CHAPTER 4: THE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF WORK

Learning Objectives:

4-1 Analyze an organizations structure and work-flow process and identify the output, activities and
inputs in the production of a product or service
4-2 Understand the importance of job analysis in the strategic human resource management
4-3 Choose the right job analysis techniques for a variety of human resource activities
4-4 Identify the task performed and the skills required in a given job
4-5 Understand the different approaches to job design

L.O. 4-1

Work- Flow Analysis and Organization Structure

Work-flow design is a process of analyzing tasks necessary for production of a product or service, prior to
assigning tasks to a particular job category or person. After thoroughly understanding the work-flow
design, we can make decisions regarding how to initially bundle various task into discrete job that can be
executed by a single person.

Organization structure – refers to the relatively stable and formal network of vertical and horizontal
interconnections among jobs that constitute the organization. After understanding how job relates to
different levels and functional areas, we can make informed decisions on how to design or improve jobs
to benefit the entire organization,

Work-flow analysis is useful in providing a means for managers to understand all tasks required to
produce a high-quality product and the skills necessary to perform those tasks.

Work-flow analysis includes analyzing:

 work outputs
 work processes
 work inputs

Work output is the result of work carried out by people using equipment or service over a certain unit of
time. Identifying an output or set of outputs is not sufficient. Once these outputs have been identified, it
is necessary to specify standards for the quantity and quality of these outputs.

Once the output of the work has been identified, it is possible to examine the work processes used to
generate the output. Work processes are the activities that members of a work unit engage in to produce a
given output. Process consist of operating procedures and these procedures includes all the task that must
be performed in the production of the output. Task are usually broken down into those performed by each
person in the work unit. Work maybe assigned to individual or a team. Team-based design is becoming
increasingly popular in contemporary organizations. It is essential that the level of task interdependence
(how much they have to cooperate) matches the level of outcome interdependence (how much they share
the reward for the task accomplishment) for the team to be effective.

Lean Production vs Batch Work Methods

Lean Production is processes that emphasize manufacturing goods with minimum amount of time,
materials, money and people to leverage technology and flexible, well-trained and skilled personnel to
produce more custom products for less.
Batch Work Methods use large groups of low skilled employees to churn out long runs of identical mass
products stored in inventories for later sale.

The final stage in work flow analysis

is to identify the inputs used in the
development of the work unit’s
product. These inputs can be broken
down into the raw materials,
equipment and human skills needed to
perform the task.

Organization structure provides a cross- sectional overview of the static relationship between individuals
and units that create outputs.

Two dimensions of structure are:

Centralization refers to the degree to which decision-making authority resides at the top of the
organizational chart as opposed to being distributed throughout lower levels.
Departmentalization refers to the degree to the degree to which work units are grouped based on
functional similarity or similarity of work flow. It also refers to the formal structure of the organization,
composed of various departments and managerial positions and their relationships with each other.

Two common configurations of organization structure tend to emerge in an organization.

Functional Divisional

• Functional departmentalization • Workflow Departmentalization

• High level of centralization
• High efficiency
• Inflexible
• Insensitive to subtle differences
across products, regions and
clients
• Low level of centralization
• Semi- autonomous
• Flexible and innovative
• Sensitive to subtle differences
across products, regions and
clients

L.O. 4-2

JOB ANALYSIS is a systematic investigation of task, duties and responsibilities of a job and the
necessary knowledge, skills and abilities of the person needs to perform the job adequately. It is important
for organizations to understand and match job requirements and people to achieve high quality
performance.
Job Analyst- People who collects information about job content, how the job is done and the personal
requirements needed to do the job successfully.

Because job analysis provides a deeper understanding of the behavioral requirements of the job, it plays a
vital role in the defense of employment practices. Following are the main importance and uses of job
analysis:

Job redesign is an effort where job responsibilities and tasks are reviewed, and possibly re-allocated
among staff, to improve output. Redesigning jobs can lead to improvements in both productivity and
in job satisfaction.

Human resource planning is the process of making sure there's adequate staffing, and that employees
are qualified to meet the needs of the company. It requires accurate information about the levels of skills
required in various job to ensure that enough individuals are available in the organization to meet the HR
needs of strategic plan.

Selection identifies the most qualified applicants for employment. It is necessary to determine the task
that will be performed by the individual hired and the knowledge, skills and abilities the individual must
have to perform the job effectively.

Training is the process of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for doing a particular job.
It involves the development of skills that are usually necessary to perform a specific job.

Performance appraisal is a regular review of an employee's job performance and overall contribution to
a company. Through job analysis, the organization can identify the behaviors and results that distinguish
effective performance from ineffective performance.

Career Planning entails matching an individual’s skills and aspirations with opportunities that are or
may become available in the organizations. This allows HR to guide individuals into jobs in which they
will succeed and be satisfied.

Job Evaluation is a systematic way of determining the value/worth of a job in relation to other jobs in an
organization. It tries to make a systematic comparison between jobs to assess their relative worth for the
purpose of establishing a rational pay structure

Components of Job Analysis

Job Content describes the duties and responsibilities of

the job in a manner that can range from global to a very
detailed description of tasks and procedural steps

Job Requirement identify the formal qualification,

knowledge, skills, abilities and personal characteristics
that employees need to perform the content of the job in a
particular situation or context

Job context refers to situational and supporting

information about a particular job. Its purpose, where it
fits within the organization, scope data, availability of
guidelines, the potential consequences of error, the
amount of closeness of supervision, work setting and
cultural, physical and working conditions.
HR use job analysis as a tool to ensure that the employees give their maximum output and fulfill the
objectives related to a job. They can lay down guidelines and frameworks which would help them recruit
the most apt person, ensure they have the right skills and monitor their roles, responsibilities & output.
Job analysis helps HR managers to decide the salaries, incentives & other benefits in accordance with the
job title, position, location etc.
Similarly, job analysis is important for employees and prospective candidates as they get a thorough
understanding of what is actually required from them. Employees have a clear picture on their
deliverables, the wages, workplace environment, benefits etc. A candidate while applying can easily
identify the best job for their which suits their skills, training, previous experience, areas of interest etc.
Thus, job analysis is a critical component for both the managers as well as employees in maximizing the
output for the company.

A good job analysis helps in creating a

job description and job specification,
which are quite similar terms.

Job description and job specification

are both a part of Job analysis given by
a company. There is a very minor
difference between job description and
job specification.

L.O. 4-3

There are obviously a vast number of different techniques that facilitate the job analysis process that HR
can use to ensure an employee is performing at their best, However, we can really boil these down to 3
job analysis methods that every HR professional needs to know.

Job Analysis Method: Interview

With this job analysis method, job analysts conduct interviews with incumbents to collect information
about their tasks and how they are coping with them. Interviews can be structured and unstructured
depending on your corporate culture.

Structured interviews follow a systematic approach where employees are interviewed accurately and
consistently, following a preset format.

In a structured interview, you typically see that:

All interviewees are asked the same questions in the same order.
Interviewers record, compare and evaluate answers against standardized criteria.
The interview process remains the same even if the interviewer changes.
Unstructured interviews, on the other hand, unravel without a preset structure. The interview process is
carried out as a conversation with no specific questions predefined. Nevertheless, the interviewer should
make the purpose and focus of the interview clear to the employees. Namely, that the purpose of the
interview is to understand their job role better in order to improve or modify their role.

In an unstructured interview, you typically see that:

Interviewees may receive different questions or the same questions may be asked in a different
order.
Interviewers don’t always use standardized criteria for recording, comparing and evaluating
answers.
The interview process varies depending on the interviewer.

Using interviews as the only job analysis method has several drawbacks, too. One disadvantage of using
the interview job analysis method is that employees may exaggerate or omit vital details. To overcome
this possible issue, HR professionals and job analysts should interview more than one employee in the
same position (if applicable). This will provide more reliable results and data for the job analysts and HR
professionals to work with.

Think of this as a scientific study where you need a larger pool of clients to make the results solid. You
can't determine how a role works with only one person's opinion - you need a larger sample size to see
what is the same and different across the board.

Job Analysis Method: Questionnaires

The questionnaire job analysis method requires employees, supervisors, and managers to fill out forms,
namely questionnaires. It’s one of the most widely used job analysis methods because it’s inexpensive to
create and easy to distribute to numerous individuals at a faster rate. Questionnaires can have different
question forms, such as open-ended questions, multiple choice, checklists or a mix of all of them.

Questionnaires used for job analysis collect data about all aspects that influence how a job is completed,
including both internal and external factors. One of the best examples of this method is the Position
Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is a standardized job analysis questionnaire containing 194 items.
These items represent work behavior, work conditions and job characteristics that can be generalized
across a wide variety of jobs.

PAQ 6 Sections
Information Input Relationship with other persons
Where and how a worker gets information needed The relationships with other people required in
to perform the job performing the job.
Mental processes Job Context
The reasoning, decision making, planning, and The physical and social contexts where the work is
information processing activities that are involved performed.
in performing the job.
Work Output Other Characteristics
The physical activities, tools, and devices used by The activities, conditions, and characteristics other
the worker to perform the job. than those previously described that are relevant to
the job.

Research indicated that PAQ measures 12 overall dimensions of jobs listed below and that a given job’s
score on theses dimensions can be very useful. The significant database has linked scores on a certain
dimension to score on subtests of the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB). Thus, knowing the
dimension scores provides some guidelines regarding the types of abilities that are necessary to perform
the job. This technique provides information about the work performed in a format that allows for
comparisons across jobs.

Decision/communication/general responsibilities Environmental awareness

Clerical/ related activities General physical activities
Technical / related activities Supervising/coordinating other personnel
Service / related activities Public / customer /related contract activities
Regular day schedule versus other work schedules Unpleasant / hazardous / demanding environment
Routine/ repetitive work activities Nontypical work schedule
Dimensions of the Position Analysis Questionnaire

It’s important that job analysis in HRM yields reliable information. Therefore, it’s best to combine
questionnaires with other job analysis methods. This will help job analysts retain and improve work
conditions for current incumbents, as well as create a job description that will attract the right talent for
future openings.

Job Analysis Method: Observation

The observation method enables job analysts to observe employees in their daily routines. The
information collected through observation is extremely useful and reliable since it’s via first-hand
knowledge. Observation is the only job analysis method that allows the job analyst or HR professional to
directly obtain the data, whereas other job analysis methods collect data indirectly and in an orchestrated
environment.

When using this particular method, a job analyst observes an employee and records what they do and do
not do. This helps job analysts and HR professionals reach a more reliable conclusion. However, even the
observation method comes with flaws. Some of the disadvantages of using the observation job analysis
method include:
Distortion of information if an employee is aware of the observation.
Awareness may affect the work output during the observation.
Not all job duties and reactions can be observed in the set time frame.
Higher managerial and executive roles may be difficult to observe fully.

So, in other words, this process allows the analyst to create a wide-reaching sample pool while also
understanding the factors at work when observing employees. It stands to reason that an employee will
work harder when they know they are being analyzed - though it still gives the analyst a good framework
to judge how well the role is being performed.

L.O. 4-4 / 4-5

Although we tend to view jobs as static and stable, jobs tend to change and evolve overtime. Those who
occupy or manage the jobs often make minor, cumulative adjustments to the job that try to match either
changing conditions in the environment or personal preferences for how to conduct the work. Although
there are numerous sources for error in the job analysis process, most inaccuracy is likely to result from
job descriptions simply being outdated. For this reason, in addition to statically defining the job, the job
analysis process must also detect changes in the nature of jobs.
HR may decide to change the way the work is done in order for the work unit to perform more effectively
and efficiently. This requires redesigning the existing jobs.

To effectively design jobs, one must

thoroughly understand the job as it exists
and its place in the larger work unit’s
work-flow process.

All jobs can be characterized in terms of

how they fare according to each
approach, thus the HR needs to
understand the trade-offs of emphasizing
one approach over another.

Methods on Job Design

JOB SPECIALIZATION –involves using

standardized work procedures and having
employees perform repetitive, precisely, defined
and simplified task

JOB ENLARGEMENT-horizontal expansion of

a job by adding similar duties and
responsibilities

JOB ROTATION- increase task variety by

moving the employee from one job to another

JOB ENRICHMENT-vertical expansion of a job

by adding planning and decision-making
responsibilities

There are major elements of various approaches to job designs. The following are those:

Mechanistic Approach

The focus of the mechanistic approach is identifying the simplest way to structure work that maximizes
efficiency. This most often entails reducing the complexity of the work to provide more human resource
efficiency—that is, making the work so simple that anyone can be trained quickly and easily to perform
it. This approach focuses on designing jobs around the concepts of task specialization, skill simplification,
and repetition.
Scientific management is one of the earliest mechanistic approaches that
sought to identify the one best way to perform the job through the use of
time-and-motion studies.

Motivational Approach

The motivational approach to job design focuses on the job characteristics that affect the psychological
meaning and motivational potential, and it views attitudinal variables as the most important outcomes of
job design. The prescriptions of the motivational approach focus on increasing job complexity through
job enlargement, job enrichment, and the construction of jobs around sociotechnical systems.

It provides a means for the manager to understand all the tasks required to
produce a number of high-quality products as well as the skills necessary to
perform those tasks.

Biological Approach

A theme common to nearly all organizations is the need to identify clearly the outputs of work, to specify
the quality and quantity standards for those outputs, and to analyze the processes and inputs necessary for
producing outputs that meet the quality standards. This conception of the work-flow process is useful
because it provides a means for the manager to understand all the tasks required to produce a number of
high-quality products as well as the skills necessary to perform those tasks.

Ergonomics is concerned with the interface between individuals’

psychological characteristics and the physical work environment.

Perceptual-Motor Approach

The perceptual-motor approach to job design has its roots in the human-factors literature and focuses on
human mental capabilities and limitations. The goal is to design jobs in a way that ensures that they do
not exceed people's mental capabilities. This approach generally tries to improve reliability, safety, and
user reactions by designing jobs in a way that reduces the information processing requirements of the job.
This approach, similar to the mechanistic approach, generally has the effect
of decreasing the job's cognitive demands.

SUMMARY

The analysis and design of work o\is one of the most important components to developing and
maintaining a competitive advantage. Strategy implementation is virtually impossible without thorough
attention devoted to work-flow analysis, job analysis, and job design. HR need to understand the entire
work-flow process in their work unit to ensure that the process maximizes efficiency and effectiveness.
To understand this process, HR also must have clear, detailed information about the jobs that exists in the
work unit, and the way to gain this information is through job analysis.

Equipped with an understanding of the work-flow process and the existing job, managers can redesign
jobs to ensure that the work unit is able to achieve its goals while individuals within the unit benefit from
the various work outcome dimensions such as motivations, satisfaction, safety, health, and achievement.
This is one key to competitive advantage.

End of Module Test:

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the importance of job analysis in strategic human resource management?

2. What are the different approaches to job designs?
3. For you, what job analysis technique is best for human resource activities?

References:

Noe, Hollenback, Gerhart & Wright. Human Resource Management: Gaining Competitive Advantage.
McGraw Hill,2009
Rothwell, William and Kazanas, H.H. Human Resource Development: A Strategic Approach, 1994
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https://www.iedunote.com/departmentalization
https://quizlet.com/47417622/job-analysis-and-job-design-flash-cards/
http://study.com/
https://www.investopedia.com/what-is-a-performance-appraisal-
4586834#:~:text=A%20performance%20appraisal%20is%20a,growth%2D%2Dor%20lack%20thereof.
https://en.wikipedia.org/
https://www.mbaskool.com/business-concepts/human-resources-hr-terms/1797-job-analysis.html
https://blog.careerminds.com/job-analysis-methods