, and
infinite blocking voltage is called an ideal diode. V-I characteristics of an ideal diode are
shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: V-I Characteristics of an Ideal Diode

1.8 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A PRACTICAL DIODE (LOW FREQUENCY)

AND ITS CORRESPONDING CHARACTERISTICS

The equivalent circuit of a practical diode in forward bias and reverse bias and the corre-
sponding V-I characteristics are depicted in Figure 1.7.

∆VF
Rf = (1.9)
∆IF

∆VR
Rr = (1.10)
∆IR
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BARRIER POTENTIAL AND CUT IN VOLTAGE OF A DIODE 7

Figure 1.7: Equivalent Circuit of a Practical Diode (a) Forward Bias (b) Reverse Bias (c)
V-I Characteristics

1.9 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BARRIER POTENTIAL AND CUT IN VOLTAGE

OF A DIODE

Barrier potential (V0 ) is the potential appearing across the depletion layer at equilibrium.
When the forward bias becomes equal to the barrier potential, the potential barrier across
the junction reduces to zero, and the semiconductor acts as a conducting bar. Therefore,
the maximum forward-bias should be less than the barrier potential. As the forward bias
increases, the current increases exponentially. The cut-in voltage is the voltage at which
the forward current attains a significant value. The cut in voltage is always less than the
barrier potential.

1.10 RESISTANCES OFFERED BY A DIODE WHEN IT IS FORWARD BIASED

AND REVERSE BIASED

For an ideal diode, forward resistance is zero, and reverse resistance is infinity. i.e.,
it is equivalent to a closed switch when forward-biased and an open switch when
reverse-biased.
Practically, a forward-biased diode has a small forward resistance, typically a few
ohms and a reverse-biased diode has a very high resistance in the order of mega ohms.

1.11 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE

As temperature increases,
Forward current increases and tends towards the ideal characteristics, i.e., the forward
resistance and cut in voltage decrease.
Reverse current increases.
8 PN JUNCTION DIODES

Figure 1.8: Temperature Dependence of V-I Characteristics of a Silicon Diode

Break down voltage increases.

1.12 APPLICATIONS OF A DIODE

As a rectifier
In clamping circuit
In clipping circuit
As a peak detector
As an envelope detector
As a switch

1.13 ZENER DIODE

A Zener diode is a diode made to operate in the breakdown region. It can be used as a
voltage regulator. It is also used as a voltage reference.

1.13.1 V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE AND IMPORTANT PA-

RAMETERS

V-I characteristics of a Zener diode are shown in Figure 1.9.

 ZENER DIODE 9

Figure 1.9: V-I Characteristics of a Zener Diode

The important parameters of a Zener diode are:

VZ : Zener break down voltage

IZT : Test current at which VZ is measured

IZK : Zener current near the knee of the characteristics, the minimum zener current
required to sustain a breakdown

IZM : Maximum zener current limited by the maximum power dissipation

∆VZ
ZZ : Zener dynamic impedance ∆IZ
10 PN JUNCTION DIODES

1.13.2 COMPARISON OF ZENER BREAK DOWN WITH AVALANCHE BREAK

DOWN

Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown

Due to high field emission
The electric field required is very high
(105V/cm)
Heavy doping and low reverse voltage to
get high electric field
Zener breakdown takes place at low
voltages < 6V
Breakdown voltage decrease with an
increase in temperature
Breakdown voltage decrease with
increased doping
Due to secondary emission & avalanche
multiplication
High velocity of the charge carrier and
large depletion layer width is required
Light doping for large depletion width
and large reverse bias for high velocity
Avalanche breakdown takes place at high
reverse voltages
Breakdown voltage increase with an
increase in temperature
Breakdown voltage decrease with an
increase in doping on the lightly doped
side

1.13.3 AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN

Figure 1.10: Avalanche Multiplication in the Depletion Region

Avalanche breakdown is caused by secondary emission due to ionizing collision and

avalanche multiplication. Secondary emission is the process of emission of charge carriers
by the collision of fast-moving carriers with ions or atoms. For secondary emission, the
energy of the charge carrier should be high enough. The energy of the charge carriers de-
pends on the reverse bias. Therefore the reverse bias voltage should be high.

When a high-energy electron collides with an impurity atom, it brings out an electron-
hole pair. If the depletion region width is sufficiently large, the secondary emitted electrons
and holes undergo further collisions and the number gets multiplied. This multiplication
continues as a chain reaction and is called avalanche multiplication which is shown in Fig-
ure 1.10. As a result, the current increases sharply and the junction breaks down. This type
of breakdown is called avalanche breakdown. The energy required for ionizing collision
increases with an increased band gap. Therefore, a diode of higher band gap material will
have a high breakdown voltage for a given doping.
 VARACTOR DIODE 11

1.14 VARACTOR DIODE

The varactor diode (variable reactor diode) is used as a voltage variable capacitor. The
depletion region capacitance of the diode is used as the voltage variable capacitor. The
structure and symbol of the varactor diode are shown in Figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11: (a) Varactor Diode with P-N Junction and Depletion Region (b) Symbol

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area of the
plates and inversely proportional to the spacing between the plates.
Consider the reverse biased mode of a diode, in which the p-type region and n-type re-
gion are able to conduct and thus can be treated as two plates of a capacitor. The depletion
region between the p-type and n-type regions can be considered an insulating dielectric.
Hence, a reverse-biased diode is similar to a parallel plate capacitor in structure. The area
of the plates is equivalent to the area of the cross-section of the diode and spacing between
the plates is equivalent to the depletion region width.

The width of the depletion region of the diode changes with a change in reverse bias.
As the reverse voltage across the diode increases, the depletion region width increases, and
as the reverse voltage decreases, the depletion region width decreases or narrows as shown
in Figure 1.12. Hence, by varying the reverse bias of the diode, the capacitance can be
varied. This type of diode which functions as a capacitor in which the capacitance varies
according to the variation of reverse voltage across it, is known as a varactor diode.

Figure 1.12: Variation of Capacitance with Variation in Depletion Region of Varactor

Diode

For a p-n junction depletion capacitance Cj ∝ VR−n (neglecting Vo ), where n = 1

m+2
12 PN JUNCTION DIODES

The values of m and n for different diodes are:

1
m=0 for abrupt p-n junction, n = 2
1
m=1 for linearly graded junction,n = 3

m= 32 for hyper abrupt junction, n=2

Resonant frequency:
1
f∝√ (1.11)
LC
If a hyper abrupt junction is used for tuning along with an inductor L (which is kept con-
stant)
1
f∝√ (1.12)
C
1
f∝q ∝ VR (1.13)
VR−2
Thus the resonant frequency is directly proportional to the applied reverse voltage. Hence,
varactor diodes find use in radio and TV receivers for frequency tuning. Other applications
are in harmonic generation, parametric amplification, frequency modulation, etc. Charac-
teristics of the varactor diode are shown in Figure 1.13.

Figure 1.13: Characteristics of Varactor Diode

The varactor diodes have the following significant features:

Varactor diodes produce considerably less noise compared to other conventional diodes.
These diodes are available at low costs.
Varactor diodes are more reliable.
The varactor diodes are small in size and hence, they are very lightweight.
There is no useful purpose of the varactor diode when it is operated in forward bias.
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF LED 13

1.15 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF LED

Light Emitting Diode (LED) works on the principle of injection electro luminescence. An
LED is a PN junction made of direct band gap semiconductors. When it is forward-biased,
holes are injected from the P side to the N side and electrons are injected from the N side to
the P side. These injected charge carriers recombine radiatively with the majority of charge
carriers in neutral n and p regions, resulting in the emission of light. The light emission
increases with an increase in forward bias (or forward current). The colour of emitted
radiation depends on the band gap of the material. (The energy of the emitted radiation
equals the band gap of the material, Eg = hν).

1.15.1 APPLICATIONS OF LED

LED is used as a display device in instrument panels, dynamic display boards, etc.

LED is used as a source in fiber optic communication

LED is used as a source of light in burglar alarms, automatic door switches, etc.

1.15.2 MATERIALS USED FOR MAKING LEDs

Material Band gap Colour/nature of LED

ZnS 3.6 eV Ultraviolet LED
GaAs0.6 P0.4 1.9 eV Red LED
GaAs 1.43 eV Infrared LED
GaAsl−x ,Px , doped with
1.4-2 eV Green and Yellow LEDs
Nitrogen

1.16 RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts ac (alternating current) signal to dc (direct

current). The converted dc signal will be pulsating. A current that varies with time and
changes its direction is called ac current. DC current is a current which flows in one
direction only. If the value of the current is a constant or doesn’t change with time, it is
called a pure dc. If the dc current varies with time, it is called pulsating dc. Usually, the ac
current in our power system is in sinusoidal form.

1.16.1 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

An iron core transformer is used to step down the input ac voltage (230Vrms. ) to the desired
level. The transformer also isolates the electronic circuits from ac mains. The output at
the transformer secondary (Vi ) is shown in Figure 1.14. This is the input to the rectifier.
In the positive half cycle of input, diode D is forward biased and the voltage drop across it
is ideally zero. Therefore entire voltage appears across the load resistor RL i.e. V0 = Vi .
In the negative half cycle of the input, the diode gets reverse biased. When reverse biased,
the diode resistance is very large compared to RL . Therefore entire signal drops across the
diode and the output voltage remains at zero as shown in Figure 1.15.
14 PN JUNCTION DIODES

Figure 1.14: Circuit Diagram of a Half Wave Rectifier

Figure 1.15: Waveforms of a Half Wave Rectifier

1.16.2 IMPORTANT PARAMETERS OF A RECTIFIER

R.M.S value of ac component in the rectif ier output
Ripple f actor = (1.14)
DC component in the rectif ier output

dc output power delivered to the load

Rectif ication ef f iciency = (1.15)
AC input f rom the transf ormer secondary

dc power delivered to the load

T ransf ormer U tilisation F actor =
Rated ac power of the transf ormer secondary
(1.16)
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) of a rectifier is defined as the maximum voltage appear-
ing across a diode when it is reverse-biased.

1.16.3 EXPRESSIONS FOR RIPPLE FACTOR AND RECTIFICATION EFFI-

CIENCY OF A HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
For a half-wave rectifier
iL = Im sin ωt f or 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π (1.17)

iL = 0 f or π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π (1.18)
 RECTIFIER 15

Z 2π
1
Idc = Iav = iL dwt
2π 0
Z π Z 2π 
1
= Im sin ωtdwt + 0dwt
2π 0
π
Im π
= [−cosωt]0 + 0
2π
2Im
=
2π
Im
= (1.19)
π
Vm
Im = (1.20)
RL + rd
where rd is the diode resistance.
Im V m RL
Vdc = Idc RL = RL = (1.21)
π π (RL + rd )
The Rms value of the current is given as
s s
Z 2π Z π Z 2π
1 1
Irms = i2L dwt = sin2 ωtdωt + 0dωt
2π 0 2π 0 π
s Z π s π
2 2

Im (1 − cos2ωt) Im ωt − sin2ωt Im
Irms = dωt = = (1.22)
2π 0 2 2π 2 0 2

r.m.s value of ac component

Ripple Factor, γ= dc component

s v !2
2 u Im
r 
Irms u
2 π 2
γ = −1=t Im
−1= − 1 = 1.21 (1.24)
Idc π
2

For half wave rectifier, the dc power delivered to the load is given by
 2
2 Im
Pdc = Idc RL = RL (1.25)
π
16 PN JUNCTION DIODES

Total input power,

 2
2 Im
Pac = Irms (rd + RL ) = (rd + RL ) (1.26)
2
Rectification efficiency,
Im 2


Pdc π RL 40.6
η= = = × 100 = 40.6% if rd ≪ RL (1.27)
Pac Im 2 1 + RrdL


2 (rd + RL )

1.16.4 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A CENTRE TAPPED FULL WAVE

RECTIFIER
This rectifier requires two diodes and a transformer with a centre-tapped secondary wind-
ing. In the positive half cycle of the transformer secondary, D1 is forward biased, and D2
is reverse biased. Current flows through the load in the direction shown in Figure 1.16 (a).
The voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary appears across the load, as
the drop across the forward-biased diode is zero. In the negative half cycle of the input, D2
conducts and D1 does not conduct. The direction of current flow through the load remains
unchanged as shown in Figure 1.16 (b) and the magnitude of output voltage equals the volt-
age across the lower half of the transformer secondary. The input and output waveforms of
a full wave rectifier are shown in Figure 1.17.

Figure 1.16: Circuit Diagram of Centre Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

1.16.5 EXPRESSIONS FOR RIPPLE FACTOR AND RECTIFICATION EFFI-

CIENCY OF FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (CENTRE TAPPED OR BRIDGE)
For a full wave rectifier (center tapped or bridge), from Figure 7.26.

V0 = Vm sin ωt f or 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π (1.28)
Z π Z π 
1 1
Vdc = V0 dωt = Vm sin ωtdwt
π 0 π 0
 RECTIFIER 17

Figure 1.17: Waveforms of a full wave rectifier

1 π −Vm
Vdc = ([−Vm cos ωt]0 ) = [cos π − cos 0]
π π
Vm 2Vm
Vdc = 2= (1.29)
π π
s s s
π π 2 π
1 − cos2ωt
Z Z Z
1 1 Im
Irms = IL2 dωt = 2 sin2 ωt
Im dωt =
π 0 π 0 π 0 2
s π r
2 2

Im ωt sin2ωt Im Im
Irms = − = =√ (1.30)
π 2 4 0 2 2
Similarly, assuming the ideal diode,
1 π 1 π
Z Z
2Im
Idc = IL dωt = Im sin ωtdωt = (1.31)
π 0 π 0 π
v
s 2 u Im !2
Irms u √
2
Ripplef actor = − 1 = t 2Im − 1 = 0.482 (1.32)
Idc π
DC power delivered to the load is given by,
 2
2 2Im
Pdc = Idc RL = RL (1.33)
π
Total input ac power,
2
Pac = Irms (rd + RL ) (1.34)
Rectification efficiency,
2Im 2


Pdc RL 81.2
η= =  π2 = = 81.2% if rd ≪ RL (1.35)
Pac I 1 + RrdL
√m
2
(rd + RL )

i.e. rectification efficiency is doubled for full wave rectifier.

18 PN JUNCTION DIODES

1.16.6 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A center-tapped transformer is more expensive and takes up more space. Therefore, a
bridge rectifier is more often used even though it requires four diodes. Its PIV is only
half of that of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier. Therefore, a bridge rectifier is ideal for
rectifying high-voltage signals.

Figure 1.18: Circuit Diagram of a Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

In the positive half cycle of input, D1 and D3 are forward biased and current flows
through the load as shown in Figure 1.18 (a). The transformer’s secondary voltage appears
across the load. In the negative half cycle of input, diodes D2 and D4 conduct, and the
direction of current flow through the load remains the same as shown in Figure 1.18 (b).
The input and output waveforms of this rectifier are shown in Figure 1.19.
 RECTIFIER 19

Figure 1.19: Waveforms of a Full Wave Rectifier

1.16.7 COMPARISON OF THREE DIFFERENT RECTIFIER CONFIGURATIONS

Parameter Half wave Full wave Bridge

Secondary
voltage √ V 2V V
(Vm = 2V )
Number of
1 2 4
diodes
PIV Vm 2Vm Vm
No load dc Vm 2Vm 2Vm
output π π π

Ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482

Rectification
0.406 0.812 0.812
efficiency
0.821(no
TUF 0.287 0.693 transformer
saturation)
Ripple
f 2f 2f
frequency
Used at low Used at high
Applications Rarely used
voltages voltages

1.16.8 RECTIFIER CONFIGURATIONS FOR HIGH VOLTAGE SIGNALS

In a half-wave rectifier, if a capacitor filter is used, the PIV of the diode doubles. Its
rectification efficiency is also poor. Centre tapped rectifier needs a transformer with a
center tap and double the number of turns required for a transformer in a bridge rectifier.
It also needs a diode with double the PIV value required for a bridge rectifier. Therefore,
the cost of transformers and diodes will be high. Hence, a bridge rectifier is preferred for
high-voltage rectifiers even though it requires four diodes.
20 PN JUNCTION DIODES

1.16.9 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH CAPACITOR FILTER

(a) Circuit

(b) Waveforms

Figure 1.20: Full Wave Rectifier With Capacitor Filter

Figure 1.20 (a) shows the circuit of a full wave rectifier with a capacitor filter. The bold
curve in Figure 1.20 (b) shows the filtered output. From 0 to T1 , the diode Dr is forward
biased and capacitor charges through D1 to a value Vm . The charging time constant is
Rf C, where Rf is the forward resistance of the diode. From T1 to T2 , the capacitor
voltage is greater than the rectified output. Therefore, the diodes are reverse-biased and
act as open switches. The capacitor discharges through RL with time constant RL C. The
discharge is slow because
RL C >> Rf C
. The discharge becomes slower as RL C increases and the performance improves. The
capacitor filter is suitable at low currents because RL increases with a decrease in current.

1.17 POWER SUPPLY

Electrical energy is generated, transmitted, and distributed in the form of ac (alternating

Current). Commonly most of our home appliances work in ac. Unfortunately, some of
them work only in dc (direct current). In this situation, we have to use a dc Power Supply.

A dc power supply is a device that is capable of delivering direct current by feeding in

the alternating current, i.e., the input to the dc power supply is an alternating current and
 POWER SUPPLY 21

the output will be direct current. That is a rectification occurs inside the power supply. The
block diagram of a power supply is shown in Figure 1.21.

Figure 1.21: Block diagram of power supply

Transformer: A transformer is a device that transforms high-voltage ac into low-

voltage ac or vice versa. Our goal is to convert high voltage ac into low-voltage dc. The
transformer that is used in the power supply is a step-down transformer, which steps down
the input ac voltage. The magnitude by which the transformer steps down the voltage de-
pends on the turn ratio of the primary and secondary winding. Observe the magnitude of
the sinusoidal signal before the transformer block in Figure 1.21. Its magnitude is quite
high compared to that of the signal after the transformer block. This indicates that the
signal was stepped down by the transformer. There arises an obvious question as to why
a transformer is used in this system. The main reason why we use a transformer in the
system is as follows.

To reduce the voltage level which we get from the ac mains. Transformers can do the
job of reducing the voltage level in a simple and efficient manner.
The diodes used in the rectifier block cannot handle such a high level of voltage from
the ac mains. So, the voltage is first stepped down by the transformer, and the reduced
voltage is applied to the rectifier section.

Rectifier: Full wave rectifiers are the most commonly used rectifiers in power supply. It
simply allows the positive half cycle of the input current to pass through and inverts the
negative half cycle to the positive half cycle. This is shown above in the block diagram of
the power supply and its function is shown in Figure 1.22.
Filters: The output from the full wave rectifier is not a pure dc. The output is a pulsating
dc. The output contains large fluctuations in voltages. The voltage that we get from the
full wave rectifier fluctuates between 0 V and Vpeak , and hence it contains ac components.
These ac components need to be filtered out so as to obtain pure dc voltage. This is done
by filters. Filters are used to filter out any ac component present in the full-wave rectified
output. Typical input and output voltages of filters used in the power supply are shown
22 PN JUNCTION DIODES

Figure 1.22: Full wave rectifier

in Figure 1.23. In Figure 1.23, the output voltage from the filter contains voltage ripples.
This output is not a pure dc, however, a considerable amount of ac component is filtered
out by the filter. The effectiveness of the filter to remove the ac component is indicated by
the ripple factor. Smaller the ripple factor, the better the filter.

Figure 1.23: Filter

Regulator: A regulator is an electrical or electronic device that maintains a constant

output voltage irrespective of changes in load current, input voltage, or temperature. Con-
sider the case when there is a voltage fluctuation in ac mains. If there is a fluctuation in
ac mains, there will be a fluctuation in the output of the transformer too. The simple rea-
son for this is that the transformer only steps down whatever is given at its input. It can’t
decide for itself. The turns ratio, which determines the factor by which the transformer
steps down the voltage, is the same, irrespective of changes in input voltage. The output
of the transformer is only as good as its input. This output is passed on to the rectifier
which again rectifies whatever is applied to it. Filter tries to eliminate the ac components
as it is designed to do. However, the average dc voltage may not be the same as it was in-
tended to be. In such a condition, a voltage regulator comes into the picture. Another case
where a need for a regulator arises is when there is a change in load current. For changes
in load current, there is a change in output voltage. In order to maintain constant voltage
irrespective of changes in load current, the voltage regulator is used.

1.17.1 OPERATION OF ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A voltage regulator using a Zener diode is shown in Figure 1.24. The output voltage V0
remains constant at VZ for values of Vi greater than VZ . The excess voltage drops across
the resistor Rs . Resistor Rs also limits the current through the diode. It stops functioning
as a regulator when Vi falls below VZ .
 CLIPPING CIRCUITS 23

Figure 1.24: Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

1.18 CLIPPING CIRCUITS

Clipping circuits are non-linear wave-shaping circuits. They are used to clip off the pos-
itive or negative portions of an input waveform. It can also be used to slice off an input
waveform between two voltage levels. Using a double clipper, the moderate-quality square
waveform can be generated from a sine wave. The property of a diode as a switching device
is utilized in clipping circuits. There are two types of clippers: Series and Shunt (Parallel)
Clippers. In series clippers, the output is taken in series with the diode (load resistor comes
in series with the diode), and in shunt clippers, the output is taken parallel (shunt) to the
diode (load comes in parallel to the diode).

1.18.1 SHUNT CLIPPERS

Shunt clippers are discussed in the following section. The current through the diode is
limited by a resistance (R). The value of the series resistance used in the clipping circuits
is given by the expression p
R = Rf × Rr (1.36)
where Rf =forward resistance of the diode and Rr =reverse resistance of the diode.

The principle of operation of the shunt clipper is as given below:

1.18.1.1 POSITIVE CLIPPER CLIPPING AT 0 V This circuit passes only negative go-
ing half waves of the input to the output. During the negative half cycle, the diode remains
reverse biased so that the entire input voltage drops across the diode since the diode resis-
tance is much greater than the series resistance. All the positive half cycles are bypassed
through the diode to the ground terminal because the diode gets forward-biased when the
input voltage becomes positive. Due to the voltage drop across the diode, the clipping oc-
curs at +0.7 V. The circuit diagram, waveform, and transfer characteristics of the positive
clipper are shown in Figure 1.25.

1.18.1.2 NEGATIVE CLIPPER CLIPPING AT 0V This circuit passes only positive going
half waves of the input to the output since the diode remains reverse-biased during the
positive half cycle of the input signal. All the negative half cycles are bypassed through
the diodes since the diode gets forward-biased when the input voltage becomes negative.
24 PN JUNCTION DIODES

Figure 1.25: Positive Clipper Clipping at 0V

Figure 1.26: Negative Clipper Clipping at 0V

 CLIPPING CIRCUITS 25

Clipping occurs at -0.7 V due to the voltage drop across the diode. The circuit diagram,
waveform, and transfer characteristics of the negative clipper are shown in Figure 1.26.

1.18.1.3 POSITIVE CLIPPER CLIPPING AT POSITIVE VOLTAGE Till the input be-
comes greater than +Vb volt, the diode is reverse biased and the input appears at the out-
put. When the input is greater than +Vb volt, the diode becomes forward biased, and cell
voltage appears at the output. Since the voltage drop across the diode develops in series
with the cell, the actual clipping level is at Vb +0.7 volt. The circuit diagram, waveform,
and transfer characteristics are shown in Figure 1.27.

Figure 1.27: Positive Clipper Clipping at Positive Voltage

1.18.1.4 POSITIVE CLIPPER CLIPPING AT NEGATIVE VOLTAGE Diode becomes re-

verse biased when the input voltage is less than -(Vb − 0.7) Volt and the input appears at
the output. When the input is above -(Vb −0.7) volt, the diode becomes forward biased and
the cell voltage is available at the output. Since the voltage drop across the diode develops
in series with the cell, the actual clipping level is at (Vb − 0.7) volt. The circuit diagram,
waveform, and transfer characteristics are shown in Figure 1.28.

1.18.1.5 NEGATIVE CLIPPER CLIPPING AT NEGATIVE VOLTAGE When the input

voltage becomes less than -(Vb + 0.7) volt, the diode becomes forward biased and the cell
voltage becomes available at the output. When the input is greater than -(Vb + 0.7) volt, the
diode is reverse biased and the input appears at the output. The actual clipping level is at
-(Vb + 0.7) volt, due to the voltage drop across the diode. The circuit diagram, waveform,
and transfer characteristics are shown in Figure 1.29.

1.18.1.6 NEGATIVE CLIPPER CLIPPING AT POSITIVE VOLTAGE Diode becomes re-

verse biased when the input voltage is greater than (Vb − 0.7) volt and the input appears at
26 PN JUNCTION DIODES

Figure 1.28: Positive clipper clipping at Negative Voltage

Figure 1.29: Negative Clipper Clipping at Negative Voltage

 CLIPPING CIRCUITS 27

the output. When the input is below +(Vb − 0.7) volt, the diode becomes forward biased
and the cell voltage is available at the output. Since the voltage drop across the diode de-
velops in series and opposite with the cell, the actual clipping level is at (Vb − 0.7) volt.
The circuit diagram, waveform, and transfer characteristics are shown in Figure 1.30.

Figure 1.30: Negative Clipper Clipping at Positive Voltage

1.18.1.7 DOUBLE CLIPPER :

Figure 1.31: Double Clipping

28 PN JUNCTION DIODES

This circuit is a combination of positive and negative clippers. When the input is (Vb1 +
0.7) volt, diode D1 is forward biased and D2 reverse biased, the cell voltage in series with
the drop across the forward biased diode (Vb1 + 0.7) Volt appear at the output. While the
input is less than -(Vb2 + 0.7) volt, D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased. The
cell voltage in series with the forward biased diode drop -(Vb2 + 0.7) appears at the output.
When the input is between (Vb1 + 0.7) Volt and -(Vb2 + 0.7) Volt, both diodes are reverse
biased and the input appears as such as at the output. The circuit diagram, waveform, and
transfer characteristics of the double clipper are shown in Figure 1.31.

1.19 CLAMPING CIRCUITS

In some situations, it is necessary to add or subtract a dc voltage to a given waveform

without changing its shape. Circuits used for this purpose are called clamping circuits. This
can be achieved by connecting a dc source in series with the input. DC sources are very
expensive and bulky equipment. A capacitor that is charged to a voltage and subsequently
prevented from discharging can serve as a suitable replacement for a dc source. This
principle is utilized in clamping circuits. The output of the clamping circuit can be obtained
as explained below:
Initially, the capacitor charges through the diode and dc source while the diode is for-
ward biased to a maximum of the peak value of the input minus the diode drop (0.7 V) ±
cell voltage (dc bias voltage) depending on the polarity. Once the capacitor is charged, it
effectively acts as a cell since there is no discharge path. The expression for the voltage
across the capacitor can be obtained in terms of the peak value of the input (Vm ) and bias
voltage (Vb ). Apply KVL in the circuit and obtain the expression for V0 , assuming the
capacitor is a cell.

1.19.1 POSITIVE CLAMPER CLAMPING AT 0 V

Figure 1.32: Positive Clamper Clamping at 0V

 CLAMPING CIRCUITS 29

Suppose the input voltage is represented by the expression Vm sin ωt. During one nega-
tive half cycle of the input sine wave, the diode conducts and capacitor charges to (Vm -0.7
volt) with positive polarity at the right side of the capacitor. During the positive half cycle
of the input sine waves, the capacitor cannot discharge since the diode does not conduct.
Thus capacitor acts as a dc source of Vm volt connected in series with an input signal
source. The output voltage then can be expressed as Vo = Vin + (Vm − 0.7) volt. i.e. a
dc voltage (Vm -0.7) is added to the input so that the negative peak of the output is clamped
at -0.7 V. The circuit diagram, waveform, and transfer characteristics of positive clamper
clamping at 0 V are shown in Figure 1.32.

1.19.2 NEGATIVE CLAMPER CLAMPING AT 0 V

During one positive half cycle of the input sine wave, the diode conducts and capacitor
charges to (Vm -0.7) volt with negative polarity at the right side of the capacitor. During
the negative half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor cannot discharge since the
diode does not conduct. Thus the capacitor acts as a dc source of (Vm -0.7) volt connected
in series with an input signal source. The output voltage then can be expressed as Vo =
−Vin − (Vm − 0.7) volt. The positive peak of the sine wave is clamped at 0.7 V. The circuit
diagram, waveform, and transfer characteristics of negative clamper clamping at 0 V are
shown in Figure 1.33.

Figure 1.33: Negative Clamper Clamping at 0V

1.19.3 POSITIVE CLAMPER CLAMPING AT POSITIVE VOLTAGE

During one negative half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor charges through the
dc source and diode till (Vm + Vb -0.7) volt with the positive polarity of the capacitor at its
right side. The output can be expressed as Vo =Vin +(Vm + Vb -0.7). The negative peak is
clamped at (Vb -0.7) volt. The circuit diagram, waveform, and transfer characteristics of a
positive clamper clamping at positive voltage are shown in Figure 1.34.
30 PN JUNCTION DIODES

Figure 1.34: Positive Clamper Clamping at Positive Voltage

1.19.4 POSITIVE CLAMPER CLAMPING AT NEGATIVE VOLTAGE

Figure 1.35: Positive Clamper Clamping at Negative Voltage

During one negative half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor charges through the
dc source and diode till (Vm − Vb -0.7) volt with the positive polarity of the capacitor at its
right side. The output can be expressed as V o=Vin +(Vm − Vb -0.7) volt. The negative peak
of the input is clamped at -(Vb + 0.7) volt. The circuit diagram, waveform, and transfer
characteristics of a positive clamper clamping at negative voltage is shown in Figure 1.35.
 CLAMPING CIRCUITS 31

1.19.5 NEGATIVE CLAMPER CLAMPING AT POSITIVE VOLTAGE

During one positive half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor charges through the
dc source and diode till (Vm − Vb -0.7) volts with negative polarity of the capacitor at its
right side. The output can be expressed as Vo = -Vin -(Vm − Vb -0.7). The positive peak
of the output is clamped at (Vb + 0.7) volts. The circuit diagram, waveform and transfer
characteristics of a negative clamper clamping at positive voltage is shown in Figure 1.36.

Figure 1.36: Negative Clamper Clamping at Positive Voltage

1.19.6 NEGATIVE CLAMPER CLAMPING AT NEGATIVE VOLTAGE

Figure 1.37: Negative Clamper Clamping at Negative Voltage

32 PN JUNCTION DIODES

During one positive half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor charges through the
dc source and diode till (Vm + Vb -0.7) volts with the negative polarity of the capacitor at
its right side. The output can be expressed as Vo = −Vin − (Vm + Vb − 0.7). The positive
peak of the output is clamped at -(Vb − 0.7) volts. The circuit diagram, waveform, and
transfer characteristics of a negative clamper clamping at negative voltage are shown in
Figure 1.37.