Tutorial Letter 501/0/2020: Applied English Language For Foundation and Intermediate Phase - First Additional Language

ENG2611/501/0/2020
Tutorial Letter 501/0/2020
Applied English Language for Foundation

and Intermediate Phase - First Additional
Language
ENG2611
Year module
Department of English Studies
This tutorial letter serves as the Study Guide for this module.
BARCODE
Open Rubric
CONTENTS
Page
1. PREFACE.......................................................................................................................3
2. UNIT 1: EXPLORING CRITICAL READING .................................................................7
3. UNIT 2: USING READING SKILLS FOR CRITICAL WRITING .................................45
4. UNIT 3: INFORMED READING AND WRITING FOR EDUCATION ..........................79
5. UNIT 4: EXPLORING LANGUAGE AND ANALYTICAL SKILLS ............................105
6. UNIT 5: HOW TO WRITE A CRITICAL ESSAY .......................................................133
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1. PREFACE
Welcome to English 2611 Applied English Language for Foundation and Intermediate
Phase: First Additional Language.
The module content was developed in close-alignment with the relevant CAPS documents.
The content learnt and the skills acquired in this module are thus appropriate in terms of
equipping teachers to specifically teach the Foundation and Intermediate Phases. Although
the material is closely aligned to CAPS outcomes and requirements, the content and skills
are general and would meet the needs of any student interested in furthering their
knowledge and skills of English Studies.
This module adopts an integrated and multimodal approach in the use of language systems,
literature and visuals in order to develop your analytical, critical reading and writing skills.
As this is an Applied English Language Studies module, emphasis will be on development
of disciplinary content knowledge and the application thereof in analysing a variety of
literary, non-literary, visual texts.
The units in this module have been designed to follow a logical sequence in terms of skills
acquisition, with some cross-references to points raised in previous units. There are many
activities as practice makes perfect. There are also lots of activities, as practice makes
perfect. Some are self-assessment activities, while for others we have provided feedback;
attempt them all to gain as much knowledge as possible. We enjoyed preparing the units
for you, so we hope you enjoy acquiring the knowledge they contain.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
You will be glad to note that we have included the official and administrative information of
the module for your perusal.
1. Module title
Applied English Language for Foundation and Intermediate Phase: First Additional
Language
2. Module level
NQF Level 6
3. Credits attached to the module

12 credits
4. Purpose of the module

This module intends to promote multilingualism and intercultural communication in
English as a First Additional Language. This module will provide qualifying
graduates with levels of language proficiency that meet the threshold levels
necessary for effective learning across the curriculum.
The module aims to:

 adopt an integrated approach in the use of language systems, literature and
visuals to promote analytical skills.
 advance and integrate the students’ foundational knowledge of and skills in
language and literature to conceptualise the process of critical text analysis.
 develop the students’ skills in interpreting how linguistic features, literary devices,
visuals and structure influence meaning and purpose in a wide range of texts.
 promote the use of selective and critical reading strategies of different literary and
non-literary genres as prompts to develop critical writing skills.
 advance the students’ ability to write logical and coherent text analysis by
implementing the three phases of the writing process.
 enhance the students’ proficiency and pragmatic competence in the use and
variation of the English language in different real-life contexts and domains.
5. Outcomes and assessment criteria
Specific Outcome 1:
Identify the different varieties of the English language used for different purposes in
different contexts.
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Assessment Criteria
1.1 Distinguish the characteristic features and purpose of:
 formal and informal language
 standard and non-standard English
1.2 Comment on the appropriateness of the use language in examples of spoken
and written discourse in different contexts.
Specific Outcome 2:
Identify and explain the core linguistic, literary, visual and structural features, as well as
their respective functions in literary and non-literary texts.
Assessment Criteria
2.1 Distinguish the difference with references to linguistic, literary, visual and structural
features in selected texts.
2.2 Explain the use of specific examples of linguistic, literary, structural and visual
features in selected texts to convey:
 style and register
 setting, theme, characterization
 audience and purpose
 persuasive devices
Specific Outcome 3:
Apply interpretation/reading strategies to interrogate literary and non-literary texts for
specific purposes.
Assessment Criteria
3.1 Apply selective critical interpretation/reading strategies to analyse the meaning

and purpose in a range of spoken, written and visual texts.
Specific Outcome 4:
Apply critical writing skills to evaluate different types of texts
Assessment Criteria
4.1 Apply selective and well developed techniques in text analysis to gather and
present complex information that is coherent and appropriate to the conventions
academic writing standards.
4.2 Become critical readers and writers in real-life contexts in their use of linguistic,
literary, structural and visual features as academic students and prospective
teachers learning and teaching the English language.
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PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOKS
Bailey, S. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students 4th ed.
London: Routledge. ISBN 9780367001780
Leland, C., Lewison, M. & Harste, J. (2013). Teaching Children’s Literature: It’s Critical!
Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 9780367002350
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2. UNIT 1: EXPLORING CRITICAL READING
By the end of this unit you should:

 have an understanding of what critical reading entails;
 be able to identify critical texts;
 be familiar with critical reading techniques;
 be able to read texts for meaning and interpret texts critically;
 be able to take notes and annotate a text;
 be able to summarise;
 apply different reading strategies to various texts.
This unit aligns with the prescribed textbooks. Carefully read through the relevant
sections in your textbooks.
Bailey, S. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students 4th ed. Part 1:
Unit 1.8 & 1.9. Part 2: Unit 2.13 & 2.14.
Chapter 3.
Introduction
In this study unit, the main focus will be on critical reading and the interrelationship between
language and literary skills: In particular, how we can draw on and apply our knowledge of
language to read and interpret various texts meaningfully. As students of English studies, it
is important to recognise that language and literary skills are complementary. Literary texts
and language have a relationship as language allows us to be able to penetrate a literary
text and literary texts can be used to teach language. Thus, there are various reading
techniques, critical English language skills and competencies that we will draw on in order
to study language in more depth using literary texts. This unit will explore the skills of critical
reading, identifying critical texts, critical reading techniques, note-taking and annotations,
writing summaries, reading for knowledge and different reading strategies prompted by
looking at texts. Each skill will first be described or discussed in order to provide you with a
better understanding of what it entails, including how it can be used as a basis for effective
study.
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What is critical reading?
There are many ideas related to reading. Reading helps us to understand our immediate
surroundings (street signs and shop names); to understand the world around us
(newspapers and textbooks); to be involved with other people (social media and visual
literacy) and to gain academic knowledge by critically reading, analysing and interpreting
academic texts. Reading is not only a mechanical process of looking at and recognising
words and absorbing them; it is a critical process of recognising words, absorbing their
meaning on different levels and in different ways and then processing the information in our
minds to obtain a deeper understanding of ourselves, other people and the world. All these
aspects form part of critical reading.
Academic life involves critical reading. As students of English, we can learn to read critically
using various sources, but literature is the most important one. When we speak of literature
we refer to literary texts which maintain certain standards of language use, explore thematic
ideas and have been recognised, through the years, as examples of quality writing in
contrast to short-lived texts such as newspaper and magazine articles which do not have
the qualities of literary pieces. We often wonder why we must read, and in particular, why
we must read literary pieces. The most common answer is that literature helps us to have
a better understanding of ourselves and the world.
Activity
In order to understand the ideas expressed thus far, ask yourself a few questions upon
which you can reflect, think and provide answers. This process can help you better
understand the idea of reading.
1. Does reading matter to you? If so, why?
2. Is reading important to everyone?
3. What do you learn from reading?
4. How does reading help you to understand your everyday experiences?
5. Does reading change your view and understanding of the world?
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In Chapter Three, Leland et al (2013) make a few recommendations as to what constitutes

an environment which motivates us to read. They also suggest that we must read what we
understand because if the piece is beyond our understanding, we get nothing out of it. We
should see reading as enjoyable so that we will want to do it outside the class environment.
We must strive to overcome obstacles, such as finding the meaning of unknown words or
concepts. We need to know that reading does not always follow the same process as
reading functional writing, such as information boards, is different from reading fiction for
pleasure. Reading is a process which starts by choosing a book and ends when the book
has been read, discussed, analysed and internalised. We must question why and how
authors decide to write a specific literary piece and do research to find answers to questions
we do not understand. This is all part of critical reading.
Identifying critical texts

In its broadest sense, literature refers to the written word, but it is usually divided into genres
such as poetry, novels, dramas, editorials, essays, articles or visual texts. Thus, any text
may be used for critical reading. The reason for the various genres (types of literature) is
that each has its own purpose. Because we do not all like or appreciate the same texts, we
need to expose ourselves to different types of texts to find what we like. This motivates us
to read in a more in-depth manner, thereby gaining more knowledge. Remember that not
all books need to be read till the end. As we develop our reading skills, we can read bits of
different books so as to ‘taste test’ them until we find ones that we want to finish. Think of a
library as a wonderful reading buffet where there is something for each taste. What if we do
not find a book we like? Then we must not stop until we do find one!
(Leland et al, 2013: 37) recommend that our bookcases should be filled with many texts
including ‘picture books and other reading materials’ that have ‘both fiction and non-fiction
content’ Book illustrations are also important as we look at pictures and notice their
similarities and differences and how they relate to the actual story. Remember that a picture
is worth a thousand words so picture books serve a purpose for readers of all ages. We
should read more than just our prescribed books; the more we read the easier it will be to
appreciate and analyse texts and develop a personal taste for literature. It is also important
to learn from an early age about literal and figurative language and how pictures can be
interpreted as figurative representations of written words, as, by interpreting pictures, we
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will learn how to interpret figures of speech. Figures of speech are basically word pictures
of abstract ideas. We need to generate different interpretations of pictures and texts so as
to have a multi-layered interpretation (a text can have different meanings depending on how
readers understand it) which enriches the reading experience and allows us to relate the
literary piece to our own lives. Literature is best understood when it relates to our own lives
because it has practical relevance. We need to learn to read and to also solve our own
learning problems which could become obstacles to reading.
One of the solutions to overcoming obstacles of this kind is the ‘Buddy system’ (Leland et
al, 2013: 42). This system gets older children to read books to younger children which will
interest them, after which they discuss the texts together. As students, you can also apply
this strategy by forming reading groups consisting of members of different ages and abilities
and discussing the books we read so as to elicit more points of view and perspectives.
English Studies or any literature can be read on many different levels and interpreted
accordingly. What is important is for us to have choices about what we read and understand
how language can be used. Some older people will have missed out on being motivated to
read when they are younger and so they will need to compensate by learning the skill later
in life. If this is the case, then reading simpler books intended for younger children can get
them started on developing reading skills.
We may find it difficult to identify critical texts, as we are linguistically and culturally diverse
society. This could be an obstacle in understanding not only the language used but also the
context of a literary text. However this is not, in fact, a huge problem. Instead of thinking of
people whose home language is not English as being disadvantaged, we should rather use
their knowledge of other languages as an aid to acquiring English. At first, they may feel the
need to translate English texts into their home language or write in their home language,
but discussions need to be in English. They must be encouraged to participate in these
discussions to improve their listening and language skills and give them more confidence
in expressing themselves in English. A lecturer will only use English when teaching but if
the language is an obstacle, use easier English synonyms or descriptions in your notes to
help you understand. The idea is that once learners understand the texts, they need to
practise expressing their understanding of them in English. They must never feel isolated
and they must know that literature can be enjoyed or read in different languages. The ideal
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would be to find books which have been translated into various languages so that learners
can read versions in the languages they speak. Although the literature taught in class is
written in English, the themes are usually relevant to our cultural backgrounds, and this
make it easier to understand the basic ideas while learning new vocabulary and improving
learners’ knowledge of English. Diversity, especially in South Africa, should never be seen
as an obstacle, but as a means to enrich knowledge and experience, which contributes to
the reading process.
Activity One
Look at your books at home, a friend’s house or even a bookstore and try to sort them
according to age group, genre or subject.
Make an accurate list of the books according to categories (age, genre, topic or subject)
which you think are appropriate for the courses you study and which could be used to
practise critical reading.
To make your list, you need to know how to use a reference system correctly. There are
many different ways of writing up a reference list, but the three main ones are: the Harvard
System, the Vancouver System and the footnote/endnote system (Bailey, 2015: 54). (We
will tell you more about these three systems in Unit 5.)
Commentary on the activity:

The purpose of this activity was to help you understand the difference between academic
books, books read for pleasure and non-fiction reference books, which supplement our
knowledge. The more knowledge we have, the more critically we will learn to read.
Critical reading techniques

When engaging in critical reading, we follow certain steps in order to make meaning of a
literary text or understand the themes that the author intends to convey. We start with pre-
reading exercises, which involves things like doing research on the author, the historical
context of the text or significant societal details which were relevant to the text at the time it
was published. When we read the text for the first time, we can read every word or we can
start by skimming (reading through the text quickly) or scanning the text (focusing on
specific words or key concepts) beforehand to pick out the key ideas which will guide our
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understanding of the piece before we start with a detailed reading. Last of all, we have the
post-reading stage which is the most critical because, here, we analyse the text for meaning
and relevance and we try to link it to our own lives or the world around us. In this way, we
create layers of meaning and process so that the narrative becomes part of our everyday
lives. Post-reading activities focus mainly on reflecting on the theme or themes present of
the text and how they are brought to life through the vocabulary, images, figures of speech,
visuals or characters that the author uses.
One of the great things about good literature is that it generates layers of meaning, i.e.
meaning in literature is not self-contained (limited to only one interpretation). Different
people derive meaning that is relevant to their lives according to their age group, the socio-
economic context of their lives and their emotional state. Because good literature can stay
with us forever, you could almost say that “we are written”, i.e. what we think is influenced
by what we have read. We need to know this so that when we read, we acknowledge our
backgrounds and are flexible and open to how we interpret the words because critical
reading needs a degree of objectivity.
For example, consider the following statement:

“The death of Mr Mandela has caused controversy in South Africa as he played an important
role in many aspects of the country’s society, but the question which arises is, to what extent
will he be missed?” This statement seems short and to the point, but it can be responded to
on many levels. The death could be analysed according to its effect on the economy; which
parties will be in conflict – because the words could refer to political parties or his own family
members; the effect of the death on the different groups in society; there could be a new
view of Mr Mandela’s role in the history of the country or the death could give rise to new
biographies and films about his life seen from the perspective of different people. The point
is that a statement can give rise to a multitude of responses all of which have to be
considered when analysing a piece of writing.
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Our ability to read and appreciate literature often comes from the approach to reading in
our homes, irrespective of our home language, because an appreciation for reading is not
limited by language or culture. The more reading takes place at home, the easier we will
learn to read critically and the greater our appreciation of reading at school. Those who read
a lot can often answer factual and open-ended questions easily. But if our parents focus
more on reading as a skill than an appreciation of books, we might not be able to answer
open-ended questions, about our preferences and how reading affects us personally.
Teachers can remedy this at school because children can be encouraged to enjoy reading
so much, both at school and at home, that they will compensate for the fact that they started
reading at a later stage by reading a lot. Open-ended questions address insight, personal
views and relevance to our own lives, but are still based on the text. The idea expressed by
Leland et al (2013) is that the more reading is seen as a pleasure, the easier it will be and
the better we will be at it. This sets the foundation for good readers who usually go on to
perform well academically and highlights the importance of reading in children’s and
learners’ lives.
According to Leland et al (2013), another aspect to keep in mind when reading is that we
need to understand that texts often embrace cultural ideas and, therefore, we should be
sensitive to the ideas associated with specific cultures when reading. We must learn to
understand that a text presents certain characters favourably and others unfavourably and
understanding how characters work with or against each other helps us to recognise the
themes of a text.
Characters which are favoured quite often have the power to change their circumstances,
achieve success in a conflict or have an effect on other characters. When asked to discuss
texts, we look at how characters are portrayed and the kind of people they are. Are they
good or bad, do they change or do they influence others to change? Look at the extract
below from To Kill a Mockingbird (Lee, 1982: 282):
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‘I never heard tell that it’s against the law for a citizen to do his utmost to prevent a crime
from being committed, which is exactly what he did, but maybe you’ll say it’s my duty to tell
the town all about it and not hush it up. Know what’d happen then? All the ladies in Maycomb
includin’ my wife’d be knocking on his door bringing angel food cakes. To my way of thinkin’,
Mr Finch, taking the one man who’s done you and this town a great service an’ draggin’ him
with his shy ways into the limelight – to me, that’s a sin. It’s a sin and I’m not about to have
it on my hand. If it was any other man it’d be different. But not this man, Mr Finch.’
In this extract, Mr Tate uses his authority as the town sheriff to protect a character from
being exposed publicly, ironically for a good deed. Mr Tate believes that the character would
be harmed by all the attention and asks Atticus to help him because he is a respected
lawyer. This shows how characters can have the power to help others or decide what other
characters may or may not know. Being able to interpret events like this in books should be
practised from an early age in preparation for English studies at secondary and tertiary
levels where students are asked to concentrate on and understand themes in texts. The
interpretation of characters develops layers of meaning and enriches our understanding of
ourselves and humanity. The process of interpretation is quite unpredictable as it changes
with the times and is influenced by outside forces, such as current social events and our
own family values. This means that we need to be flexible and open to different socio-
cultural circumstances while we learn to understand the world through our interpretations.
As readers, we often reveal our personal backgrounds when we answer questions set on
literary texts because our responses reveal much about ourselves.
Activity Two
Analyse yourself the same way you would analyse a character in a book. Look at aspects
such as home language, other languages you speak, your culture or the various cultures
which influence you, your socio-economic background, even your political views. Then read
a text of your liking and analyse the main character using the same criteria you used for
yourself. Write reflexive notes on how you were influenced by your background in your
interpretation of the text.
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This activity may seem unimportant, but it is arming you with awareness of yourself for
future reference: the more you know about yourself, the easier it will be to approach texts
critically. Knowing what influences you will allow you to be aware of these factors when
reading critically so that you know to what extent you need to pay attention to them or try to
look past them in order to have a more objective reading experience.
Cultural and linguistic diversity also plays a role in selecting the texts which will be read,
studied and interpreted. Diversity is a part of our nation and it enriches our lives but we need
to be aware of it when facing academic studies.
Note-taking and annotations

During the reading process, you should use note-taking and annotations to jot down
insights. In reading, we thus use our eyes and also our hands. Make notes as you read by
underlining, highlighting or writing key notes in the margins (obviously this cannot be done
with books which need to be used by other people: we then make notes in a separate
exercise book or note pad). This helps us delve deeper into the text. We can write down our
thoughts and ideas as we read or do research on a specific passage or character. We could
also compare two or more sources with reference to a specific aspect of the text. Later in
the Unit we will look at the different aspects of a text that are usually studied. This is
especially significant for literary pieces which need to be studied for examination purposes.
Quite often it is easier to make copies of literary texts so that we can make notes all around
the piece. This works especially well with poems which are usually short.
Summaries
Summaries outline the main ideas of a reading piece. When analysing literature you can
make summaries on various aspects of a text, such as plot, characters, themes, setting and
language. These notes encourage a deeper understanding of the story and help us see how
the different aspects work together. For example - how language contributes to the plot;
how different characters are represented by the words used or how the setting (time and
place) emphasises a theme. The value of notes must never be underestimated because
they help us to understand what we read. Notes do not have to be in words, sentences and
paragraphs: notes can take various forms, both oral and written and can be done alone or
in groups, as it is helpful to work together to share ideas and help each other make sense
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of a reading. Quite often one student’s questions will assist another who is too shy to ask
about something.
How to combine sources in writing

When writing an assignment or essay it is important to present evidence that thorough
research has been done to show that our knowledge of the subject matter is not limited to
our own thoughts. We need to know how the subject matter has been handled by other
readers, and compare and contrast different views of the issue so that we have a multi-
layered understanding of the text. This is called combining sources. Bailey (2015) proposes
that sources should offer a debate on the issue discussed in an essay. So do not be afraid
to argue a point and allow your mind to be flexible, tolerant and process ideas which are
new, different and even a little overwhelming. (Refer to the notes in Unit 5 which discuss
the use of sources in detail. The topic is also covered by Unit 6 of 2612.)
Activity Three
Take one story (it can be a short story or book which you have already read) and make
summaries for it. Below is a table to guide you.
Aspect of the story Story or book

Plot
Main characters
Setting
Examples of figures of
speech
Examples of images
Themes

Summarising is a good skill to learn from an early age because it teaches you to make
notes, which you need to do as you proceed to tertiary education. It is also advisable to
learn to make your own notes independent of the notes lecturers provide as this motivates
you to seek information outside the classroom on your own. Remember that in literature
there can be many possible interpretations (as long as they are substantiated) which enrich
the reading process.
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Activity Four
Let us now apply our reading skills to a poem. Quite often it seems that a poem is more
difficult to read and understand than prose (paragraph writing), but this is not so if you read
it one verse, sentence or idea at a time. Once each idea has been analysed then we put all
the points together to understand the overall themes.
At the Bomb Testing Site

by: William Stafford
At noon in the desert a panting lizard

waited for history, its elbows tense,
watching the curve of a particular road
as if something might happen.
It was looking at something farther off

than people could see, an important scene
acted in stone for little selves
at the flute end of consequences.
There was just a continent without much on it

under a sky that never cared less
ready for a change, the elbows waited.
The hands gripped hard on the desert.
Pre-reading activity:
1. Do research on the war sites around the world and most especially the issue of nuclear
bombs in North Korea for background knowledge relating to the threat of nuclear
bombs.
2. Look up any words whose meaning you do not know.
Looking at the poem in detail:
3. Why would the speaker use the lizard as a spectator and an image?
4. Why does the speaker make a reference to “history”? Explain the figurative idea
associated with it.
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5. Discuss the verb tenses used and their implication.
6. Discuss the desert setting of the poem.
7. Why would the “sky” not care?
Post-reading activity:
8. Now put all the ideas discussed in the poem together to write a paragraph on the
themes of the poem. Even if you are not certain of what these are write down what
you think may be possible ideas the poem suggests.
Reading for knowledge

The steps discussed above encourage reading for knowledge, so that we do not read only
the text, but we analyse it, compare it to other texts and understand the implied meaning
(abstract ideas or themes). Students need to read texts thoroughly to ‘read between the
lines’. This is referred to probing the implied or nuanced meaning, implying that we need to
develop awareness of how meaning can change subtly (in small degrees) according to
vocabulary, context and our view of life. Reading for clarity implies that we need to
understand what we read, in the sense that as students who study for the most part on our
own, we cannot leave aspects without explanation so that meaning is lost as this will lead
to ambiguity which will limit our appreciation of a text. Thus we need to do as much research
as possible in order to compile notes which provide such notes to guide us to a holistic
understanding of the text.
How we process what we read

In order for us to learn how to read for knowledge, it is important to know how reading
‘works’. Many researchers have explored the way brains process what we see. From this,
the basic elements of reading can be identified as follows: written language is divided into
graphophonemics (‘grapho’ meaning writing and ‘phonics’ meaning sound), syntax
(grammar), semantics (meaning) and pragmatics (social practices) (Leland et al, 2013: 44).
These aspects form a cueing system as they cue (give hints) readers to pay attention to
specific elements of a text. As we read, we interconnect the systems to reach a final
understanding. It is easier, though, to discuss the aspects individually even though they
often overlap, are interlinked and interdependent. Effective reading takes place when all the
systems work in harmony.
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1. The graphophonemics system refers to how sounds are written in letter form. Some
teachers consider this to be the most important system because it is literal in the sense
that the letters are there on the page. Graphophonemics is usually the first step in
teaching reading. Some learners learn to read without being taught language sounds.
This system is often considered less important than the other systems, as children can
read books before being aware of sounds and letters.
2. Syntax refers to grammar and patterns of language. It focuses on the structure of

sentences and how to insert the correct word in a sentence according to its function.
Syntax always works with semantics since the structure of language also has to fit in
with the meaning of the sentence. We need to understand English grammar so that
we have a frame of reference for individual words and their function in a sentence and
text.
3. Semantics refers to the way people make meaning from a text or pictures. When we
read, we must focus on understanding the meaning of words because they tell us what
we are reading. When we get stuck on understanding word, we can replace it with
another word which would make sense, in the context. However, do not stop too long
on a strange word because the break could slow down the reading process: rather,
carry on reading and focusing on the meaning of whole text.
4. The pragmatics system refers to the rules of language used in particular contexts or
situations. For example, daily routines affect how we use language. The pragmatics
system is often a separate unit because it is studied in a social context. The pragmatics
system is thus language as social practice. It is about the social aspect of language
which influences how a word is used and being able to figure it out while reading.
Words have a life of their own which means that they change with the times and their
meaning depends on the context in which they are used. Initially, we understand a
word as it is used in our social context.
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Because it relates to the social use of language, pragmatics is linked to tone and register.
Tone is the intention or attitude we display when speaking and register means that our
vocabulary is appropriate to our audience. For example, look at how many different ways
there are to greet someone. In the a table, different people are greeted; the meaning stays
the same but the tone and register change:
Person being Greeting Tone and Register

greeted
Elderly gentleman ‘Good morning, Sir, how Formal and polite with correct
are you today?’ grammar
Friend ‘Hi, how are you?’ Friendly and formal using
colloquial language
Teacher ‘Morning, Sir, how are Less formal but polite adhering
you?’ to the rules of grammar
Look at this extract from Fools and Other Stories (Ndebele, 1983: 219) to understand how
the systems work:
‘I think you should go,” I said to Zani. But I needn’t have bothered. As he laughed,
he put his papers into the briefcase. He fastened it, and prepared to go. And when
he was ready, his briefcase hanging from his right hand, he turned to me.
‘I thank you for your kindness,’ said Zani, and walked out. Even when he had gone
out, the principal and I continued to look at the door for what seemed like quite a
long time. Then he turned to me.
If we examine the extract we see that the graphophonemics system does not pose a
problem as the words are all fairly well known; the only word which does not fit in is the
name, ‘Zani’. The name makes us understand that maybe the person is not English and,
thus, the characters could represent other cultures. The syntax creates meaning as the
short sentences follow the movements made by Zani; he takes his time to leave as he wants
to exert his power over the other characters by showing that he will not be told what to do.
The semantics seem to be straightforward as words are used in their literal sense, but if we
consider the semantics together with the pragmatics, then the extract acquires far more
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meaning. We understand that the spoken words are polite, but they hide the conflict play
between the characters. The conflict is based on some characters wanting to have power
over the others. As you can see, interpersonal dynamics are considered when discussing
pragmatics in a text.
Obstacles to reading and understanding - miscues

A miscue is the insertion of an incorrect word into a sentence during speaking, reading or
writing. Miscues can be of either low or high quality. A high quality miscue involves replacing
the incorrect word with a word which fits in (for example we replace a noun with a noun, or
insert a word starting with similar letters or equal in length to the incorrect one); low quality
miscues involve inserting a word which does not fit in (for example replacing a noun with a
verb) and ‘results in neither sounding like language nor making sense’ (Leland et al, 2013:
46). Imagine that the teacher is telling the class a story about two boys playing with a ball,
but has not yet mentioned the colour of the ball. An example of a high quality miscue would
involve one of the learners saying the ball was blue instead of brown. An example of a low
quality miscue would involve one of the learners saying ‘kick the ball’. Miscue analysis helps
us to determine our strengths and weaknesses and work on the latter by knowing which
cueing system needs work. We are all susceptible to miscues as we often see what we want
to see on a page or read something in the way we are used to speaking. However, miscues
do not usually change the overall meaning of a text and can even improve a piece of writing.
For example, if a teacher reads a suspense story to children she can pause at the most
dramatic moments and ask the children to supply words to describe the scene or the action
which will take place. Miscues help us to understand how much we know and whether we
can predict what is going to happen in a text. In fact, it is normal to figure out what a text is
about before we finish reading it and the further we get into a text, the more cues there are
to help us figure out what the story means.
Reading and writing

Reading and writing go together. From the time we are born we are surrounded by writing
on packages, signboards and branded products that we use everyday. Leland et al call this
“environmental print” (Leland et al, 2013: 48) which becomes the first reading material
children are exposed to and which allows them to connect meaning to words, because they
communicate a message. There are many first readers which use ‘environmental print’
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made up of all the signs, words or messages that are found at home and around a school.
Nursery rhymes can also be used as most of us know such songs at the pre-school stage.
But we cannot stop here with writing as we need our skills and abilities to progress, thus,
we need to improve our ability to write. The best way to improve writing is through reading.
The idea of reading and writing will be discussed in greater detail in Unit 2.
Reading and music

The ear can guide the eye in reading. Because of this, we can use CDs or songs related to
a book or as a part of a book to support reading. The secret is to keep improving on skills
as we go along. Songs can even help with other subjects as the information can be used
as lyrics. Using songs as literature can be used up to high school and beyond. We may
even write our own lyrics to go with a text from a subject other than literature.
Activity Five
This could be a fun activity for you as student. Start with nursery rhymes as it is easy to
find them and either buy a CD or download the songs so that you can sing along. Use the
nursery rhyme as a reading text and then as a form of literature and work out the theme of
the song. Try to analyse a few nursery rhymes and make notes to help you. You can even
do research to discover why and how nursery rhymes came about and what the true
meaning is as nursery rhymes can be rather figurative. They often deal with serious
historical events and can be didactic in that they teach moral lessons. Alternatively a song
can be used, even a Rap song. If a song cannot be found there are many sites where songs
can be downloaded free of charge and they even provide lyrics, such a site is Mp3coop.com.
This activity can also be used to practise ‘miscues’ as we can substitute different words into
a song and create new verses or even make up our own nursery rhymes.

The purpose of this activity is to show how vast the spectrum is when it comes to literature
and to learn how different aspects of communication can assist one another. We need to
expand our minds beyond the written word to include other mediums so as to gain the most
knowledge.
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How technology assists reading

‘Fan fiction is a genre of writing usually on the internet where people add, extend or create
new storylines to existing narratives’ (Leland et al, 2013: 54). Internet users even create
new literary works which are then developed further by other users. This could become an
important phenomenon for students of literature because it might attract those who grow up
in a digital world to literature. They will want to read more and also use language to be part
of the digital world of literature writing. The only disadvantage of this is that fan fiction could
confuse us about the original text as fan fiction changes published texts according to
personal taste. Therefore, we must make sure that before accessing fan fiction we have
mastered the original text so that we are aware of any disruptions or changes.
If the internet is not available to access fan fiction, this activity can be done orally or in
written form with fellow students. One person starts a story and then each one gets a chance
to add a piece to the story. Each person can have more than one chance to add a sentence
or paragraph until the story is concluded and a new one is started.
Activity Six
If you have data available, try to find such sites related to fan fiction on the internet and
familiarise yourself with the concept because it could soon be a part of the curriculum. Or
start a story via e-mail or on a group chat with other students doing the same module to
create a story and discover what can happen.

As students we need to be at the forefront of development and change so that we can keep
up with the times. Even if a genre is only a fad and does not last long, it is always interesting
to know about it and to know for ourselves what works and does not work. We cannot ignore
technology altogether, but must learn to use it in a positive way which assists us in gaining
knowledge. It is also important to keep up with new trends followed by young people; as
teachers we need to be aware of their interests.
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As students we need to develop into good readers so that we can embark on a lifelong
journey of learning and expand our horizons both mentally and emotionally. Leland et al
(2013) propose that we need to strive to learn how to read correctly and for pleasure as we
immerse ourselves in books, have our own books or borrow from a library, read as a hobby
regularly and create a positive reading environment in which we take care of books and
encourage others to read. This will help us to write well and we could even become
published writers ourselves.
The seven steps in the reading process

(adapted from Leland et al 2013: 41)
Step Outcome Reflection

Immersion We must be in a classroom where Am I able to have a
English is spoken and is used conversation with my
correctly in writing thus creating classmates in English about a
meaning and making it a life skill. literary text?
Demonstration We must read and write every day. Have I developed a passion
We should be encouraged to read for for reading? Have I learned
ourselves and be provided with skills how to overcome difficulties in
to overcome obstacles. reading so that I can read
more fluently?
Responsibility Teachers cannot dictate what Do I read for myself in my
learners must read but rather give us spare time? Am I able to
choices when it comes to reading for successfully read a story in
ourselves. We should also read aloud English to someone else?
in order to follow our progress
because we can hear if we read
fluently and if others can hear us,
understand what we read and follow
the reading.
Expectation We will not progress unless it is Have I set goals for myself?
expected and encouraged. Have I achieved the goals?
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Use Reading and writing must be used Am I able to read and write so
positively, constructively and that I can study more
regularly because their many effectively?
purposes in life.
Approximation We must be allowed to make Am I able to recognise
mistakes so as to truly understand mistakes and correct them?
English and how to correct our own Do others learn from the
errors. Once we achieve progress we comments I give them? Is the
will be motivated to learn more at a feedback given an
faster pace. Teachers must give encouragement for them to
positive comments which do not improve their skills?
discourage us and show us how to
correct specific errors.
Response We will make mistakes and often Am I able to hold a
spell phonetically, but we need to try conversation in English with
new things and familiarise ourselves others? Am I able to use
with English so as to be able to use it English to express myself in
in our lives. my assignments?
How to assess reading

We can assess our reading skills by reading texts that correctly combine graphophonemics
as well as syntax, semantics and pragmatics. This type of assessment is thorough in testing
whether we are improving, acquiring vocabulary, understanding meaning and initiating
interpretation. We need to continuously apply what we read in the form of understanding
and writing. We need to discuss what we read, analyse the deeper meaning and apply the
ideas to academic essays. This is all part of critical reading. We must also never stop trying
to improve as we must follow a motto of “lifelong learning”.
Activity Seven
We will look at an extract from Fools and Other Stories (Ndebele, 1983: 219)
‘Meneer,‘ he said, I’m very disappointed. I’m afraid I’ll have to make a report to the
school board about this…. the school programme was put aside for mindless subversions.
That too, the board will have to note.
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‘Oh, Meneer, I’m not persecuting you. I’m not. It is just that …’ He shrugged his
shoulders and threw his arms out. ‘I’ll see you later about this,’ he said and walked out of
the classroom.
I went to the table and sat on it, facing the children … They all stared at me as if
expecting me to say something. How could they understand what I now realise I felt very
deeply: contempt. Three months after they had fired me for rape, they sent a delegation to
me in the dead of night. It was autumn, and the streets were full of fallen leaves. I heard
footsteps crushing leaves right up to our front door. I opened the door for them: four heavily
clad respectable men on a civic mission.
Practise what was learned in the Unit so that you can assess whether you have grasped
the basic concepts of critical reading. Below is a range of questions that could help you with
this activity by providing guidelines on how to approach a question related to reading.
1. Did you research the literary piece to find out the author, the setting, the plot and the
main themes?
2. Did you make notes about the different aspects?
Looking at the extract in detail:
3. What is the attitude of the person who speaks to the narrator?
4. What is the attitude of the narrator?
5. Why is it significant that the interrogator keeps referring to the school board?
6. Why would the interrogator deny that it is a persecution?
7. What does the interrogator’s body language reveal?
8. Discuss the connotations of ‘dead of night’.
9. Discuss the tone when the narrator describes the men as ‘respectable’ and ‘on a civic
mission’.
10. Have you ever been a part of such an experience?
11. How do you think the narrator feels?
12. How do you think the children in the classroom feel?
13. Do you think this would be a good extract to act out?
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Activity Eight
Below is an example of an I-statement, (Leland et al, 2013: 92):
Moma Richard Little Brother
I feel unhappy I think I am I know I can
and worried about happy but then help my brother.
my child. I feel again I am sad I feel very sad
I am loosing my I think that I about my brother
mind. am treating my being in the
I am afraid that little brother gang.
my son will get and mom wrong I feel happy
hurt. I believe but then again on the outside
I could help him I think I’m not, but in the inside
leave these gangs I believe that I feel sad about
with out getting I can get away that ball.
hurt. from these gangs
without no drama.
But then again
I wont to
have friends.
A skill that could help us understand that characters see events in literature from different
perspectives and apply meaning accordingly is called ‘I-Statement Chart’ (Leland & Harste
with Huber, 2005 as cited in Leland et al, 2013: 92). This requires us to divide a page into
a certain number of columns, one for each character whose impression of an event is written
according to what we imagine the character sees, understands or believes from his/her own
perspective.
1. Let us start off with an easy question. Which character is the one who is involved in
the gang activities?
2. Is he aware of how the other two characters feel? Discuss the reasons for your
decision.
3. Which emotions does he reveal?
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4. What are his concerns?
5. What does he think will be the consequences?
6. How does the Mother feel?
7. How does the brother feel?
8. How do the three texts affect you?
9. Do your emotions differ with regard to each character?
10. How can you tell (without looking at the names) which character belongs to which
column?
11. What evidence is there that a fourth grader wrote the chart?
12. What feedback can you give about this type of activity? (This is a very open-ended
question but the most important.)
Activity Nine
Let us look at an extract from To Kill a Mockingbird (Lee, 1982: 80-81)
‘You can just take that back, boy!’
This order, given by me to Cecil Jacobs, was the beginning of a rather thin time for Jem and
me. My fists were clenched and I was ready to let fly. Atticus had promised me he would
wear me out if he ever heard of me fighting any more; I was far too old and too big for such
childish things, and the sooner I learned to hold in, the better off everybody would be. I soon
forgot.
Cecil Jacobs made me forget. He had announced in the school-yard the day before that
Scout Finch’s daddy defended niggers. I denied it, but told Jem.
‘What’d he mean sayin’ that?’ I asked.
‘Nothing,’ Jem said. ‘Ask Atticus, he’ll tell you.’
‘Do you defend niggers, Atticus?’ …
‘Of course I do. Don’t say nigger Scout. That’s common.’
‘’s what everybody at school says.’
‘From now on it’ll be everybody less one –‘ …
‘Do all lawyers defend n-Negroes, Atticus?’
‘Of course they do, Scout.’
Try to analyse the extract above by focusing on a specific theme, namely racism in the USA
in the 1930s.
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1. Try to get background information on the novel and its main characters and its main
theme.
2. Try to read the whole novel instead of just reading the given extract above.
The character, Scout, has a physical encounter with a boy named Cecil as the
latter accuses her father of defending Negroes which is seen as something
wrong.
3. Does it seem as if Scout knows what is implied by Cecil’s words?
4. When Scout relates the incident to her father, what impression do we have of his
attitude to the issue?
5. How do we know that Scout does not want to follow Cecil’s way of thinking?
6. Why would we still read this novel almost 60 years after it was written?
Activity Ten
Having applied our reading skills to fictional writing, let us now try to apply the same skills
to a text which falls under popular culture, meaning writing which is relevant at the moment
but will not necessarily last and become a “classic”. Remember that most writing forms part
of literature, but is classified under different genres. Nonetheless, the same principles apply
when approaching this type of genre. That is, we will read it critically in order to gain the
most meaning from it.
Hooked on phones.
Obsessive compulsive disorder dubbed “new cigarette” by experts.
South Africa has been hit by a new wave of addiction - in the form of a failure to be separated
from a smartphone. It is a psychological syndrome in which a person is afraid of being out
of cell phone contact… hitting largely young smartphone users who depend on the gadget
to fit in, remain socially active and to stave off loneliness.
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Some learners regarded their mobile devices as a common denominator for inclusivity and
being part of a digital cell phone community of friends. Typical symptoms included users
admitting to being diverted and becoming unable to focus on almost anything if they do not
have their cell phones in hand. Identified by psychologists as being chief among symptoms
of addiction have been excessive use and the loss of sense of time or a neglect of basic
drives, withdrawal, and feelings of anger, tension and depression when the phone or
network was inaccessible, as well as symptoms of “nomophobia” or “ringxiety”.
(adapted from: Pretoria News, 18/4/2016)
1. This is an easy text to research in a pre-reading activity as it applies to a great number
of people. But let us first read the text carefully and pay attention to its focus and
perspective on the issue and then ask people around us how they are affected or how
they feel about the issue.
2. Use the information in the text to write a paragraph on the negative effects of cell
phone use on people. Do not rewrite the text verbatim (word for word) but rather
attempt a critical evaluation of the issue, namely the negative consequences of not
being able to live without a cell phone. You can try to add your own views, but
remember to keep to the ideas proposed in the text.
Conclusion
In this Unit we have hopefully acquired an essential skill which is the ability to read critically
so that we read to gain knowledge from the text by analysing the ideas and interpreting the
themes. Reading critically is the first step in pursuing academic knowledge: the next step is
learning how to express the thoughts and ideas we have developed from reading in critical
writing. We need to reflect our knowledge in writing so that we can share it with new readers
and, thus, expand their horizons just as ours are expanded when we read. Unit 2 will provide
detailed notes on what critical writing is and how we can develop the skill because reading
and writing complement each other, they go hand in hand when we want to acquire
knowledge and consolidate our learning.
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Glossary
Critical reading to read so as to gain understanding, knowledge and insight
Figurative language language used to create mental images related to the five
sense using words
Graphophonemics the study of sounds written in words in written language
Syntax the study of grammar in written language
Semantics the study of meaning attributed to written language

Pragmatics the study of social practices which contribute meaning to
written language
REFERENCES
Bailey, S. (2015) Academic writing. A Handbook for International Studies. Fourth Edition.
Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Lee, H. (1960) To Kill a Mockingbird. Pan Books (20th printing 1982).
Leland, C., Lewison, M. and Harste, J. (2013) Teaching Children’s Literature. It’s Critical.
Routledge.
Ndebele, N.S. (1983) Fools and Other Stories. Picador Africa.
Stallworthy, J. (ed.) (1984) The Oxford Book of War Poetry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES AND FEEDBACK
The answers provided below are only possible answers for the activities. There are many
possible answers that can be given as long as they are substantiated (based on the texts),
show critical reading, an insightful understanding of the texts and if the writing shows that a
text has been analysed, interpreted correctly and has allowed the reader to gain knowledge.
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You will notice that not all the activities in the Unit have feedback; the ones which do not
appear here are self-assessment activities for enrichment. The commentary on the activity
in the Unit provides a guide as to what is expected or required when attempting the activity.
Activity Four
9. Do research on the war sites around the world and most especially the issue of
nuclear bombs in North Korea so as to have background knowledge relating to
the threat of nuclear bombs entails.
Look at the conflicts taking place in Afghanistan, the Middle East, in North African countries
and especially the nuclear issues in North Korea. North Korea is building up a nuclear
weapons arsenal (where weapons are stored) and testing them. The USA has been trying
to stop this as it could threaten world peace. In your research look up how the threat of war
has an emotional, physical and mental effect on the citizens of the countries involved and
how war causes people to run away from their homes.
10. Look up any words whose meaning you do not know.
Firstly, try to work out meanings of words on your own and, if necessary, then use a
dictionary. Remember that in a poem many words are used figuratively so you need to know
the denotation (dictionary meaning) but you also need to analyse the connotations
(figurative meaning) from the context.
Looking at the poem in detail:

11. Why would the speaker use a lizard as a spectator and an image?
A lizard is a reptile, a cold blooded animal which is not usually associated with warm
emotions; this contrasts with human beings. It is also a very ancient form of life suggesting
a longer perspective than human beings. A lizard can survive in a desert with little water. It
is a low-lying animal which can also crawl on the face of a wall. This allows it to run away
or go unnoticed and, thus, is not easily harmed. Notice that there is no mention of humans
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in the poem because wars kill people or make people run away from war zones. The lizard
seems to have knowledge of what is about to happen.
12. Why does the speaker make a reference to “history”? Explain the figurative idea
associated with it.
When bombs, especially nuclear bombs, are tested the event makes the news around the
world because of the damage that a bomb can cause. When countries test such bombs
(especially for the first time) the event enters the history books. History is a reference to an
event, person or country which will be remembered forever more, not necessarily for good
reasons but because of the impact it has made on the rest of the world. ‘History’ also links
with the lizard’s longer existence, it pre-dates humanity and will outlive it. After humankind
has turned the earth into a wasteland, only primitive creatures like the lizard will be able to
survive.
13. Discuss the verb tenses used and their implication.
Generally, the speaker uses the past indefinite which is quite common for a poem, but what
should be noted is the use of the modal verbs, words such as “might” and “could”. This
indicates the possibility of a threat, the idea that we do not know for certain what the future
holds.
14. Discuss the desert setting of the poem.
A desert is a place where very little grows, there is little animal and human life and it cannot
provide food for the world. Bombs are usually tested in desert areas so as to cause little
damage to nature, but it is also suggested that if we detonate bombs all over the world
eventually the whole world will be a desert. This idea refers to the destruction of nature
through war and the use of bombs. Figuratively, a desert also represents human beings no
longer having warm, loving emotions. Humankind seems bent on creating a wasteland of
the earth.
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15. Why would the “sky” not care?
The sky is used figuratively to represent different ideas. It could refer to political authorities
who hold power over a country (like the sky above the earth) and have control over the lives
of the citizens, but do not care about them. Or the sky could refer to a godly figure above
and have a religious meaning implying that war and bombs go against religious teachings.
Or it could refer to Nature, meaning that Nature does not fight against its destruction through
bombs and war because it does not have the ability to do so. Although it can be suggested
that Nature is eternal and will outlive man and his self-destructive actions, in the greater
scheme of things man is not important. The interpretation could depend on a reader’s
personal views.
16. Now put all the ideas discussed in the poem together to write a paragraph on
the themes of the poem. Even if you are not certain of what these are write down
what you think may be possible ideas the poem explores.
The poem discusses the possible consequences of bombs being detonated in the world
due to wars and the need for countries to have power over each other. The poem focuses
on the negative consequences of war for people: death, destruction and refugees. The mere
threat of war and nuclear bombs cause fear. Another consequence of these is that nature
is destroyed to the point that the world could become a desert that cannot sustain life for
humans. Figuratively, wars destroy people emotionally as they are overcome by negative
feelings and can no longer be human – which is to say, kind and loving. Only primitive
creatures will survive. People usually look to their leaders, including religious leaders, for
help and protection, but in times of war politicians are only single-minded in wanting to make
history, and to be remembered for their power, and so in many instances other sectors such
as the faith community, are powerless to prevent war and save people’s lives. In the end,
all people live with the threat of total destruction. Ultimately, human beings have finite lives,
whereas Nature is eternal. Humankind is puny, and not as powerful as it thinks it is.
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Activity Seven
14. Did you research the literary piece to find out the author, the setting, the plot
and the main themes?
These stories from the closing days of apartheid rule in South Africa revealed Njabulo
Ndebele as an assured and impressive literary voice. He has gone on to become one of the
most powerful voices for cultural freedom on the African continent. Ndebele evokes
township life with humour and subtlety, rejecting the image of black South Africans as
victims and focusing on the complexity and fierce energy of their lives. Ndebele is now
recognised as a major voice in South Africa's cultural life. Ndebele's stories helped define
a new tone in black South African literature that went beyond and finally overcame
apartheid.
https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1247701.Fools_And_Other_Stories
The extract I quoted above was taken from the site listed below the extract. This is
an example of how to do background research on a literary text, although personal
response should be the first step. Research can enrich our personal response.
15. Did you make notes made about the different aspects?
As we read we need to make notes. Use the questions set on the extract (if there are any)
as a guide to which information is needed. This helps in answering contextual questions.
Open-ended questions, however, need understanding and insight which is gained by
reading critically.
Looking at the extract in detail:

16. What is the attitude of the person who speaks to the narrator?
The person asking the questions seems to be annoyed and feels that he is wasting his time.
The person seems to lack emotions and definitely has no sympathy for the narrator’s
circumstances.
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17. What is the attitude of the narrator?
The narrator fails to speak which could show that he is too in shock to speak and is afraid
that his words may be used against him, but internally he realises the seriousness of the
situation and the consequences it will have for him.
18. Why is it significant that the interrogator keeps referring to the school board?
The reference could have a few meanings. The school board could represent people who
have authority over the teacher, implying that the situation is serious. It could show that the
teacher could be dismissed from his job and the board would be made up of white and black
people to show that the issue involves betrayal of the teacher by his own people too.
19. Why would the interrogator deny that it is a persecution?
A persecution implies that there is a hidden agenda, an underlying issue which is not directly
related to the matter. In this case it could refer to a racial issue, which he does not want to
admit.
20. What does the interrogator’s body language reveal?
The interrogator seems to be impatient as if the whole situation is almost a waste of his
time, or it shows frustration because the narrator does not want to co-operate in order to
make the job easier for the interrogator.
21. Discuss the connotations of ‘dead of night’.
A connotation is a connected or figurative meaning. Night is often associated with actions

which are evil, mysterious or secretive. The reference to “dead” implies that the
consequences for the narrator will be extreme. Thus, in this case, the setting reflects the
theme of being treated unfairly or being the victim of hatred.
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22. Discuss the tone when the narrator describes the men as ‘respectable’ and ‘on
a civic mission’.
It is an ironic tone because the men seem to know what they are doing. They seem to be
driven by moral and just intentions and they appear to be decent, but what they intend doing
to the narrator is not at all positive or respectable.
23. Have you ever had such an experience?
This is a personal experience. The idea behind the question is that if you have had the
misfortune of being a victim of persecution or hatred then it will be easier to empathise with
the narrator and understand the themes. But even if you have never been in such a situation,
you can imagine how the victim feels or may have read other texts with similar themes.
Because of this, you can understand the theme.
24. How do you think the narrator feels?
This question was covered to a certain extent above, but here, we require more insight. You
need to place yourself in the narrator’s shoes and get in touch with his emotions, but also
look at the situation objectively. Ask yourself whether his emotions are justified and why?
How would you feel in a similar situation? What would you do and what do you think he will
do? His reaction to the interrogator and his thoughts should be an indication that he is not
a fighter.
25. How do you think the children in the classroom feel?
The children feel lost as the teacher says nothing, but we would expect them to sense that
something is wrong as they witnessed the encounter between the interrogator and the
teacher. Even if they do not understand the details, they will realise that the interrogator
was not friendly and the teacher is not reacting well. The teacher’s silence speaks volumes
to the children in conveying his emotions of sadness, anger, frustration and despair.
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26. Do you think this would be a good extract to act out?
This could be a very powerful extract to act out as there are strong emotions and even the
silences speak volumes so facial expressions would be significant. In this case, body
language could be used to interpret the silences.
Activity Eight
1. Let us start off with an easy question. Which character is the one who is involved
in the gang activities?
It is Richard because he speaks of the gangs directly while the Moma and Little Brother
speak about him being in the gangs and how afraid they are for him and how they wish they
could help him.
2. Is he aware of how the other two characters feel? Discuss the reasons for your
decision.
He knows that they fear him being in the gangs because he admits that they worry and he
feels guilty about it.
3. Which emotions does he reveal?
He is torn between positive and negative feelings. He likes having friends, belonging to a
group and doing activities with them which obviously make him happy, but he is sad that it
causes worries for his family. He knows the gang members are bad, but does not know how
to leave the gang without causing further problems.
4. What are his concerns?
He wonders if he will be able to leave the gang; the implied idea is that he wonders how the
gang members will react, hence his reference to ‘drama’.
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5. What does he think will be the consequences?
He believes there will be “drama” implying physical harm, revenge or even emotional
damage.
6. How does the Mother feel?
She is unhappy because she cannot do anything about the worry she feels for her son as
she knows that being a member of a gang will cause him harm in the long run. She feels
powerless against the gang and maybe wishes that she could have acted differently in the
past so that her child would not have wanted to become a member of a gang.
7. How does the brother feel?
The brother feels that Richard is happy being a member so he should also be happy for his
brother, but on the inside he knows it is wrong to be a gang member and that it will cause
problems for all of them, but especially Richard. He likes the fact that maybe the gang
members will give him gifts, hence the reference to the ball.
8. How do the three texts affect you?
These are effective texts as they reflect the innermost thoughts and emotions of the
characters. However, each reader will experience them differently depending on the
reader’s response, to the characters and how the reader feels about gangs. This raises the
issue of cultural diversity which also affects issues such as gangs. People for whom gangs
are a normal part of their lives will feel differently from those for whom gangs are an abstract
notion in literature that does not affect them directly. The first group will have to separate
the characters’ emotions from the idea of a gang and relate to them as humans who have
very negative emotions to work through while the second group will have to delve deep into
themselves to imagine and understand the fear that the characters experience.
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9. Do your emotions differ with regard to each character?
The emotions readers feel towards different characters should differ as each character is in
a different situation with regards to the gang and to the other members of the family. So
readers may sympathise more with one character than another. As readers we also feel
differently for each as their pain differs.
10. How can you tell (without looking at the names) which character belongs to
which column?
The use of vocabulary reflects the age of the character which is also revealed by the way
in which each deals with emotions. In addition, the characters refer to each other not by
name but by their relationship. The columns are a little short to draw accurate conclusions
but, as readers, we can attempt an interpretation.
11. What evidence is there that a fourth grader drew up the chart?
The evidence that a young child wrote the chart is shown in the spelling errors and the un-
sophisticated vocabulary and sentence structure.
12. What feedback can you give about this type of activity? (This is a very open-
ended question, but it is the most important.)
This is a personal answer as different tasks help learners in different ways.
Activity Nine
3. Try to get background information on the novel and its main characters and its
main theme.
To Kill a Mockingbird was first published in 1960, but the story takes place between 1933
and 1935 in the Southern states in the USA where racial discrimination was still practised.
The story revolves around Scout, her brother Jem and their father, Atticus, who is a lawyer.
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The climax of the novel is when Atticus defends an innocent black man accused of raping
a white girl. Atticus does a very good job as a defence lawyer, there is still a verdict of ‘guilty’
as a result of racial prejudice. One of the novel’s main themes is how innocent people are
usually made to suffer the most, especially where race is concerned.
4. Try to read the whole novel instead of just reading the given extract above.
This novel is a classic of America literature and is very entertaining and enlightening to read.
The character, Scout, has a physical encounter with a boy named Cecil as the latter
accuses her father of defending Negroes, something which is seen as wrong.
7. Does it seem as if Scout knows what is implied by Cecil’s words?
She understands that the words are an insult but she does not know their exact meaning.
Atticus does not raise his children to be racist or discriminate against any group so Scout
does not know the political implications of her father defending a black man in 1934 in the
Southern states of the USA. She senses that what her father does goes against what
everyone else does and that Cecil’s words could cause the other children to look down on
her. This episode shows the consequences of discrimination, not only on the immediate
victims, but also those who do not practise such injustices.
8. When Scout relates the incident to her father, what impression do we have of
his attitude to the issue?
Her father focuses on the use of a derogatory term rather than the insult to him. He corrects
Scout as he wants her to use correct terminology and show respect for all people. He
believes in doing the right thing which, in this case, is defending an innocent man and wants
his children to know that it is the right thing to do.
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9. How do we know that Scout does not want to follow Cecil’s way of thinking?
Scout corrects herself by not saying the “N-“ word in full (as used by Cecil,) but rather using
the word which her father has told her to use. This shows that she does not understand the
exact meaning of the word and the political implication it has but she would rather do and
say what her father advises her to than her friends. She trusts her father’s opinions.
10. Why would we still read this novel almost 60 years after it was written?
This novel is a classic of America literature because its themes are universal, meaning they
still apply to all people and all places, and the writing style is both humorous and effective
in conveying the themes. It is a novel with likeable characters who reflect the goodness of
mankind by standing for all that is just. They oppose any form of discrimination and support
the underdog so as to effect positive change in society.
Activity Ten
3. This is an easy text to research as a pre-reading activity as it applies to a great
number of people. But first read the text carefully and pay attention to its focus
and perspective on the issue and then ask people around us how they are
affected or how they feel about the issue.
One of the main features of critical reading is to maintain focus on the relevant issue. Our
interpretation should not digress from the theme. In this case it is a social and psychological
issue: people who cannot live without their phones and how their lives are affected
negatively by this disorder. When asking people how they feel make sure that their answers
are relevant to the issue. Learn that any critical writing has to be relevant to the topic or your
whole essay is undermined.
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4. Use the information in the text to write a paragraph on the negative effects of
cell phone use on people. Do not rewrite the text verbatim (word for word) but
rather attempt a critical evaluation of the issue, namely the negative
consequences of not being able to live without a cell phone. You can try to add
your own views, but remember to keep to the ideas proposed in the text.
The text presents the negative consequences of being addicted to a cell phone. It looks at
different groups of people and the reasons why they are addicted. The reasons are mostly
psychological in nature and respond to basic human needs. This implies that a cell phone
can become our “human” friend in the sense that it helps us to form bonds with other people
who are not near us. The negative aspect is that a piece of technology cannot replace actual
human contact in which real emotions are expressed directly. The spectrum of people
affected ranges from young people to mature adults. This contradicts the idea that only
young people are addicted to their phones. What the article does not specify is whether the
people affected belong to certain cultures or whether it is a problem faced by all people
without distinction of language, culture, religion or race; only gender is mentioned. The issue
is so serious that it has been studied by researchers at universities as it is considered one
of the biggest non-drug related addictions of the millennium. The negative consequences
of being addicted to a phone go from fear of loneliness to not being able to live without being
actively attached to a phone. The symptoms shown are ‘anger, tension and depression’.
The question which should be asked is how people maintained psychological stability before
cell phones. The answer could be that people made more effort to spend time in close
contact with other people. Another serious factor is that the problem has not yet been
recognised as an addiction and thus does not get the required attention in order to remedy
it. These consequences will eventually affect society negatively as people will be more
concerned with a cell phone than being productive. Because of this, there are economic
dimensions to the phenomenon, in addition to the psychological and social ones. From my
research I found that … (this is where you could add your own views or those of the people
you interviewed).
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3. UNIT 2: USING READING SKILLS FOR CRITICAL WRITING
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 know what critical writing is;
 understand the difference between a critical evaluation and criticism;
 identify critical writing;
 understand reading and writing as symbiotic processes;
 interpret writing and know how to avoid misinterpretations;
 use different mediums to understand a text;
 produce your own appropriately academic, critical writing.
Carefully read through the following sections in your textbooks.
Bailey, S. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students 4th ed. Part 4:
Unit 4.2.
Chapter 7.
Introduction
The aim of this study unit is to introduce you to critical writing. Writing follows from what we
read; hence, we must read in order to improve our writing. We are influenced by what we
read so we need to read a wide variety of texts to give our knowledge depth and meaning
but, most importantly, we need to read critical texts to learn how to think and write critically.
This process teaches us to be critical but not criticise; it teaches us not to misinterpret a text
and it helps us develop our reading and writing as symbiotic processes.
What is critical writing?

Writing in its most basic form is the expression of our inner thoughts and feelings in words.
This definition, however, is too limited for academic writing which differs greatly from other
forms of writing, such as creative writing. Academic writing is critical which does not mean
it makes criticisms. Criticism is negative and does not contribute much to academic
knowledge whereas critical writing builds our minds and the way we think and allows us to
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gain deeper knowledge. Critical writing is about finding meaning in a text, analysing the
different aspects of the text, looking at the positive and negative aspects of a written text
and evaluating whether it is of any use to us as readers. If literature is judged to be good
then it usually contain universal themes that apply to all people, at all times. A critical
evaluation of writing determines the quality of a written text. When we write, we need to aim
for writing that is critically evaluated as being of a high standard.
In order to understand the difference between critical writing and criticism, let us look at two
examples. The first example reflects writing which is critical in nature; it evaluates a drama
by considering the main character and the circumstances of his life in a fair and objective
manner:
The Crucible, a critical evaluation by Gordon Walker. In the play, The Crucible, by Arthur
Miller, the main character, John Proctor, is faced by a number of important decisions that
come to a dramatic climax when John has to decide between keeping his name, integrity
and honour or his life. During this time the settlers of Salem were devoted Christians and
had a deep belief in the existence of witches, believing their alliance with Satan made them
a work of pure evil, and a direct enemy of God and, subsequently, themselves. During a
time in which accusations of witchcraft are frequent, a difficult situation arises for John's
strong, rebellious, and somewhat unusual character. John Proctor is different from the norm
in his village, a fact which is emphasized by the fact that he lives five miles out of the village
at a neighbouring farm. His physical distance from the town can be directly linked to his
emotional difference from its citizens.
(adapted from http://www.markedbyteachers.com/gcse/english/the-crucible-critical

evaluation.html, accessed 17/04/2018)
The extract below, instead, represents an example of criticism which is one-sided and
negative:
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Did media hype win out over genuine citizenship? Has television's polarising and
sensationalising of issues undermined the ability of viewers to play a part in the democratic
process? Or have the American people become cynical about politics, while growing
sensitive to the fundamental issues of justice and race in the OJ case? I argue that, while
each of these views may be true, part of the explanation lies in the increasing tendency of
news to adopt the generic conventions of soap opera. A soap opera's repertoire of plots,
from romance to violence, is domestic in focus and designed so that the story goes on for
ever. The characters are also from a limited repertoire, with good looks and sporting
prowess pitted against evil and the terrors of female sexual aggression. OJ fits the mould,
whereas the State of the Union, dealing with the 'large public issues' of the economy,
education and health cannot compete. And competition it is—as the commentators the next
day made clear.
(adapted from http://scholar.uwindsor.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1945&context=ossaarchive,
accessed 17/04/2018).
When we read a text, we can express ourselves using different mediums (such as writing,
drawing or acting) in order to show our understanding of the text. There are different aspects
of the arts, such as music, visual arts, drama, dancing and language, which help to
‘communicate meaning within and across communities’ (Leland et al, 2013: 125). The
different forms of art can also be used with other subjects. Knowledge is not easy to acquire
as it is rather abstract, we cannot physically place information in our minds, so we need to
be guided towards it. This involves a lengthy process which starts with twelve years of
schooling in order to get us to a point where we can start to read a text and write about it
critically. We need to build up our knowledge using resources to which we can relate. When
we learn to read, we start off with easy texts which have many pictures and then slowly
progress towards more abstract, complex and difficult texts. With writing we start off by
expressing ourselves in ways which we know, such as, drawing, acting and speaking until
we master the art of writing and are fully capable of expressing our thoughts accurately and
in detail.
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In this Unit we will investigate different mediums and ways of getting involved in a text,
understanding it and then expressing our thoughts on it until we get to the point where we
can go from reading a text to writing about it directly without first going through a “process”.
The end point is always to write in a critical manner without simply rewriting the story
(paraphrasing) as this does not allow us to gain any knowledge from the text.
Identifying critical writing

One of the purposes of academic studies is to identify critical writing in which all the themes
and aspects of a text are discussed in a detailed objective manner to achieve an
understanding of how they work or how they affect us. Often we describe the ‘pros’ and
‘cons’ of a text, but this is not the same as saying a text is good or bad. Hence, criticism is
not really considered academic writing as it is one-sided and limited. In contrast, critical
writing helps us to see both sides of an argument; it delves deep into an issue, viewing a
text from multiple angles and encouraging us to think more broadly, influencing the way we
see the world, how we experience the world and how we understand it.
Practically, critical writing analyses a text by looking at its plot (storyline), vocabulary,
images (including figures of speech), characters, themes and its appeal to readers, although
this is the least important of the aspects studied. Critical writing explores whether the
different aspects work well together, which aspects do not fit in with the rest and whether
the themes help us understand life better. Other aspects of the text which can be analysed
are: tone, attitude of the author, political or historical background and whether these aspects
influence the themes, setting and writing style.
Activity One
In this activity you will add to what was written in Activity Three of Unit 1. In the activity you
made notes on certain aspects of a particular story, now you will add another category:
critical evaluation. Evaluate the story critically. Assess how the characters, imagery and
vocabulary convey the themes. Assess whether you would recommend the story for
academic purposes and why.
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In Unit 1 we looked at how to become critical readers and in this Unit we look at how to be
critical writers. In order to accomplish this we need to develop a skill which allows us to
determine whether what we read is worthy to write about critically. This process will allow
you to learn to appreciate good writing.
Activity Two
With reference to Activity Four in Unit 1, once you have answered the questions on the
poem, proceed to make a critical evaluation of the poem. Discuss how the imagery and
vocabulary encourage a deeper understanding of the themes.

The activity above is more specific than Activity Three because you will practise detailed
critical writing with reference to a specific text. You need to develop the skill of looking at
the details in a text and then showing how they are relevant to the themes through close
analysis of their function in the text. You need to learn to go through a text thoroughly and
from an academic perspective otherwise your writing will lack depth and you will gain very
little knowledge from the text.
Reading and writing as a symbiotic process

In a symbiotic process, one element operates in conjunction with another to the benefit of
both. Reading and writing enjoy such a relationship as the one assists the other and vice
versa. Reading helps us to get in touch with people and places which are removed from us
and have no voice in our lives or in society. This makes us think beyond ourselves, but we
need to express this knowledge in written form so that we may share it with others. This is
called critical writing.
The more we read the more knowledge we gain and this is then reflected in our writing.
Furthermore, the more we write about a text and the more we investigate it from different
angles the more knowledge we gain from it. This is the reason that just reading is not
enough: we must write out what we study in our own words to aid understanding and as an
aid to memory. We must encourage ourselves to read a variety of texts so as to improve
our ability to write. We can read books, articles, newspapers and even use online resources
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as technology allows us access to many academically accepted sources that can broaden
our horizons and stretch our thinking. Remember that social media, which tends to share
superficial ideas does not give us critical writing. But even these flimsy texts can be written
about in a critical way. A text does not have to be good quality itself to stimulate a good
piece of critical writing.
How reading assists writing

Reading encourages writing as we can respond to what we read by writing essays on literary
texts or by jotting down the reactions, thoughts and ideas inspired by reading. We may also
write about our everyday experiences in the form of a book which could be illustrated. A
writing exercise can be linked to a lesson on an aspect of language. If we struggle to start
writing, we can copy the format of a book we have read but use a different setting or
characters and build on it from there. This activity could be a game played with fellow
students. It is fun to be creative and choose how a text progresses and the language used
to bring the ideas across. We could even make a game where opposing teams of students
need to follow instructions dictating certain aspects of a text. The winner is whoever
manages to keep to the rules of grammar, follow the instructions and come up with the most
interesting and creative text. Reading and writing both have a purpose which is often
interlinked. Thus, reading is seen as ‘an active process of constructing meaning’ (Leland et
al, 2013: 50). The idea is that we are motivated to read what interests us most, encouraging
us to expand our minds to consider themes beyond the immediate.
Another idea to spark writing is to use food or objects. We can practise different forms of
writing, such as dialogues, descriptive writing or recipes using food or objects which we can
hear, see, touch, eat and smell in order to get in touch with the different senses which play
a big role in reading and writing. We can then write different creative pieces based on the
objects.
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Activity Three
Try such an activity for yourself using any food or object deemed appropriate. The idea is
that you need to discover which items can encourage, motivate and give us the most access
to the imagination. Try to write a fictional piece (an essay or dialogue) and a non-fictional
piece (a description of the object and its uses) as you play with the object or eat the food;
use the five senses to experience the object or food.

Reading and writing are about expressing ourselves through words which represent our
thoughts and ideas. We do not always realise that our senses play such a big role in
expressing who we are. Thus, by getting in touch directly with our senses, we also get in
touch with who we are mentally and emotionally. This opens up our minds to the reading
experience as we become more aware of how authors use our senses in figures of speech
or when trying to bring across ideas in writing. We imagine what we read by using these
very same senses.
Academic writing styles

A writing style is a very abstract concept as style often stems from our personalities.
Academic writing, however recommends that certain rules be followed which do affect style:
the writing should ‘be accurate, impersonal and objective’ (Bailey, 2015: 138). When writing
we must be convinced of what we write, so, we cannot use words which show vagueness,
guesswork or hesitation and doubt. We must provide specific names and dates which can
be researched. We must stay away from imprecise expressions (these include ‘etc.’, ‘like’,
‘thing’, ‘lots of’, ‘little/big’, ‘good/bad’ or estimates which are unfounded generalisations),
wording which is too personal (avoid the first person singular and never provide personal
experiences or family stories as proof nor reveal your personal attitude towards an issue),
language which is too informal (idiomatic or colloquial language, slang expressions and
contractions) or very figurative (proverbs, rhetorical questions and too many unnecessary
details) (op cit.: 139).
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Academic writing often uses the passive voice so that the emphasis is more on the action
than the subject, but this too must be in moderation or writing becomes tedious and a little
difficult to follow. We should not use questions, or number our paragraphs and we should
avoid two-word verbs, also called prepositional verbs: such as ‘keep up’, ‘move on’ or ‘lock
up’. The reasoning behind these rules is that academic writing should flow easily. It should
only present the important facts and ideas and should not be hindered by unnecessary
wording as academic writing tends to be lengthy. With this in mind, you should also avoid
too much repetition, use synonyms to make the writing more interesting, use functional
words which show precision of thought and write sentences of different lengths to either
emphasise a new idea (short sentences) or give explanations (long sentences).
Lastly, an academic writing style should show ‘caution’ (Bailey, 2015: 143), implying that
what we propose could be debated so we use words such as: “usually”, “often”, “tend to”,
“may” or “might”. These reveal that a theory could be proven incorrect or research could
change established views. If we disagree with other writers it does not mean that we are
right and they are wrong: we cannot predict the future nor know everything about a topic.
One of the biggest mistakes in academic writing is making sweeping statements;
generalisations which we take to be correct beyond doubt. To avoid generalisations, use
modifiers, such as ‘quite’, ‘rather’ and ‘fairly’ (op cit.: 144).
Visual information used in writing

An aspect of style is the use of visual information. Bailey (2015) mentions maps, line graphs,
tables, diagrams, mind maps, pie charts or bar charts. Visual information offers a little
variety to paragraph writing and can include much information in a short and easily
accessible format. Visual information is also good for comparative studies and allows certain
key features to stand out clearly: for example, a graph easily shows the highest and lowest
points. Visual information can also be followed with descriptions which assist in reading the
information clearly, while a visual image can give an immediate impression of how
information compares, words can be used to discuss details, such as percentages. When
using visual information there are a few features which need to be observed. Bailey (2015)
recommends that visuals be labelled, so that visuals are referred to as figures or tables and
they need to be numbered consecutively. We also need a title which is usually placed above
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for tables and below the data for figures. The sources of all visuals must be acknowledged
and the figures should be included in a Table of Contents if one is provided.
Art cards and sign systems as pre-writing activities

‘Art Trading Cards’ (Leland et al, 2013: 126) use different mediums to create visuals which
represent social issues, such as identity issues or aspects of society which cause harm to
people. On the one side of the card is an art work which represents the artist’s identity or
the social issue using any medium, and on the back of the card the artist’s name and contact
details are written. These cards get exchanged between people with similar interests so as
to share ideas about certain issues and to create a network of people connected to one
objective.
‘Sign systems’ (Leland et al, 2013: 126) refer to different art forms which communicate ideas
by the forms themselves and the way they are used. The art forms can be drawings made
with pencil, paints or any other material, sculptures, collages or any form of art using
whatever material is available. However, its main purpose is to explain, describe or
represent a written text. Meaning can move from one art form to another; Leland et al (2013)
call this ‘transmediation’. This is often done when we read a text and then write about it.
Children’s literature (as seen in Unit 1) is a good way of bringing together the different art
forms because it focuses on visual images and the books are often illustrated for easier
understanding. In Unit 1 we looked at reading in conjunction with writing, music, pictures
and technology to explore how the non-written aspects of the arts enhance our
understanding of written texts.
Activity Four
Make three Art Trading Cards with a picture on the one side and your details on the other.
On the first one draw your face in a way which reflects who you are within. On the second
one draw a picture of your favourite book, reflecting why you like it. On the third card draw
the issues you have or fear to face. Remember to use sign systems to reflect emotions and
thoughts. If you are not happy with your drawing, you can use “Zentangles”. This is an ‘art
form [which] involves creating complicated felt-tip line drawings … over the original images
one line at a time. Simple tangles or complex patterns are combined in unplanned ways that
take off in amazing directions’, (Leland et al, 2013: 140). “Zentangles” involve
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superimposing one drawing over another to create a new picture, but without erasing any
of the previous images.

This is a fun way to start analysing who you are, so that you understand how you will
interpret a text or how you will approach a literary piece. Who you are also influences your
taste in books and the issues you might experience. Quite often we read texts that deal with
our issues in order to learn how to deal with them. This activity links up with the ideas
discussed later in this Unit where we investigate how literature can help solve problems in
the world by giving a voice to those who are not heard. Make yourself heard in a written
format with your Art Trading Cards.
Multimodal responses to reading which lead to writing

Leland et al (2013) recommend that we draw pictures of what is read in order to have a
better understanding of the story because pictures can easily express our emotions. If we
find it difficult to identify with a story, we can understand the themes or ideas of a story by
comparing them to experiences in our lives. The finding is that another medium, in this case
drawing pictures, can also motivate or guide us to think more deeply about a text because
different mediums encourage us to understand the different emotions evoked by the text.
This is called a ‘multimodal response’ which involves ‘multiple art forms’ which allow us to
express ourselves through our imagination (Leland et al, 2013: 128). These forms can offer
many perspectives on a text, each perspective encourages a deeper understanding of the
original text. This is linked to the post-modern idea of “layers of meaning”- seeing only one
meaning in a text is limiting because modern literature allows for many meanings depending
on the readers’ response.
A multimodal response can be used to interconnect different subjects, encouraging a

multidisciplinary (looking at a concept from multiple perspectives) approach which allows
for better understanding. We need to understand that subjects are linked and that one helps
us understand the other, especially English which has recently been expanded “across the
curriculum” meaning that as a language of learning and teaching (LOLT) it affects all
subjects. Knowledge of language therefore helps us with content knowledge: a good
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knowledge of reading and writing will help us achieve a good performance in all our
subjects, especially at tertiary level.
Activity Five
Take your analysis in Activity Two of Unit 1 and draw your ideas. Draw the text, its images,
figures and speech and characters (whether they are people, animals or inanimate objects).
Bring the words to life with visuals.

Many texts, especially poems, rely heavily on figures of speech where a few words can
convey layers of meaning, as connotations or figures of speech work like a spider’s web
with one idea leading to many more. By drawing the elements of a poem you can represent
all the figurative language on paper in a visible form so that the end result is not an abstract
notion in your mind, but something that you can hold, see, touch and keep as a record of
your interpretation.
Another form of ‘multimodal response’ is to change the font in which texts are written or
write them out by hand to make them more personal. This obviously makes the text more
accessible as you can use different fonts for each character to represent the character’s
personality, age, gender and outlook on life. This concept has value as we need to
understand that characters in literature are individuals and they have their own personality
and interpretation of events in a text.
Another way to read critically and then write is to approach literature from a fairly different
perspective. According to Leland et al (2013), some writers mix traditional fairy tales with
elements of other tales to make new and more exciting stories. This works well if we can
use heroes and warriors from one story to help less strong characters in another story. For
example, let Spiderman save Snow White. It may seem extreme but, as students of English
Studies, we need to stretch our minds and see the world from different angles so that we
can broaden our minds. This exercise works well with nursery rhymes and fairy tales as the
storylines are fairly straight forward so it is easier to insert new characters, especially heroes
who save the day. Clothes can also be used to describe the characters and what they do
or what they represent. We must always keep in mind that reading and writing critically are
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fairly long processes. Sometimes, we need to try new things to find the route that gets us to
the best final product. Unfortunately, often we need to follow a process of trial and error –
trying many different approaches and failing until we get to the right one.
Activity Six
Write an adaptation of a fairy tale by mixing characters from two or three different well-
known stories or adding in new characters; you may even change the plot a little. The stories
can be from any culture and they can be oral or written tales, although the final product must
be written in formal English. Also try to use a different handwriting for each character to
represent his/her traits and provide pictures or descriptions of the costumes he/she will wear
and what the clothes represent.

You need to experiment with literature in order to feel comfortable with it. Try to dissect it
because, once you start taking it apart, only then will you learn how all the elements
constitute a final written text. Writers do not simply sit down and write. They work on each
individual aspect and then put all the aspects together and, even then, they rework elements
to achieve the best possible final product. You will be working backwards: you will dissect
the final product until you are left with the pieces, just like a puzzle being taken apart.
Leland et al (2013) propose that we can also find meaning in texts through music and dance.
We can choose texts which are lyrics to music and use a CD of the songs. We can then
sing along to the music or read the text thoroughly, learn the songs and make up a dance
to reflect the actions and emotions in the story. We can even use musical instruments so
that we can “play” the text and react to it using music. Leland et al (2013) recommend that
books with more than one character work best as the different characters can be
represented by different sounds or instruments. Once we have used the musical
instruments, we can write down our interpretations and reactions to the story with reference
to the music as well. We can get a big basket and start collecting props which can be used
to perform the texts, such as hats, scarves, glasses, masks, wigs and handheld objects. We
can get a group of our classmates to read a text and then perform it for people to see
whether they can interpret what the text is about without having read it. To conclude this
section, let us remember ‘that nothing is permanent and traditional understandings are
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always subject to revision’ (Leland et al, 2013: 129). This means that there are many ways
of interpreting any text.
Activity Seven
For this activity see if you can join up with other students doing the module or even try it
alone. Read a text and then perform it using a multimodal response, such as music, dance,
singing, drawing pictures or painting scenes. In other words, practise how you are going to
understand the text by using different mediums and then write critical notes on the different
aspects of the text to achieve an overall understanding. File everything to show how one
medium relates to another.

Learn to experiment with your own talents. Bring a text to life to make it more real by giving
it more dimensions. Literature is not a static piece of writing, but rather an expression of
human thoughts and emotions which must be conveyed through the senses – sight, sound,
taste, touch and smell.
Writing as a result of process drama

As discussed above, a multimodal response allows a greater understanding of literature,
especially when acting out a text: ‘Process drama invites students to use drama to make
meaning of a text’ (Leland et al, 2013: 131). We act out what we read by inserting our own
lives into the drama; thus, performances will differ, just like, our understanding of literature
does according to how we interpret texts. It is, however, advised that, at first, we adhere to
the original text and once we are familiar with it, we then deviate from it and provide our
own interpretation. ‘Process drama’ can either be a specific type of performance or an
assembly of different performances. The performances include ‘role-playing’ (acting out a
character with the original dialogue, but we may even say aloud what we think the character
thinks); ‘still-life tableaux’ where we represent the setting (this includes ‘faces, body
positions, posture, gestures, space between (our)selves’) and even ‘trials’ where characters
present the reasons for their actions (op cit.: 131-132). Always keep in mind, though, that
all the mediums used to interpret a text must result in some form of written analysis which
is critical and shows understanding. Learning this way is fun, but it needs to achieve certain
objectives too.
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The idea of ‘process’ is that each piece of drama is a pathway towards the critical reading
and writing of a text. It can be used for any age group and most especially for those who
find it difficult to understand a text while reading. Drama makes us become a part of the text
and thus pay attention to every word, emotion or action. An idea suggested by Leland et al
(2013) is that we invite those who are the audience to share thoughts and feelings and ask
the characters questions. It is often easier to “show” emotions than to write about them.
When we see the emotions on our faces it is easier to write about the experience. We must
not forget to ask open-ended questions to progress towards a critical understanding
exploring various meanings and reactions which encourage certain interpretations. The
questions must be open-ended as contextual questions are too limiting. Together with
acting, sounds and all the other senses may be used to bring the written words to life. Smell
can be an abstract notion, but it is easily expressed through facial expressions.
Remember that every aspect of a text must relate to a critical evaluation. Open-ended
questions which may be asked are: what do the horrible smells tells us about the setting or
the characters? Why do some characters speak as if they sing while others sound more as
if they shout? What does this mean? How does this relate to the theme of the text? Why do
some characters look pretty while others are made to look ugly? Why do we not want to
play a certain character? Also investigate vocabulary and facial expressions: What influence
do words have on how a character is judged? Which words would a bully use and which, a
victim? Before starting to “act” we could also decorate the “stage” as we perceive the setting
to be and how it will influence the acting. Who stands and who sits? Who is high up and
who is down? What does this mean? All these questions help us to connect the different
aspects into a holistic picture which helps us gain a deeper understanding. Quite often texts
about teenagers express the ideas mentioned above quite clearly. This is expressed even
more clearly in television programmes or films about high school. Watch such a film or
television programme and make notes about the visual representation of the characters.
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Activity Eight
Find a play or book which is suitable and write notes on how you could act it out, first by
creating the setting and then by moving to convey the action and, lastly, making facial
expressions that relate to the emotions expressed. You could get children from your
neighbourhood or classmates to assist: give them directions about what to do and then take
photographs of the ‘process drama’ which could be recorded in a file. This activity simulates
a classroom environment.

In this activity you become the director, the actor, the producer and the audience. You act
the whole text so that you can understand every aspect and have knowledge of how each
piece contributes to the final product.
Using multimodal responses to change prejudiced ideas

Lewison et al (2008), as cited in Leland et al (2013: 132), suggest that we learn to question
conventional thoughts. This means looking for new perspectives and studying texts
according to social and political contexts so that we try to make amends for what is wrong
in society. These ideas might seem overwhelming, but they can be accomplished step by
step, year by year and text by text. Often quality is more important than quantity so that we
grasp the essentials and are then able to build on them. We cannot simply take a text at
face value; we must absorb it, process the ideas, look beyond the obvious, ask questions
and think of how the text can change our lives, making us better citizens. Literature is about
passion and being encouraged to expand our minds.
One of the first wrongs we must make right when studying literature is the idea of
stereotypes. We usually associate personality traits with specific physical features which
eventually lead to prejudice. We are often influenced to think the way we do, so we must be
very careful not to accept ideas that that encourage misinterpretation. For example, it is
often believed that bullies are tall, big and ugly. This is not always the case, just as short,
fat children are not necessarily bad sports people. We need to pay attention to how
characters are described and that we do not create a picture of a character based on
preconceived ideas. Often we must undo the wrong perceptions society creates in us from
an early age. The ideas mentioned above also relate to animals or inanimate objects. We
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usually see wild animals as evil and doing harm, but this is not always the case. A lion
whose stomach is full will not necessarily attack a human being, sheep are not always afraid
and a big car does not always mean the person driving it is rich. We must look past the
superficial and find the truth beneath in order to fully understand literature as a reflection of
life. One such undermining of traditionally accepted norms, which is particularly significant
to us, is the questioning of authority. The victimised character stands up to the authoritarian,
power-hungry bully who abuses, exploits or makes the person’s life horrible. This type of
story appeals to us, but we need to be careful that we do not become biased and favour
rebels, or pay more attention to violence than the issues related to the themes in a text.
In order to develop many different perspectives about a theme, it is helpful to study various
texts, called ‘Text Sets’, (Leland et al, 2013: 133). These are texts which show varying
aspects, perspectives and ideas on a theme, which allows us to see a theme from different
angles and come to our own interpretations. Different viewpoints are also reflected in
different art forms that offer a visual interpretation of the theme. In such activities we should
not be surprised that just about everyone will have a different representation and that details
will be highlighted that do not always feature prominently in the written text. We ultimately
need to be taught to express non-written mediums in written language. The idea of
multimodal mediums is that all five senses can be expressed and even a sixth creative
sense can be developed to predict the storyline, think of ways to change it, improve on it or
think up a sequel.
If a text has a specific social or political context, this is quite important as it will determine
the setting and the background tone for a text. Resolving social and political issues in a text
can change the world. Leland et al (2013) refer to a French artist who took photographs of
people in two conflicting countries doing everyday jobs. The photographs did not clearly
show to which country the people belonged thus, without words, he showed the citizens
something which allowed them to rethink their socio-political views. This demonstrated that
if we do not pay attention to political conflict, which can distort our perceptions, we will be
able to see that we are all similar human beings just doing our jobs. Often the social aspect
is more significant to individual human beings than the political one so we tend to focus
more on issues which affect us, such as neighbourhood gangs, family conflict, hunger,
bullies, gender roles and relationships with friends. We can influence society by reading
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books which tell stories of how people changed the lives of others for the better. The main
concern here is that we understand how literature (be it written or visual) has the power to
change us and the world and influence events simply by giving voices to those who are not
heard.
With the above ideas in mind, a useful activity when reading a text is to place characters in
order of “volume”. Which character is heard the most and who the least and why? We could
discuss power and success in relation to sound and volume. Are the true heroes loud or do
they go about their business quietly? These questions need to be asked to guide us to
understand that a text can be studied from many different perspectives and that first
appearances can be deceptive. Let us “read between the lines” and pay attention to what
is not said, because therein could lie the theme of the text. Critical writing is about analysing
what is implied or having insight into aspects which are neither obvious nor presented at
face value.
Activity Nine
Write a story (fictional or based on a true story) about someone who changed someone’s
life or did something great for society. Try to include other mediums too. You can try to
imitate the person in a drama, make a collage of the person’s life using photographs or
pictures or include the person’s favourite music in the background.

This activity will allow you to explore your own talents and be aware of your weaknesses
when it comes to art forms so that you emphasise your strengths and make more effort with
your shortcomings. You can also ask others to assist with activities that are difficult for you,
for example, drawing or singing.
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Interpreting and misinterpreting writing
So far we have learned that interpretation refers to finding meaning in what we read which
depends on who we are and what we look for. Interpretation can be influenced by age,
gender, culture, emotions and religion, although interpretation of academic texts should not
be influenced by these outside factors. This is obviously what we aim to achieve, but we do
not always get it right because, as human beings, we are often led by our emotions as well
as our thoughts.
We now need to consider misinterpretation. One of the questions often raised in academic
circles is whether misinterpretation exists given that we all have freedom of thought and
speech and we want to go in different directions. However, misinterpretation does exist.
Misinterpretation is an issue if we cannot substantiate our views with proof from the text or
if we try to turn a text around to suit our views. This is a basic definition which will be
expanded on by investigating what we can do to avoid misinterpreting a text. Often it is
easier to be guided towards a correct interpretation than to explain why an interpretation is
incorrect.
Difficulties encountered when using the multimodal response method

Obviously, a multimodal response is rather intense and will take time but, as stated above,
we need to focus on quality and not quantity. The multimodal response can also be adjusted
to understand more disciplines than just English Studies; it can be used to make us
understand content subjects. Once we have mastered the skills, we can apply them to any
discipline because including other mediums encourages an enjoyment and depth that
creates a solid foundation for future studies. They train us to use all our senses when
studying literature. What we learn and practise in this module should become the norm so
that it will eventually be less time-consuming. Many of us feel uncomfortable using art or
drama when studying but, as tertiary level students, we need to go beyond ourselves and
reach deep into our capabilities to do well academically. We need to be absorbed by our
new knowledge and be carried away into a world of literature, art, drama and music as these
are all interconnected. We need to try new things even if we are not good at them. Leland
et al (2013) suggest that we can focus on our talents and, thus, choose books which can
make use of such talents, such as books with themes about cooking, knitting, dancing,
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gardening or playing music. Literature is so vast that there is always a book which will suit
our needs.
Factors to consider when we have different home languages and cultures

The ability to read and write, otherwise referred to as literacy, is not prioritised in the same
way around the world; different cultures value different aspects of literacy as more important
when educating children. It is the European/American Western world that focuses mainly
on written literacy. Other cultures value music, dance or art above writing. As students, we
need to keep this in mind, especially as we study English. Literature does not always follow
the Western model in which written literacy is dominant because the authors we study come
from diverse backgrounds. Thus, we need to use a multimodal response method when
approaching certain texts to accommodate this diversity and understand a text. English has
become a global language with over 700 million people who speak it, thus, authors may
write in English but their cultural backgrounds influence them to write about themes that
honour, respect and value their individual cultures. For this reason, we need to be flexible
so that we understand the themes and the way they are conveyed by using multimodal
responses. We should not only consider the written tradition because we might misinterpret
the layers of art in a text.
Leland et al (2013) suggest that picture books are one of the best ways to approach English
Studies as pictures are not limited by language and culture; pictures often speak to
emotions. We can interpret pictures using our senses and different forms of art or drama
until we understand the themes well and then write down our thoughts. In summary, we can
say that literature usually reflects character traits or experiences that relate to a theme or
themes in a text. Those of us who come from linguistically and culturally different
backgrounds will find it more difficult to see similarities between ourselves and the
characters or themes present in literature written in English and usually practised within
English culture, so we need to find ways to relate to this literature. One way of doing this is
to use our emotions to relate to a written text, we can express our understanding through a
multimodal response and then proceed to other mediums until we have a good
understanding of the text and are able to express this in English in the form of critical writing.
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Activity Ten
Try to find books written in English but with a frame of reference that accommodates other
cultures. Make a list of the books and which cultures they could accommodate and why.
Also see whether the books have been translated into any other languages.

The language used to write a literary piece could be limiting as writers should adhere to the
correct grammar of a specific language. The same does not apply to themes or characters.
A book can be written about any culture, language group, age, creed or gender, but in a
language which is not spoken by the characters. Literature reflects the whole world so we
need to broaden our minds to accept this concept.
Using different forms of technology to assist writing

Another form of multimodal response using technology which is itself a multifunctional and
multimodal medium as it can combine many different mediums into one two-dimensional
format usually on a screen. In fact, Leland et al (2013) suggest that today and tomorrow’s
students need to find a way to make traditional and classic literature fit into a technological
world. Technology helps us study literature as most texts can be found online with
summaries, notes and critical analyses. Technology can even become a motivating factor
for us to delve deeper into a text if it becomes a focal point on a blog, a web page or other
site on the internet. This medium interests most of us, especially younger students. Some
of us could even use technology to be in touch with students who are physically at distant
from us, but who study the same material creating a communal, provincial, national or
international panel of discussion. Leland et al (2013) recommend a website called
Think.com which allows the activities mentioned above. Technology also ties in with the
idea of ‘fan fiction’ discussed in Unit 1 which looks at how reading texts are expanded,
changed, adjusted and improved through the internet.
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All interaction of students on the internet, however, needs to be approached cautiously to

ensure that a discussion stays on an academic level and that what students write about a
text in an activity or task is not plagiarised nor a collective effort from other internet users.
The one shortcoming of technology is that the world becomes a global village where people
start to think and behave the same way. This goes against the idea of literature as
something which touches us personally. As students, we need to strive for a certain degree
of individuality when it comes to interpretations or those of us who are not so keen to make
an effort could miss out on learning something new and developing our personal responses.
Another aspect of technology is what Leland et al (2013), refer to as ‘pop culture remixes’
where the internet is used by learners to take a text and ‘use remix to include music, visual
images, Youtube videos, sounds, and animations in their responses.’ (Leland et al, 2013:
137). Remixes are great fun and can be a useful learning experience, but we need to ensure
that the original text is not lost completely in the remix and that we do write about it in a
meaningful and relevant manner. This concern needs to be addressed especially when
commercial companies use remixes in order to market their products. We cannot have
students confusing soft drinks with fairy tales in formal assessments. A way of preventing
this is that, before experimenting with other mediums, we must ensure that we read a text
carefully, understand it, are familiar with its themes and understand the difference between
the original text and what is added or changed.
Activity Eleven
Try to join a book discussion on the internet and keep a record of the text being discussed.
Write down four or five varying views and how they relate to the original text and compare
these with how you experience it. Critically evaluate whether you think the exercise works
for you or not, and the reasons why. Compare this activity to Activity Seven in Unit 1 where
you joined a fan fiction site. See how the two activities compare.
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What happens in a classroom, during a lecture or is written in a textbook is only the
beginning of your academic quest for knowledge. The technological sites mentioned above
are intended to spur on your desire to expand your knowledge and make your own
discoveries; what high school teachers call ‘self-study’. Formal education equips you with
the basic skills needed to gain knowledge through other mediums. This activity proposes to
do just that.
How to write book reviews

One of the most common forms of critical writing is a book review. A book review can be a
number of things: a summary of the plot, a part of a dissertation on an author, a marketing
strategy or an in-depth study of the nuances, characters, themes and imagery of a book. It
allows us to explore our understanding and knowledge of the book as literature and what it
says about life. This last aspect is what is most important to students of literature and you
need to develop certain skills to do this.
Bailey (2015) suggests that writing a book review allows us to study a book ‘critically’ which
is the key word in this unit. Critically implies looking past the superficial elements (usually
the plot); to consider different aspects in detail such as the characters, setting, themes and
imagery and how they are interlinked. According to Bailey (2015), a book review has two
sections: the first part discusses the plot, the author, the intended reader and support staff,
such as editors. The second part assesses the success of the book in achieving its aims.
This is usually objective, pointing at both the positive and negative aspects of the novel and
the style in which it was written and evaluates whether the book will be influential in today’s
literature. It goes without saying that the second part is the critical aspect of a book review.
Activity Twelve
Activity One of Unit 1 asked you to make a list of books according to categories. Now expand
on the list by providing a short critical book review of at least three books so that others can
know what to expect from the books and whether they are worthwhile or not. A critical book
review should assess the value of a text for a certain group in society.
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Often we start reading a book only to realise that it is not what we thought it would be and
that it does not appeal to us. The error could have been made by whoever wrote a review
of the book. It is now your objective to ensure that this experience does not happen to
someone who reads your review and “wastes” time reading an unappealing book. Try to
write the most critical review you can so that a reader immediately gets a feel for what the
themes are and how they are conveyed. The review should help the reader understand
what the writer’s intentions were when writing the book.
The model book review below is taken from Academic Writing. A Handbook for International
Studies Fourth Edition (Bailey, 2015: 214). Study it and assess whether it meets all the
criteria for a book review or whether you would add or remove anything. Indicate what is
positive about the review, what you think is incorrect and how you would change it.
Remember that the final product must be critical in nature, but not a criticism.
Atlantic Crossing: A Comparison of European and American Society

By Marcus Montero (ed.) York: York University Press, 2008. 378 pp., £35.00,
ISBN 987-0-15-980456-3
This useful and important edited volume partly fills a gap in the comparative political science
literature. The book compares the society and politics of the European Union (treated here
as a single state) with the United States. The book examines ‘convergences and
divergences’ between these two global powers, similar in size and economic weight ‘but
asymmetric in terms of political influence and military might’ (p. 1).
The book has eight chapters. The introductory and concluding chapters, which hold the
volume together, are written by the editor. The first briefly outlines the adopted comparative
approach and methodological challenges faced in producing this study. Montero then goes
on to argue that the EU and the US offer two contrasting models of Western modernity. The
final chapter argues that the process of constructing the EU has led to convergence, not
divergence, between the EU and the US. In between are six sectoral chapters; of particular
interest is the third, by Kuhl, which argues that the quality of the democratic experience is
in decline on both sides of the Atlantic.
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This is a well-written work that breaks new ground in treating the EU as a single state.
However, the book was published in 2008, a year after the EU had enlarged to 27 states.
The authors fail to deal fully with this ‘geographic boundary’ problem.
This neglect of the newest member states is repeated throughout the volume and brings
into question the validity of the book’s wider conclusions.
How to assess writing

According to Leland et al (2013) the best way to keep a record of formal and informal
assessments is to have a sketchbook where we draw, write and record any other medium
used to respond to texts. It can be kept chronologically or according to the different types of
activities, such as group work, individual work, formal, informal, written work, drawings or
for pasting in any other work relevant to the text. We can include photographs of what we
acted out or listened to or whatever we did to have a better understanding of the text.
Activity Thirteen
Choose a text and create a sketchbook about it. It should include responses which are in
the form of writing, visuals, photographs of the text being acted out, downloads from sites
or blogs about it (get your friends to read it too and to enter reviews about it on social media).
Keep a detailed log of your thoughts as you do the activity.

This sketchbook should be a summary of the skills which were discussed in this Unit so that
it can be an example for future reference of the thinking processes involved in critical
reading and writing. Each year you can go back to your sketchbook and add new skills and
knowledge as a visible measure of how you progress in your academic career.
Conclusion
Always keep in mind that writing goes hand-in-hand with reading, as the one follows from
the other. The secret is to practise both regularly to perfect your skills. Remember that this
Unit follows on the previous one and develops new skills. Therefore, in order to revise what
was studied in Unit 2 we need to link it to Unit 1. We have done this with most of the activities
in this Unit to show you how reading and writing are symbiotic. Take your answers to the
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activities in Unit 1 and add to them by keeping in mind what was learned in this Unit about
using different mediums and then write about the texts critically. You should reread the
texts, analyse them and use different mediums to gain a deeper understanding of them and
then add to the answers you provided in the previous Unit. As lifelong students, we should
never think that our notes are complete; we constantly need to revise, edit and expand on
our notes to enrich our knowledge to maintain our lifelong learning.
Below are supplementary activities which can assist you in practising critical writing.
Activity Fourteen
Read the stanzas below and provide a detailed analysis of the main ideas.
The Road Not Taken (first twelve lines)

by: Robert Frost
Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,

And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveller, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;
Then took the other, as just as fair,

And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that, the passing there
Had worn them really about the same,
And both that morning equally lay

In leaves no step had trodden black.
Activity Fifteen
The extracts below are taken from Animal Farm by George Orwell. Read the extracts
carefully and answer the questions based on them so as to practise critical writing.
Snowball stood up and, though occasionally interrupted by bleating from the sheep, set forth
his reasons for advocating the building of the windmill. Then Napoleon stood up to reply.
He said very quietly that the windmill was nonsense and that he advised nobody to vote for
it, and promptly sat down again; he had spoken for barely thirty seconds, and seemed
almost indifferent as to the effect he produced. At this Snowball sprang to his feet, and
shouting down the sheep, who had begun bleating again, broke into a passionate appeal in
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favour of the windmill. Until now the animals had been equally divided in their sympathies,
but in a moment Snowball’s eloquence had carried them away. In glowing sentences he
painted a picture of Animal Farm as it might be when sordid labour was lifted from the
animals’ backs.
15.1 What is the difference in oratorical style between Snowball and Napoleon?
‘Comrades’ cried Squealer, making little nervous skips, ‘a most terrible thing has been
discovered. Snowball has sold himself to Fredrick of Pinchfield Farm, who is even now
plotting to attack us and take our farm away from us! Snowball is to act as his guide when
the attack begins. But there is worse than that. We had thought that Snowball’s rebellion
was caused by his vanity and ambition. But we were wrong, comrades. Do you know what
the real reason was? Snowball was in league with Jones from the very start! He was Jones’s
secret agent all the time. It has all been proved by documents which he left behind him and
which we have only just discovered. To my mind this explains a great deal, comrades. Did
we not see for ourselves how he attempted – fortunately without success – to get us
defeated and destroyed at the Battle of the Cowshed?’
15.2 Discuss the use of propaganda in the extract by referring to Squealer’s words to the
animals.
Activity Sixteen
Read the extract below from, The Crucible, by Arthur Miller and discuss the
question based on it
Abigail Give me a word, John. A soft word. (Her concentrated desire destroys his smile.)
Proctor No, no, Abby. That’s done with.
Proctor You know me better.

Abigail I know how you clutched my back behind your house and sweated like a stallion
whenever I come near! Or did I dream that? It’s she put me out, you cannot
pretend it were you. I saw your face when she put me out, and you loved me
then and you do now!
Proctor Abby, that’s a wild thing to say –
Abigail A wild thing may say wild things. But not so wild, I think. I have seen you since
she put me out; I have seen you nights.
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Proctor I have hardly stepped off my farm this seven-month.

Abigail I have a sense for heat, John, and yours has drawn me to my window, and I have
seen you looking up, burning in your loneliness. Do you tell me you’ve never
looked up at my window?
Proctor I may have looked up.
(adapted from The Crucible, Act Two)
‘I know how you clutched my back behind your house and sweated like a stallion whenever
I came near’. What does this quotation show about the nature of the relationship between
John and Abigail, and how does this quotation relate to John’s later admission in court: ‘…
help me, I lusted, and there is a promise in such sweat’.
Glossary
Symbiotic process One element operates in conjunction
with another to the benefit of both
Academic writing Writing which is formal, objective and
accurate
Visual information Any information which is not solely based
on written language
Multimodal responses A reaction to a text which involves many
different art forms which also enable us
to express our imagination
Process drama A text which is acted out visually by
expressing words, emotions or actions
REFERENCES
Routledge.
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Miller, A. (1952) The Crucible. Fourth impression 2008. London: Maskew Miller Longman
(Pty) Ltd.
Orwell, G. (1945) Animal Farm. Eighteenth impression 2008. London: Maskew Miller
Longman (Pty) Ltd.
http://www.markedbyteachers.com/gcse/english/the-crucible-critical evaluation.html,
(accessed 17/04/2018)
http://scholar.uwindsor.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1945&context=ossaarchive,
(accessed 17/04/2018).
The answers provided below are only an example of what is required of critical writing.
There are many possible answers that could be given as long as they reflect that a text has
been analysed, interpreted correctly and has enabled the reader to produce effective critical
writing of his/her own.
You need to make sure that the statements you make which support, discuss or expand on
the topic relate directly to the topic. Please be aware that in critical writing the topic needs
to be mentioned or referred to in most paragraphs to show how the ideas proposed by the
writing relate to the topic.
Activity Fourteen
Read the stanzas below and provide a detailed analysis of the main ideas.
The Road Not Taken (first twelve lines)

by: Robert Frost
Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,

And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveller, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;
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Then took the other, as just as fair,

And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that, the passing there
Had worn them really about the same,
And both that morning equally lay

In leaves no step had trodden black.
Pre-reading activity (not compulsory)
The poet
Robert Frost (1874 – 1963) was the son of a New England (the north western area of the
U.S.A.) farmer and a Scottish mother. He spent most of his life either writing poetry or
farming. His poetry describes the farming people whom he knew and loved so well. His
references to nature and his philosophy ensured that he was one of the most popular
American twentieth century poets.
Type of poem: Lyrical poem

Theme: The poem is about a person’s final choices in life and how these will determine the
kind of future s/he will have which may not fulfil his dream for unexplored experiences or
adventures.
The main features of Frost’s poetry

Frost wrote about the realities of the everyday world of man, especially that of country
people and country situations. His poetry is written in the rural language of common speech.
He was a symbolist, implying that there is a deeper meaning in many of his descriptions
and narratives that sometimes go beyond analysis. His poetry should always be read on
two levels: literally (direct, physical language) and figuratively (figures of speech, indirect
and symbolic meaning).
For the purpose of serving as a guideline, the suggested answer has been divided
into subsections to show how to approach a poem. A literary essay, however, should
not have subheadings, but follow the usual structure: introduction, body and
conclusion.
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PART ONE: The narrative
Subsection one (lines 1 – 5)

The speaker tells us how he comes to a fork in the unfamiliar road he is travelling on in a
thick forest. The speaker has to choose between the two roads before him. He wishes that
he could travel along both of them without having to make a choice. He stands undecided
for a long time. He looks down one of the roads as far as he can see to the point where it
turns, disappearing from view in the undergrowth.
The poem may be interpreted on two levels. On a literal level, the speaker travels along a
strange country road which splits into two. On a figurative level, the poem is an extended
metaphor showing the speaker’s life as an unfamiliar road (the metaphor implies that life is
a journey) which requires him to make an important choice which will have lifelong
consequences.
The leaves have already turned “yellow”: This could be a metaphor showing that the
speaker is middle-aged, that is, in the autumn of his life. The fork in the road represents an
important turning-point in his life; his future depends on this as it will determine the way he
lives the rest of his life. It forces him to make a choice between two possible ways his life
can go.
The choice that the speaker has to make is very difficult: he dislikes that the road diverges
(splits) and forces to choose only one. Figuratively, it implies that it is a pity that man’s
experiences in life are limited and that he has to choose between two equally attractive
choices. These possible experiences and roads represent man’s search for the deeper
meaning of life. This is why he is hesitant (doubtful); he realises what an important choice
it is and that when he picks one he cannot change his mind
and go back.
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Subsection two (lines 6 – 12)

Although the speaker studies the one road very carefully for a long time, he chooses the
other one because in his opinion the second road is just as inviting or attractive as the first
road. Most probably it is the better choice as it is grassy and looks less used. But the
speaker admits that if he has to be perfectly honest, both paths seem to have been walked
on the same amount. So that morning the two roads stretch before him, covered evenly with
fallen autumn leaves which have not yet been disturbed nor crushed by passing feet.
In lines seven and eight the speaker tells us why he chooses the second road; he says it is
better than the first one. The second road is “grassy” and it is not damaged by regular use,
“I took the one less travelled by.” But we ask ourselves if he does not contradict himself by
saying that there is no difference between the roads? The first road is just as attractive, “just
as fair,”; both roads have been travelled more or less the same and both roads seem to be
equal in state. So we wonder what motivates the speaker to choose the second one,
whether his choice is instinctive, unplanned or done without thinking carefully? His decision
could show something of his character: is he is too much of an individual? does he act
without the help of others? or is he non-conformist (he does not do what others consider to
be ’normal’)?
Activity Fifteen
15.1 What is the difference in oratorical style between Snowball and Napoleon?
The difference in oratorical style between Snowball and Napoleon is that Napoleon does
not say much, but prefers to take action. He denounces everything Snowball says and is
indifferent to the reactions of the audience. Napoleon is an imposing figure, but he does not
comes across as being very dynamic. He speaks slowly, but with an extremely firm tone
which does not usually allow for arguments. Snowball, in contrast, is dynamic: he moves
around, is passionate, uses figures of speech and explains his reasoning. Snowball is not
bombastic or an authoritarian; he wins support with persuasive and rational ideas.
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15.2 Discuss the use of propaganda in the extract by referring to Squealer’s words
to the animals.
Squealer uses propaganda to control the animals, making them believe all the liesNapoleon
uses to exploit and abuse them. Squealer blames all the animals’ hardships on Snowball.
He falsely accuses Snowball of being a spy for Jones and makes him the scapegoat for
everything that is wrong on the farm. Napoleon, instead, is made out to be a hero whose
only aim in life is to make the animals’ lives better. Squealer is Napoleon’s spokesperson
as he is a lively and convincing orator. The gullible animals cause their own suffering by
believing the propaganda and thinking they are better off under Napoleon rather than
realising the truth of the situation which is that Napoleon treats them worse than Jones.
Napoleon is a dictator.
Activity Sixteen
Read the extract below from, The Crucible, by Arthur Miller and discuss the
question based on it
Abigail Give me a word, John. A soft word. (Her concentrated desire destroys his smile.)
Proctor No, no, Abby. That’s done with.
Proctor You know me better.

Abigail I know how you clutched my back behind your house and sweated like a stallion
whenever I come near! Or did I dream that? It’s she put me out, you cannot
pretend it were you. I saw your face when she put me out, and you loved me
then and you do now!
Proctor Abby, that’s a wild thing to say –
Abigail A wild thing may say wild things. But not so wild, I think. I have seen you since
she put me out; I have seen you nights.
Proctor I have hardly stepped off my farm this seven-month.
Abigail I have a sense for heat, John, and yours has drawn me to my window, and I have
seen you looking up, burning in your loneliness. Do you tell me you’ve never
looked up at my window?
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Proctor I may have looked up.

(adapted from The Crucible, Act Two)
‘I know how you clutched my back behind your house and sweated like a stallion
whenever I came near’. What does this quotation show about the nature of the
relationship between John and Abigail, and how does this quotation relate to John’s
later admission in court: ‘… help me, I lusted, and there is a promise in such sweat’.
The quotation shows that the relationship was physical as there are few or no emotions
from John’s side, whereas Abigail is in love with John and is under the impression that the
relationship, will start again and last forever. Abigail believes that John will leave Elizabeth
for her. In court, John admits that their relationship was based purely on lust. However, the
final words spoken by John in the extract reveal that he does still think of Abigail, which
suggests that he is still attracted to her.
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4. UNIT 3: INFORMED READING AND WRITING FOR

EDUCATION

 know what constitutes informed reading and writing in multicultural classrooms;
 understand why teachers should be informed and have research skills;
 know how informed teachers develop informed students;
 discern and distinguish between facts and opinion, fact and myth, fact and urban
legend;
 inculcate and facilitate critical cross-field outcomes, such as problem-solving,
creativity and imagination, critical thinking, responsibility, collaboration/team work,
writing for specific purposes and reading for understanding.
Carefully read through the following sections in the prescribed textbook.

Chapter 6 & 7.
Introduction
The world is a global village in which people no longer live in homogeneous (only one culture
or nationality) communities with a limited view of what constitutes the ‘other’ (the ‘other’ is
a term used to refer to people who do not share our language, gender, sexual orientation,
culture, race, religion or nationality). We are interconnected with people all over the world
and, most especially, in our own country. This is a marvellous state of affairs as our minds
can expand, our views of the world can become multi-dimensional and our lives are
enriched by a kaleidoscope of cultures, languages and ideas. For these reasons students
and teachers need to know what constitutes informed reading and writing in multicultural
classrooms at all levels of education and why these activities are necessary. Reading and
writing must be made relevant to all the students in a classroom and the global village we
live in. Any classroom may include a diversity of cultures which need to be considered in
the learning and teaching process. Informed teachers develop informed students, thus
teachers need to teach research skills so that students are able to discern and distinguish
between fact and opinion, fact and myth and fact and urban legend, especially with regard
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to diversity. Students also need to know what it means to be informed so that they may
achieve critical cross-field outcomes, for example, problem solving, responsibility and
reading or understanding the world. This Study Unit is organised so as to understand first
the setting of a multicultural classroom; secondly how a curriculum fits into the setting; and
finally the specialised approach required when combining informed reading and writing in
education.
What does it mean to have a multicultural classroom?

A multicultural classroom means that not all the learners have the same home language or
that they speak different varieties of the same language; for example there are many
countries in the world which have English as a national language but each speaks its own
version of English. Examples of such countries are England, Australia, India, Zimbabwe,
South Africa and the USA. These students have a variety of home languages and cultural
backgrounds which often differ considerably from English both as a language and a culture,
meaning that students do not necessarily speak only English at home but many other
languages too, and they practise many different cultures as their parents and grandparents
come from different cultures. The easiest strategy in a classroom would be to focus only on
the English language itself and the way of thinking from which it originates, but this would
make us fail in our quest to be informed, multicultural citizens of a global village. We need
to make English, as a language, culturally and linguistically accessible to all. English has
the added responsibility of being a language which is the predominant medium of instruction
in most South African schools and tertiary institutions. For this reason, we need to have
teachers and students who know how to read and write critically in English. We need to
bring English into a multicultural classroom and make it accessible to our learners, be they
first additional or home language speakers. We all need to be able to communicate using
language that is mutually intelligible.
A multicultural classroom means that the students are exposed to many languages and
cultures all of which influence the way they experience the world, how they understand what
they read and how they express their ideas. Some cultures are more formal while others
have more relaxed ways of dealing with people. If we come into contact with people whose
culture is different from ours, we must find out about the culture and the manners it practises
so that we are not rude or say things which could be offensive. We need to understand that
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someone’s home language can influence the way the person expresses ideas and we must
adjust our mindset to be open to new ideas. This is the advantage of a multicultural
classroom: we are exposed to new ideas, new ways of seeing the world, new ways of
understanding what is written and, in the process, we have the opportunity to explore new
topics, cultural experiences and acquire new knowledge. These aspects can be used
positively to develop reading and writing.
Literature (as seen in Unit 2) can raise awareness of the injustices and inequalities suffered
by minority cultural groups within society by providing texts which empower such people.
These texts offer a “voice” to those who are not usually heard in society. A multicultural
classroom allows the needs of different cultures to be accommodated, expands on cultural
ideas and is critical in a positive way so as to be a positive influence. Literature, with its
diverse texts, allows us to be a part of an idealistic world in which students learn from one
another about new and wonderful ideas. We can teach each other to understand how varied
the world is and that all the positive qualities which humans have and which can be written
about in a book can also be found in a classroom.
Teachers in multicultural classrooms should be informed because they are the ones who
must facilitate communication and understanding between students of different cultures.
Informed teachers are aware of the different groups in a classroom, have some knowledge
of the different cultures, understand how the different home languages differ from one
another and from English and are able to explain the differences to the students in such a
way as to create a positive atmosphere in the classroom which is conducive to learning. A
teacher also needs to be informed about different technologies, teaching methods and
approaches which will accommodate the students’ needs. Not all students find it easy to
learn from the same teaching method so an informed teacher must be able to adapt her
teaching style so that all students feel that they are important and are catered for in a
positive manner.
The end product is that informed teachers develop informed students. Informed students
thrive in a multicultural classroom as they can learn from one another and broaden their
horizons beyond the classroom and their own country. They are open to new ideas, new
ways of doing things and see reading and writing as a reflection of these ideas. They are
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not afraid to read books which they would previously not have attempted and their writing
reflects an open mind and a brain willing to absorb as much as possible.
Activity One
The extract below is taken from Peter Slingsby’s, The Joining (1996: 3):
Phumzile had told him that he didn’t think that Rick liked him much, and maybe it was
because he was black. Jeremy thought about that for a while. He got on well with Rick
himself, even though he wasn’t so sure about him any more. Rick obviously thought that he
was white. Rick didn’t know that his aunt and his mother were nearly as dark as Christina.
He supposed that maybe if Rick didn’t like black kids, Phumzile would notice more easily
than he would. Phumzile got on well with Mr Mamase, Luvuyo’s father who had brought
them in his kombi, but then, Mr Mamase was black like Phumzile. It was all very confusing.
Jeremy sighed. People are so complicated, he thought. Always fighting or arguing or
disagreeing.
1. The story obviously deals with children who belong to different ethnic groups. Discuss
the ethnic groups to which Phumzile, Rick and Jeremy belong and the dynamics that
exist between the children as a result. This information needs to be inferred from the
words in the extract.
2. How do you understand the relationship between the characters? You need to refer to
the other people mentioned in the extract and influence each other in the extract.
3. Lastly, write a critical review of the extract as a text which could be used to reflect
racial diversity among friends.
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A curriculum needs to accommodate students’ diversity

In order for us to cope with academic learning, it is necessary to empathise with the
characters, language style and themes in the texts we read. This is most especially true
when reading and writing critically about literature. We do not want to feel alienated (not a
part of the group), thus, literary texts should include all the kinds of people. Texts need to
be selected which appeal to most people in a classroom, especially those who are “different”
from the majority. When we refer to “other” or “different” we imply that they have a different
gender or sexual orientation, come from countries outside South Africa, speak foreign
languages, practise other religions and live in a socio-political context which is different from
what most South Africans experience. For example, cultural or ethnic prejudice or
xenophobia is a big challenge in some societies, and we need to make ourselves aware of
this. This can be accomplished through the use of literary texts which respect and affirm
other cultures. This attitude allows learning to be relevant and leads to greater success in
achieving knowledge. For example, the novel, Maru, by Bessie Head, has as one of its main
characters Margaret Cadmore who is a Masarwa. Masarwas are treated unfairly in the
novel, but Margaret is such a respected character that she makes people see that the way
they treat the Masarwas is not right.
For a learning environment to encourage inclusivity and diversity, texts should be relevant
to the life experiences of students. It stands to reason that the cultural background of
students needs to be known. There should be at least one text in a curriculum that can
accommodate each and every cultural identity present in the learning environment. Even
books which are published in English and translated into various other languages could be
selected to accommodate different home languages. Ideally these books should be made
available in the students’ home languages as additional reading material at home, so that
they can be studied as supplementary material to the English version. A selection of books
which represent the diversity of languages and cultures in the world is beneficial to us all
because such literature teaches tolerance, respect, broadens mental horizons about the
differences between the peoples of the world and shows that the global village is not an
abstract idea. For example, we can look for books which have foreigners as characters.
This could be a foreigner in any country, possibly an immigrant in Canada or it could tell the
story of people who visit places other than their own homes.
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Giving students freedom to choose a few of their own texts also teaches respect for diversity
as it allows them to follow their preferences or curiosity for what is “other” and can be more
didactic (teaching a lesson) than forcing them to think a certain way. A curriculum can have
a reduced number of texts which are compulsory reading thus allowing students to read
more books of their own choice (obviously if first approved as academically acceptable
reading material). Students can then present a book review as a form of critical writing
where focus is placed on the social and cultural context and interaction among the
characters as a theme. This also allows for a greater knowledge of the interests, identities
and aptitudes of people who we consider “other” to us. Quite often in the global village and
in English first additional language classes, students can ‘have multiple cultural identities,
including gender, social class, family structure, age, religion, and language, as well as
ethnicity and nationality’ (Lynch-Brown et al, 2010: 214) because of political refugees,
immigration, urbanisation and parents of mixed origins. These factors influence behaviour
and perspective; that is, how we absorb our environment and process the acquisition of
knowledge because they create a context in our lives through which we experience the rest
of the world. A multicultural approach which respects diversity allows students to embrace
these perspectives; this enriches and moulds their minds, demonstrating the value of
literature.
Activity Two
Study the stanzas below taken from a poem.
Sometimes when it rains

By: Gcina Mhlophe (taken from Robin Malan’s Poetry Works 1, 2001)

I smile to myself
And think of times when as a child
I’d sit by myself
And wonder why people need clothes
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I think of times
when I’d run into the rain
Shouting ‘Nkce – nkce mlanjana
When will I grow?
I’ll grow up tomorrow!’
(Stanzas one and two)
1. From the information, infer who the narrator is. Justify your answer.
2. Infer the culture of the narrator, and provide evidence for your answer.
3. Discuss the changes in verb tenses and how they affect ideas in the stanzas.
4. What would you say are the main ideas in the poem?
5. Would you say that the ideas are fact or opinion? Discuss your reasons.
6. Using the poem as a reference, discuss how culture affects us. Relate it to the idea of
myth, legend and fact. In your answer mention how culture is reflected in our childhood
beliefs, the role played by our memories and how childhood influences our adult lives.
A curriculum needs to be culturally inclusive by being comprehensive and varied

A culturally comprehensive and varied curriculum refers to the selection of literary texts
studied. It allows for a cultural study that goes beyond one dominant culture and embraces
more than one perspective of the world. Literature studies require a contextual study of the
setting, that is, historical era, location and social and political circumstances which form the
background of any literary text. It allows students to be introduced to the diversity of cultures
in the world. When this is done from the beginning stages of literature studies it encourages
students to “grow up” thinking that this is the way the world should be; that is, without
discrimination. This is the power literature has to mould students’ minds.
When being introduced to a particular culture, students need to be exposed to various texts,
sources and visual aids which reflect it so that the culture becomes focus of study (this will
be dealt with in more detail further in the Unit). Such a study also teaches students to release
stereotypes and can be used in various subjects to show how history, art, literature and
other disciplines are interconnected and form a big part of any culture. Sources can be
gathered on scientists, musicians and artists who represent the specific culture in order to
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present it and all its associated aspects in a positive light to students. The beauty of
introducing non-verbal aspects is that they go beyond language because visual aids, music
and discoveries communicate without words. Highlighting the positive aspects of a specific
culture allows for certain voices, which are hardly heard in mainstream literature because
they belong to a culture other than the one highlighted by the main characters, to be heard
expressing their ideas and emotions. A culturally expansive curriculum allows students to
learn about those who are different from themselves, in a positive way. Students can learn
that sometimes differences are not that significant as we all do things in different ways, but
with similar goals. The notion of being normal is limiting and does not allow us to expand
our minds beyond our immediate, familiar borders.
Activity Three
Study the dialogue below adapted from Madam & Eve’s Greatest Hits and answer the
questions set on it.
The dialogue is between Jane (a black lady), her boyfriend John (a black gentleman) and
the Old Lady (a white English immigrant in South Africa). The dialogue takes place entirely
in English.
John (the new boyfriend): There’s a white lady asleep on the couch.
Jane (the girlfriend): That is the Director’s mother visiting from overseas.
John: Poor thing, is she sleeping off jet lag?
Jane: Let’s call it an alcohol induced nap.
(The old lady asleep on the couch wakes up and is
frightened).
Old lady: Help! I am a victim of a crime. Do not hurt me!
Jane: Put your hands down. This is John.
Old Lady: Maybe you should translate for me as I only speak English.
(Jane repeats the Old lady’s words in English to John while
grinning, John looks confused.)
Old lady: … and I was in a plane that would be …
(while she speaks)
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John: (aside to Jane) This does not seem right, I will tell her that I understand
her and I know what an aeroplane is.
Jane: Don’t be boring, have a little fun with the foreigner.
The Director: Jane, you are as bad as my mother!
1. The dialogue is about diversity. Which two cultural groups are represented?
2. There is irony in the dialogue which takes a satirical look at such diversity. Discuss the
humour inherent in the situation.
3. Who ends the discussion between the two diverse groups and why is the character
able to do so?
A curriculum needs to be critical so as to be culturally objective

A multicultural curriculum has more purpose than making students feel good about their
cultural identity; its ultimate goal is to undo the injustices, discrimination and inequality in
society. We, therefore, need to learn that all cultures are to be respected; we need to know
it as a fact of life and we need to live in a world which celebrates diversity and sees it as
positive. This, once again, demonstrates the power literature can have because it is more
than mere words, sentences and paragraphs; it teaches us to think, to express our views
and to stand up for what is right. This leads to a critical awareness of the world. By critically
studying, analysing and interpreting literature, we accomplish the ideals mentioned above.
Literature makes us pay attention to the “silent and oppressed” voices in society and gives
them a platform to be heard. In a critical writing process, we must therefore read and ask
questions instead of passively accepting conventional ideas. We must bring about change
through writing. When we interpret texts, we need to pay attention to the nuances (the subtle
and indirect ways of expressing ideas) which reflect characters who are marginalised in
society, such as women and children, the poor, old people and people who practise other
religions.
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History books tell us what was wrong with society while literature tells us how to fix it,
allowing the disadvantaged and the oppressed to be heard. If we look back at Unit 2, we
see that this involves changing ideas which are taken for granted and not challenged. We
need to look at literature that offers a different perspective of history, understand social and
political circumstances which influence literature, and take action by writing critically about
what happens in the texts. A good example is the use of Protest Poetry in South Africa
which came to the forefront during Apartheid. Protest Poetry was written by poets of all
races who wanted to voice their disapproval of the political situation with their words. The
themes in Protest Poetry explore oppression, victimisation, injustices and social issues. The
poetry was written in English so that it could be understood by all people, but the language
was often disrupted to show the poets’ stance against being forced to use a language other
than their own. This kind of poetry was then and is still now respected as it brought change
through words. One of the best examples of a protest poet is Mongane Wally Serote. Below
are a few lines from one of his poems:
City Johannesburg
This way I salute you:
My hand pulses to my back trousers pocket
Or into my inner jacket pocket
For my pass, my life,
Jo'burg City.
My hand like a starved snake rears my pockets
For my thin, ever lean wallet,
While my stomach groans a friendly smile to hunger,
Jo'burg City.
My stomach also devours coppers and papers
Don't you know?
Jo'burg City, I salute you;
When I run out, or roar in a bus to you,
I leave behind me, my love,
My comic houses and people, my dongas and my ever whirling dust,
My death
What constitutes informed reading and writing in multicultural classrooms?

Reading and writing take place within a social and political context which is where history
or social sciences are also located. It is often said that history is written by the victors; in the
same way a text is written by those who want to be heard. However, what about the voices
of those who are not victors and who have no one to write for them or about them? This is
a theme which needs to be discussed in literature classrooms from a young age. A text
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must be seen through ‘different eyes’ (Leland et al, 2013: 107), in order to have a full
understanding of all aspects of a theme. Furthermore, Leland et al (2013) also recommend
that different texts be read about one theme as they could give different perspectives. In
addition, we need to consult many history and social reference books so as to have an
accurate idea of the historical truths which form the context within which fictional books are
written. This is what Unit 2 referred to as a multidisciplinary approach, which occurs when
the knowledge of different subjects is used in order to gain understanding of the information
presented in one subject; in this case, the study of English Studies.
Discovering historical truths and how certain sections of a population were left out of history
and literary texts, is the first step towards having an informed practice of reading and writing
in a multicultural environment. The texts should not include only the cultures of the students
in a specific classroom, but those from across the global village. To teach about reading
between the lines for implied meaning, we must have a perspective which is not limited by
society and politics and, ultimately, we must approach a text holistically (as a whole) to
make perceive how the theme has universal meaning applicable to all people and all times.
Such research will discourage students from subscribing to false beliefs which are not valid
and could undermine any critical writing.
Leland et al (2013) suggest that in order for a multicultural perspective to be developed we

need to compare aspects of history by referring to a number of sources that deal with the
same issue. We must pay attention to how many times people who are discriminated
against are allowed to voice their views in comparison to people who have the upper hand
and investigate what these “silenced” groups accomplished during the period of history
which is studied. The history books should be used as references when reading literary
texts which are set during specific historical periods. Discrimination can exist because of
race, gender, sexual orientation, religion or even age. While the age issue is not usually
prominent, it should be, as young people often feel that they have no voice and no right to
speak and be heard and old people often feel they are invisible and forgotten about.
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Even if the characters in a text are fictional, the context needs to be described accurately to
show how history influences the storyline and the lives of the characters. Leland et al (2013)
suggest that we create little museums of historical eras with the resources which are
collected to bring social science into literature and vice versa. We can also draw and design
posters and information brochures about the time which can be considered secondary
sources. This type of activity relates to the multimodal responses dealt with in Unit 2.
Students could even act out sections of plays or prose to create an historical setting with a
‘still tableau’, (Leland et al, 2013: 131-132) to portray how specific cultural groups in history
are portrayed in texts. This brings us to the next part of the Unit which is about teachers
helping to develop informed students who possess problem-solving skills. One of the best
ways to accomplish this, according to Leland et al (2013), is with the use of focus studies
which encourage for an in-depth investigation into specific areas of literature and the
aspects associated with them.
Activity Four
Study the dialogue below, adapted from Madam& Eve’s Greatest Hits and answer the
question set on it.
James (a white boy): Mother meet my girlfriend Thandi.

(The mother passes out)
James: Jane, I am worried about my mother’s reaction.
Jane: You know that your mother does not like surprises!
James: In today’s world, mixed relationships are very fashionable
and acceptable.
Jane: Your mother did not even know you had a friend who is a
girl.
James: But …..
Jane: Any news needs to be broken gently or at least gradually,
you have no respect for other people’s sensitivity.
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James: At least I didn’t mention that Thandi is pregnant.

Thandi: Pregnant! How dare you think that of me, it’s insulting, I do
not …..
James: Have a sense of humour?
1. Discuss how the dialogue reflects racial and gender issues in South African society.
The concept of focused studies

An inquiry into a literary may take the form of a pre-reading activity which aims at creating
a broad overview of the themes. Students from different backgrounds should be involved
so that different perspectives are represented which will expand everyone’s knowledge.
Together we can learn about worlds other than our own, but through writing we can make
these other worlds a part of our own lives. As stated in Unit 2, writing allows us to make a
text our own because writing helps us to process, understand and absorb the ideas in a
reading text. When we prepare for critical writing, we need to investigate, analyse and
discuss the ideas in a text using our own words after having absorbed its knowledge.
A focus study is a good way to approach literature which deals with issues foreign to us.
The study can be conducted to explore aspects relevant to a literary text, such as historical
background, cultural practices, languages spoken, political circumstances, social contexts,
religious views and ethnicity of the characters and the setting of a text. Students can be
given a topic on which to do research through reading, making posters or interviewing
people in their community about the focus study. It is impossible to include all aspects
researched when writing up a focus study, but the research should be used when reading
the texts for understanding and pre-activity preparation.
Ask questions in order to have an in-depth focus study

Teachers have a pivotal role to play in a focus study as they need to facilitate the study,
guide the students and monitor the progress to ensure that the students’ efforts lead them
towards developing their knowledge, and are not a waste of time and energy. Teachers
need to be informed themselves about the topic by doing research on their own so that they
can distinguish between fact and fiction when the students present information.
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One of the most effective means of teaching reading and writing is appropriate questioning.
The questions should ask about what is not obvious, what is not superficial and what is
hidden between the lines; in other words, questions which ask about the unknown, the
“silenced” voices of marginalised groups, the implied meaning or how the different elements
are interconnected.
Activity Five
Think of a topic related to diversity in our country which could be used for a focus study on
a literary theme. It must refer to a theme in a book which should be listed. Write out seven
questions that you would ask about the topic which would then be used as a guideline for
the focus study.
According to Leland et al (2013), teachers can start a lesson by asking generic questions
which lead the students towards more specific ones directly relevant to a text. The questions
must ask students to discuss the most important aspects of the theme; how people interact
regarding the theme; actions taken, some of which are in favour of the theme and some of
which are against it; and whose voices are heard and whose are absent from the texts and
the sources. We must never forget that although a focus study can include aspects and
elements of other subjects, it must always have literary texts as its main focus or it cannot
be regarded as a study of literature.
There is a strategy for carrying out a focus study. A focus study starts by ‘planning to plan’
(Leland et al, 2013: 111). This means teachers plan activities for students to do when
focusing on an issue. The activities follow the activities of planning for an essay, such as
mind maps, diagrams or brainstorming which allow students to express many ideas related
to the theme. However, teachers then need to direct the students towards a purposeful
conclusion.
‘Initiating experiences’ (Leland et al, 2013: 111) is a way to start a discussion about a theme.
Teachers ask students questions about their personal experiences and then the teachers
link their experiences with the themes in the text to initiate the students’ quest of discovery.
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‘Devices for organising and sharing’ (Leland et al, 2013: 111) are used during the study of
a text to record information, documenting the process through which knowledge and
understanding are achieved. The information can be recorded in writing or as a collective
project on a board.
‘Learning centre invitations’ (Leland et al, 2013: 111) refer to open-ended questions asked
of students which lead on to more focused questions that encourage them to explore issues
in a social and creative way. The process makes use of ‘sign systems’ (explored in Unit 2)
to explore new perspectives through different mediums.
‘Conceptually related texts and media’ (Leland et al, 2013: 112) refer to sources which can
be used to gather information on a theme, providing alternative perspectives and allowing
for ideas to be linked between sources to the central theme.
‘Exploring critical issues’ (Leland et al, 2013: 112) encourages students to take the issues
present in a multicultural text beyond academic walls into the world, thus making it a theme
relevant to social sciences because the theme could be a social, economic, political or
community issue which affects people in every aspect of their lives, both at work and at
home.
‘Culminating experiences and celebrations’ (Leland et al, 2013: 112) refer to the final
product of the investigation as students put together all their research, discoveries and
information into a final written piece and celebrate their new knowledge in a formal
assessment which can be presented as written evidence or even presented orally using
sign systems.
“Small group work within focused studies’ (Leland et al, 2013) takes the inquiry further by
keeping track of its progress and keeping record of how perspectives change, new
resolutions are created and the issues take on a new significance.
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Focus studies which investigate authors and help students to develop a relationship
with them
The same process used for a focus study on a theme can also be used to focus on authors.
It can help students with themed focus studies if the authors focus on a common theme in
their books; even more so if the theme is relevant to the students’ lives. An advantage of
this is that the authors can be invited to answer questions directly. This is primary research
as the students can obtain information which has not necessarily been interpreted by others.
‘The allure of authors’ (Leland et al, 2013: 114) is one of the easiest ways for students to
start a love for reading and develop their own personal taste which starts with a passion for
a certain genre and then develops into a liking for specific authors. Leland et al (2013)
suggest that teachers ask students to write letters to their favourite authors in which they
state what they like most about their writing or what could be changed.
Another focus could be the authors’ own lives; such knowledge helps to explain their
perspectives, passions, writing style and the social and political context of a text. The
internet is an easy way to find out such information or readers can find interviews given by
authors as a pre-reading activity. This is especially relevant if authors are from a different
background from the students who read their texts.
Author focus studies can also introduce a human presence into the world of reading that is
sometimes too abstract. Students should focus on the texts and not the authors, but author
studies could encourage students to read more, because knowing about authors they like
and why they wrote about what they did can make them read more texts.
The last focus is a critical response to authors’ texts. This is where characterisation and
themes play an essential role. Readers need to analyse texts to understand whose voice is
being heard above the others and why the voices of the “others” are less forceful. They
need to analyse the different aspects of the text to see how they interlink and either
emphasise each other or work against each other. Sometimes a contrast can be used to
highlight certain ideas.
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Focus studies which investigate genres in-depth

Young students need to be introduced to literature in such a way that they develop a passion
for it and become lifelong readers and critical writers. Thus, teachers have a big
responsibility and need to find ways to introduce literature so as to stimulate young students’
curiosity and encourage them to pursue reading. One of the ways is to make literature ‘real’
because if literature is too abstract, students cannot relate to it at a young age, and might
develop a negative attitude towards it. This could be accomplished by making the students
a part of the text through multimodal responses or process drama as these involve the five
senses and promote a physical engagement with the abstract world of the text.
Leland et al (2013) suggest that one way to present literature which students can relate to
practically is by having objects which are discussed in texts physically present while reading.
An example is used of a teacher reading a poem about crayons while the young students
hold a box of crayons so as to touch, smell and feel them and then use the crayons to draw
the poem, write about it or write their own poem.
Writing, especially poetry, helps students understand the finer details and the effort which
goes into it. This can enhance the reading experience as reading then becomes a conscious
awareness of all the aspects (especially emotions and vocabulary) which go into compiling
a text. If we take the example of a poem, it can turn everyday objects into art through the
use of poetic language. From a young age, we also need to learn the difference between
literal and figurative language. If necessary, students can draw pictures of the figures of
speech used in a text to make them real as figurative language can at times be very abstract
and difficult to understand. This is an example of how to tackle one genre, poetry, but similar
methods can be used to discuss any other genre.
Once students have mastered reading and have been exposed to a variety of different forms
of literature, they can then select their favourite texts and select their favourite authors or
genres for pleasurable reading. A thorough study of a genre allows readers to have
knowledge of the intricacies involved in writing a certain genre and how the different aspects
(characters, language, vocabulary and themes) work together or against one another to
highlight the most important features which make it great literature. Students can be taught
the difference between good and inferior examples of a certain genre so as to make them
more critical when writing.
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Duration of a focus study
One of the criticisms of focused studies is that they can take too long. Leland et al (2013),
argue that the people involved can decide on the length of time spent on each study.
Research has shown that such studies can include references and investigations of aspects
which form part of other disciplines and are related to aspects of literature. These assist in
gaining knowledge of aspects of literature which are important in an approach which values
diversity. It is recommended that we start with shorter studies to allow those involved to
develop the necessary skills and that topics be changed if the one selected for a focus study
presents too many obstacles and does not allow for sufficient knowledge to be gained.
How focus studies can help readers who feel marginalised

Focus studies can assist students who are reluctant to read or struggle with it and, as a
result, feel marginalised from the class. Focus studies are more flexible as they allow
reading to proceed according to students’ individual pace and allow students to choose a
topic that appeals to them. This encourages them to read with more enthusiasm and they
could contribute to a discussion on the main ideas of the study. Often weaker students feel
reluctant to answer specific contextual questions which test knowledge they do not have yet
because it makes them feel more marginalised, while a discussion on a focus study is about
open-ended questions, views and reactions to a text which are much easier to formulate.
If students are from different backgrounds and they are made to study a text in English
which is not their home language, then a focus group could allow them to gather information
on the author so as to understand the cultural aspects which are used in a text. The focus
group could do research on language use such as vocabulary and figurative references
which may be unknown to English additional language students. Once the students have
knowledge of the context of a literary text then the text itself will be easier to read and
understand. A focus group gathers information during pre-reading activities to overcome
the obstacles associated with texts which are linguistically and culturally different from the
students’ own culture.
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The use of technology in focus studies

Like most other topics in the world, literary topics can be found on thousands of websites
that provide information on authors, storylines, critical reviews, extracts of the original text
and translated texts; even the full text can be found on specific sites or bought at a
reasonable price. The above-mentioned are all aspects of a focus study which are relevant
to English Studies and which should be part of the research done by students. Technology
(which also refers to the use of electronic equipment) also helps with sign systems as
readers can download images associated with the study, take pictures of their research or
even make a film of the members acting out extracts or presenting a study. If the focus
study is displayed on a board, at the end of each day students can take a photograph of the
board to record their progress with the topic. A focus study could be the subject of a blog or
Facebook page so that it can be shared around the world. Students must, however, ensure
that the information taken from the internet is reliable, valid and originates from research or
work done by people with knowledge of the topic. In the twenty-first century we cannot
ignore technology, but we must make sure that it is of the same academic quality as written
texts and sources.
Assessing focus studies

Assessing a focus study is fairly easy as all material which is produced through research
and all critical writing about authors, texts or responses can be recorded in a sketchbook
and be assessed. A learning wall or board can be used to assess the extent of the study on
a regular basis, most especially by the people involved so that they can observe their
weaknesses and strengths and put more effort into what is still lacking. A learning wall is a
collage of what has been done thus far and can be used as an informal method of
assessment. It can be inspected from close up or further away to have different
perspectives. In other words, students can examine how much information has been
gathered and, with closer examination, they can determine how much information is
relevant, how much is critical and how much must still be investigated. Feedback can be
given on a regular basis so that students know if they are on the right track, if their
information is valid and if they are fulfilling the pre-determined requirements of the focus
study.
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Conclusion
Having discussed focus studies we now need to understand how they can assist informed
reading and writing for education. Often it is speculated that students who perform well do
so because they can study on their own. They know how to do research, they are informed
and they can critically assess texts from a multidisciplinary approach which helps them to
solve problems in one subject by referring to the knowledge they have gained in other
subjects. Such students take responsibility for discovering information, finding out facts,
understanding how the world works through reading and, ultimately, gain knowledge which
goes beyond the curriculum. Focus studies assist students who are exposed to diversity
as they can use the studies to learn about people who are considered “other” or “different”
as a result of language, race, creed, gender or any other category into which they are
placed. Knowledge gives us the power to understand others because it removes the fear of
the unknown. Diversity constitutes a problem because it presents us with the unknown, the
unfamiliar, and forces us to move beyond our comfort zone. Academically, we call this a
paradigm shift, meaning that our minds have to be opened to new ideas, new concepts and
a new way of thinking.
Glossary
Informed reading Reading which takes into account the factors such as cultural
diversity when interpreting a text and awarding meaning
multicultural Not limited to one language, culture or belief system
Focused studies A project which studies a theme or author in great detail and
over a length of time
Genres Different categories or types of literature
Marginalised People who do not belong to the same culture as the majority
people of people and who feel left out of society.
REFERENCES
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Francis, S., Dugmore, H. and Rico (1997) Madam & Eve’s Greatest Hits Five Year
Anniversary Special Edition Penguin Books.
Routledge.
Malan, R. (ed.) (2001) Poetry Works 1. Cape Town, New Africa Books (Pty) Ltd.
Slingsby, P. (1996) The Joining. Baardskeerder Publishers.
The answers provided below are guidelines as there are many possibilities which can reflect
the main ideas discussed in the unit.
Activity One
4. The story obviously deals with children who belong to different ethnic groups.
Discuss the ethnic groups to which Phumzile, Rick and Jeremy belong and the
dynamics that exist between the children as a result. This information needs to
be inferred from the words in the extract.
Rick is a white boy, Phumzile is a black boy and Jeremy is a black boy who Rick thinks is
white. The racial differences cause some tension between the boys as they doubt the
sincerity of each other’s feelings. The boys seem to be friends, but allow the racial issue to
interfere with their friendship on an emotional and mental level. Jeremy doubts his ability to
understand whether the other boys have sincere emotions. He gives the impression that he
is often confused as he cannot understand people’s thoughts and feelings well. Jeremy is
African but is so light in complexion that he is mistaken for a white boy; this makes him
wonder what people think and feel who are only of one race. He regrets that racial issues
cause problems between people.
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5. How do you understand the relationship between the characters? You need to
refer to the other people mentioned in the extract and influence each other in
the extract.
It would seem that the three characters are friends, but they are getting to a point where
racial issues cloud their friendship. Jeremy does not want to doubt Rick’s sincerity but he
seems to think that Phumzile, being black, is the one with the most wisdom when it comes
to race relations as he lives an honest life, unlike Jeremy who allows Rick to think he is not
black. Jeremy thinks that Phumzile gets on with Mr Mamse because they are both black,
thus making Jeremy wonder about his relationship with Phumzile. Jeremy does not ask Rick
directly what his feelings are about friendship between the different races which leads to
much confusion for Jeremy. We understand that Jeremy does not like the way that racial
issues cause problems for friends.
6. Lastly, write a critical review of the extract as a text which could be used to
reflect racial diversity among friends.
This very short extract manages to encompass all that is negative about racial issues when
it comes to friendship. The extract presents an understanding of how racial issues can
unjustifiably detract from a sincere, heartfelt friendship between children. Furthermore, it
shows that when children pay more attention to racial issues than friendship, it only causes
confusion which leads to conflict. As Jeremy puts it, issues make people fight without reason
causing much unnecessary unhappiness.
Activity Two
7. From the information, infer who the narrator is. Justify your answer.
The narrator is an adult person who thinks back to when he/she was a child as he/she uses
the past indefinite when thinking of his/her childhood.
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8. Infer the culture of the narrator and provide evidence for your answer.
The narrator uses words from an African language which shows that she is African.
9. Discuss the changes in verb tenses and how they affect ideas in the stanzas.
The narrator uses the present indefinite for the present when he/she is an adult, the past
indefinite to describe childhood memories and the future indefinite to describe his/her future
plans as a child. The different tenses reflect how time has gone by and the way the narrator
thinks back.
10. What would you say are the main ideas in the poem?
The main idea or theme in the stanzas is how certain elements, in this case the rain,
influence people to recall memories without maybe even wanting to do so. It shows that we
cannot let go of our past as it defines who we become.
11. Would you say that the ideas are fact or opinion? Discuss your reasons.
The poem is based on opinion because it has to do with memories and emotions which are
not always factual.
12. Using the poem as a reference, discuss how culture defines us. Relate it to the
idea of myth, legend and fact. In your answer mention how culture is reflected
in our childhood beliefs; the role played by our memories and how childhood
influences our adult lives.
The foundation of our culture is laid in our youth. The culture we practise in our youth
determines the adults we become so that, even if we move away and are exposed to new
cultures, our childhood beliefs stay with us forever. Quite often events, ideas, thoughts and
emotions from our childhood become myths and legends as the memory becomes blurred
and we tend to focus on the positive more than the negative, creating a biased view of the
past. The elements of our past which are facts may become rather trivial in comparison to
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the influence, richness and power we assign to our memories which exist in our minds, but
cannot always be proven with hard, factual evidence. We need to hold on to the culture of
our childhood as it gives us roots and sense of identity and it helps us to know who we are
in the world, irrespective of where we are.
Activity Three
4. The dialogue is about diversity. Which two cultural groups are represented?
Jane and her boyfriend represent South Africans and the old lady represents foreigners
living in the country.
5. There is irony in the dialogue which takes a satirical look at such diversity.
Discuss the humour inherent in the situation.
The irony is that the old lady does not think that black South Africans can understand English
well so she wants Jane to translate into a language she thinks black people understand, but
she does not specify which one, reflecting her ignorance of local South African languages.
The joke, however, is on her as she is ridiculed because she speaks as if addressing
ignorant children while Jane and her boyfriend (with the readers) laugh at her. Another
example of irony is that Jane’s boyfriend is kind enough to think she has jet lag instead Jane
sets him straight by telling him that the old lady is asleep due to alcohol. It is ironic that the
old lady thinks that this kind person actually wants to harm her. The cartoon lends humour
to issues which can often cause serious conflict among people. Humour is useful at showing
us that quite often misunderstandings cause serious issues which could be avoided if we
have a different perspective on events and understand that not all issues are to be taken
seriously.
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6. Who ends the discussion between the two diverse groups and why is the
character able to do so?
The conversation is brought to an end by The Director who knows and understands how
both parties think. She represents the voice of reason and objectivity. Although the dialogue
uses humour in order to make a social and political statement (otherwise referred to as
satire), the themes are realistic as differences in language, culture and perception do lead
us to misinterpretations of conversations and texts. This could create an obstacle to
understanding literary texts. The Director fulfils the role which should be assigned to critical
writing. In critical writing we should present all sides of a theme or issue in an objective and
informed manner so as to eliminate misunderstandings. Critical writing should also analyse
the truth which is usually found “between the lines” so that a text becomes a “voice” for all
parties to express themselves. Hence we need to have knowledge of the diversity present
in a text so as to be able to analyse how the different aspects contribute to the themes.
Activity Four
2. Discuss how the dialogue reflects racial and gender issues in South African
society.
In the dialogue, James controls the reactions of the other characters with his words and
attitude (he thinks he is very funny). He is the only male character in the dialogue, the others
all being women, but he acts as a catalyst (an element which speeds up an experiment or
gets the plot going) when he brings his girlfriend home. He has obviously kept her racial
identity secret as his mother has no idea her son has a black girlfriend. Jane reprimands
him and tries to teach him that he should have approached the issue more sensitively. The
text shows that son does not consider the feelings of his mother and his girlfriend; Jane
would like him to learn that this is not a good trait. Notice that the mother is unconscious for
the entire dialogue so it is Jane who gives voice to the mother’s emotions by addressing the
issue, but she too is shocked into silence when James says that Thandi is pregnant. The
statement also shocks Thandi. The reaction of all three women unites them against James
(the male).
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Activity Five
Think of a topic related to diversity in our country which could be used for a focus
study on a literary theme. It must refer to a theme in a book which should be listed.
Write out seven questions that you would ask about the topic which would then be
used as a guideline for the focus study.
Examples of topics which could be selected are:

 The many languages spoken in South Africa and how they are interconnected but
often also result in conflict.
 Is gender discrimination still present in most texts, given that male characters are more
often the protagonists?
 School learners often wonder why so many prescribed literary texts have a racial
theme. Is the younger generation no longer respectful of the role played by The
Struggle in South African history and Protest Poetry in literary texts?
 Should more texts written by Africans (not South Africans) be prescribed so as to
decrease the incidents of xenophobia?
 ‘Poverty is one of the least common themes in literature’. Is this true and if so, how
can we remedy this so as to encourage the social improvement of many members of
society?
 English is becoming more and more the language of teaching and learning to the
detriment of other languages. How can we remedy this imbalance?
 Are there sufficient texts dedicated to those who are marginalised? Are these people
always portrayed as victims or are there texts which allow them to have a voice?
Examples of generic questions which could serve as guidelines for the focus study:
1. Can the theme be defined?
2. How does the theme feature in history and in literary texts?
3. Is the theme only relevant in South Africa or also elsewhere?
4. What are the main aspects of the theme socially, politically and economically?
5. How has the perspective of the theme changed through the years?
6. How could the theme be presented in literature so as to bring about a positive change?
7. How can tertiary-level students make society aware of the topic and its related issues?
For a list of books look up the topic on the library’s search engine for possibilities or select
your own books.
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5. UNIT 4: EXPLORING LANGUAGE AND ANALYTICAL

SKILLS

 understand what appropriateness is as well as recognise different varieties of English;
 distinguish between standard (formal) and non-standard English (informal);
 apply appropriate language skills for different purposes and audiences;
 analyse visual, written and audio texts through the identification of register, tone, voice
and mode;
 apply critical reading skills in the analysis of different texts;
 know what makes writing formal and how to apply it in an argumentative essay.
Read the following chapter of the prescribed textbook:

Chapter 10.
Introduction
Our words speak us. This means that when we speak or write we select words for various
reasons. Sometimes, when we write and, at times, even when we speak, we use formal
language (either verbally or in writing) to present our intellectual thoughts in an academic
or work situation. In other contexts, we use more relaxed or colloquial language because
we are speaking to our friends or people around us informally. Sometimes we adapt our
language use as we want to impress our listeners, or we simplify our language if our
listeners do not speak English well and we want them to understand what we say.
Irrespective of the situation we, either consciously or subconsciously, select words to suit a
specific purpose and context. The same is done by writers and speakers who interact with
us. For this reason, we need to know how to analyse language and develop the skills to
understand why a certain variety of language is used and what is its purpose or implied
meaning. This is especially important when analysing a literary text. In this Study Unit we
will explore the following concepts: appropriate language, features of language, discourse
analysis, literature response strategies, language and text analysis and the argumentative
essay which will be dealt with in detail in Unit 5.
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Appropriate language
Before learning more about how to approach a text, let us look more closely at individual
ideas which need to be investigated when approaching a text from a language perspective.
Varieties of language can be used by authors for specific purposes. Language is used to
reflect ‘the nature and identity of the writer, and is adapted to the context, the intended
audience, and the purpose of the discourse’, (Horne et al, 2003:197). Thus, authors may
disrupt the rules of English grammar when used by specific characters to show how they
use the language which is not their home language, or is a variety of English particular to a
certain region. Language may be formal, so that correct grammar is used with very polite
tone to show that the situation is academic, work-related or that the speakers are addressing
someone whom they want to impress. Language may be colloquial (which is informal,
spoken language) in a context where friends discuss issues informally, or characters may
use slang as they are young and want to sound fashionable. They may also use jargon
(specialist language or words used by a particular subject or group) which reflects their
position in society, job or social status.
Accommodation theory looks at the way people change the way they speak according to
the context. It entails convergence and divergence. Convergence refers to the way we
change our language to fit in with the people to whom we speak so that they may understand
us better. Divergence occurs when we try to speak in a higher register than those to whom
we speak so as to impress them or show that we have a higher status than they have in
society. The latter can also be used when presenting academic essays as we want to show
that we have very good language skills. An example of accommodation theory is the
dialogue below between a student and a teacher. The student changes the way he speaks
so as to impress the teacher (divergence) and the teacher changes his way of speaking to
make sure the student understands him (convergence).
Student: I am not gonna do that homework ‘cause I ain’t home this weekend, I am going
to party.
Teacher: After all these years of trying to teach you correct English, this is how you speak
to me?
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Student: Sorry Sir, I mean could you please excuse me for not doing the homework as I
will be occupied this weekend with social engagements which take precedence
over your work.
Teacher: It does not matter how you say it, you will not be excused from doing homework!
Or let me put it a way you will understand: Man, like there is no way that you ain’t
paying me respect ‘cause I am The Man and you will do as I say!
Features of language
As already mentioned, language varies due to its purpose and the audience (the people to
whom we speak) so we need to look at various features of language: Register refers to the
type of words we use to convey an idea appropriately. Depending on the audience we may
vary from using a polite, formal and grammatically correct register (for our lecturers, bosses
or older family members) to an informal, often colloquial register for our friends and
neighbours. Register means the way an idea is expressed. This can occur in a number of
different ways using a variety of different words, but without actually changing the meaning
of what is said. Register is not what we say, but how we say it. Tone refers to the attitude
with which we express our thoughts and emotions and the intentions we have when we
speak; that is, the influence we want our words to have on our listeners. This aspect is also
connected to the voice we use when writing, referring to the perspective the author wants
us to have through the use of a specific narrator. A narrator can use the first person (‘I’) if
they are directly involved in the story and tells it from his/her perspective or the third person
(‘he/she’) if they are an omniscient narrator who knows and sees everything from the
outside. Voice can also refer to the active or passive voice, meaning do we want the focus
to be on the person doing the action (active voice) or the action itself (passive voice). Active
or passive voice can change the focus of a text and thus its implied meaning as focus
conveys importance and perspective. Mode is the format used to express ideas; it can be
visual, written or audio. Keep in mind that, when literature is visual, comprising pictures,
dramas or television programmes, body language also plays a role as our facial
expressions, hands gestures and positions reflect our thoughts and feelings. A written text
is on paper, but mode influences how the words are received. The words can be spoken so
that the characters provide their own interpretation of the words (for example in a play); they
can be written (as in a novel) so that the readers have an intimate relationship with the text
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and provide their own interpretation or the words can be heard (for example a radio
broadcast) and the listeners construct meaning according to volume and tone.
From these terms we look at how language is applied for a purpose. Setting usually refers
to the time and place in which a text is situated. Setting creates a background against which
the action takes place and contributes to the themes. It provides meaning in that where an
action takes place or the historical era in which words are said, can change the meaning
because the same words in a different time and place might mean something very different.
Domain is linked to setting as it refers to a specific area of knowledge or discipline (subject)
over which characters have influence. Therefore, who characters are and what they do will
influence their actions and thoughts and, therefore, also the themes of a text. The topic,
subject or theme of a text refers to the implied meaning, i.e. why it was written, and which
issues are explored. In other words, authors write a text so that it will make us consider
particular issues in a certain way or it can encourage readers to see an issue from a different
perspective. Perspective is influenced by time; that is, the time the text was written and the
year we read it. For example, reading the Bible in modern times takes on a different
perspective than when it was first written. Lastly context, this refers to the social, political
and economic situation present in a text or present in the lives of readers which can
influence the understanding we have or the meaning we derive from a text and its themes.
When we analyse a text we need to identify all the aspects discussed above and how they
are techniques applied by authors to achieve meaning, influence readers or question
situations.
Once we have identified and analysed the features of a text, we can then write a critical
essay in which these ideas are discussed, and substantiating our interpretation of the text.
We should also use formal language which should be grammatically correct, use
appropriate terminology and maintain an objective tone to encourage the mental flexibility
needed for new ideas and a paradigm shift. Thus, we need to be aware of the factors which
influence the use of language in texts as they reflect the context, audience and purpose of
literature. Try to write an essay addressing these aspects in about your favourite book or
film so that you can practise these skills.
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Discourse analysis
Discourse is the use of words which can be either written, spoken or visual (such as
pictures), to discuss a topic in a critical manner to help us understand, interpret and create
meaning on that topic. Discourse analysis refers to the process of investigating how the
different parts of language used in a text are linked in order to produce meaning. Literature
is usually but not always written, as discourse can take any form of communication;
literature thus also refers to any text which is verbal or expressed in pictures. Analysing
texts for meaning will be dealt with later in the Unit, but for now we will focus on language.
Horne et al (2003) suggest that, when analysing language in a text, we need to pay attention
to the following aspects: the identity and attributes given to characters through the language
they use; the effect of the language and its role in the text; the way characters use language
differently; the use of figurative language for emotional effect; how words are put together
in sentences and paragraphs and how these elements work together. In discourse we
cannot simply look at individual words or sentences as we need to analyse how they work
with what is said before and afterwards to create meaning. We study the parts of language,
but we need to put them in relation to one another in order to study a text.
Discourse analysis needs to be applied to a relatively large “piece” of writing so that we can
explore how the different elements of language work together. We need to look at the
speaker, persona or narrator who says or thinks the words (in literature we do not usually
analyse the writer as our focus in more on the text than who wrote it). Knowing about the
author can make the text more interesting, but it does not affect the meaning, the context,
the audience and the purpose of the language. ‘All the factors listed above will combine to
influence the tone and style of the language used’, (Horne et al, 2003: 200).
The speaker or writer’s identity and characteristics are influenced by the following aspects:
education, social status, home language, age, gender, personality, culture, creed, social
and political beliefs and relationships with other people. All these influence a character’s
attitude, values, emotional being and point of view. The context such as historical era,
location in the world and the circumstances of the lives of the characters give rise to the
language used. Language should correlate with the context in that the context determines
whether the language is formal, informal or even slang. Sometimes a context will demand
that more than one language be used. Horne et al (2003) refer to the appropriate use of
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language for a context as ‘pragmatic competence’ implying that there must be a logical
relationship between the language and the situation and purpose of a text. Refer to the
notes in Unit 1 on pragmatics. The audience refers to the readers of texts. Writers usually
have a good idea of the kind of people who will read their texts and use language which is
appropriate to their education, age, gender, creed, culture, education or social levels and
political views. The audience plays an important role in determining the kind of language
used when a text has a specific purpose, for example, when it is used to convince the
audience of something. The purpose is linked to the intention the author has for the text.
The purposes of a text, according to Horne et al (2003), could be to instruct the reader on
how something should be done, using factual language. It can inform the reader, which
requires precise language to make meaning as clear as possible. If a text is used to
persuade, it will use emotive language; think about advertisements and political speeches.
It can entertain in a funny, sad, amusing or intriguing way. A text can sell a product, thus
requiring language whose words and tone manipulate the audience by causing an
emotional reaction or provoking certain thoughts, using devices such as rhetorical
questions. It can complain using language which conveys the negativity felt by the writer, or
demand an apology, or it can satirise using humour in order to make a social or political
comment.
Tone is the feeling or attitude which a writer has towards a theme. It is usually expressed
through the emotions of the characters using figurative language. Tone reveals the intention
of the writer. Tone can be positive, negative or neutral. Neutral texts are often associated
with factual, academic writing whereas most literary pieces have a tone that favours one
side of the issue above another. Style is a very abstract term as it has more to do with
personality than intention. However, there are a few elements that can determine style, such
as words and sentences. With words we look at the length and difficulty of the words used;
the use of foreign or very old-fashioned words; the use of slang or jargon for a particular
reason; the use of words for their sound effects; whether words are abstract or concrete;
the use of poetic devices such as onomatopoeia; words used for exaggeration or to shock.
With sentences we pay attention to length and structure, inversion of words (a sentence
which does not follow the usual sequence, often used in poetry), use of conjunctions, active
or passive voice, exclamations, the use of full sentences, point form, repetition or the use
of questions and answers. Tone and style are affected by the personal characteristics of
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speakers or writers, the context, the audience and the purpose. Because of this, all these
aspects need to be analysed in order to understand their effect.
Activity One
Divide a page into columns with the headings: Register, Tone, Voice and Mode. Write
everything that has been mentioned on each in the Unit so far so you will have an easily
accessible summary of the main ideas.

When it comes to language, there are many details, definitions and descriptions which need
to be learned. It is much easier if the information is divided up and set out separately so as
to clarify what each element is about.
A strategy to follow for a discourse analysis

There are many ways to approach a discourse analysis. In this Unit, we present one way,
as outlined by Horne et al (2003): Firstly, we must read a text thoroughly and many times,
making notes so we understand what it is about. (This also applies to a comprehension test
because it is an example of discourse-analysis.) Note-making involves highlighting, circling,
using arrows to join similar ideas or writing comments. The next step is making columns
and writing notes for each of the four main elements (speaker/writer, context, audience and
purpose). Then we make notes on language, such as the use of words and how sentences
are structured. Next we start writing a rough draft of our essay by placing our notes in an
order resembling an essay. Here we decide what is most important and how to join the
ideas to ensure cohesion (ideas must be linked to show how they are related to the same
theme). The final step is to edit our essay to correct errors, explain ideas further and ensure
that the structure promotes coherence and cohesion. Referencing is also important as an
academic essay should always make use of sources. For examples of discourse analysis
read Horne et al (2003) pages 209 to 215. Let us now consider ways of analysing texts.
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Activity Two
Choose a short story and analyse it by making notes under the four headings:
speaker/writer, context, audience and purpose. Obviously you will have to start by making
general notes as you read.

When reading it is easy to glance over information without fully processing it so we need to
take notes to really pay attention to the details.
Literature response strategies

Luke and Freebody (1997) as cited in Leland et al (2013) suggest that, as readers, we need
to be ‘text analysts’ (Leland et al, 2013: 181). This term implies that we need to investigate
how writers create meaning in texts according to their purpose and intention. In other words,
we need to use our knowledge of language to analyse different texts. This analysis allows
us to perceive the social and personal context of a text and how we are positioned in relation
to it as the audience.
The process starts with readers asking certain questions which need to be addressed while
we read a text and before a detailed analysis. The questions refer to understanding whose
voices are represented and whose are missing and to what degree this happens. In previous
units we dealt with the idea that “volume” (although only an abstract idea in a written text)
can be assigned to characters, especially those who feature the most in a text and who are
heard the most. We then need to wonder what a “silenced” character would want to say,
given the opportunity. We can provide this in our critical analysis of the text when we give
a “voice” to the characters who are not allowed to express themselves loudly and clearly.
The next aspect is to understand which characters’ stories feature in the plot and which
characters are marginalised, in that we do not have their full story. With this aspect it is
significant to understand the narrator, from whose perspective the story is told. Are we
exposed to the whole plot or do we need to construct the parts that have been left out from
the information that we do have? Usually a third-person narrator who refers to the
characters as “he/she/they”, is more objective and presents a fuller picture than a first-
person narrator who only sees the story from his/her own perspective and is thus limited.
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And, lastly, we need to consider how the author influences our thoughts, ideas, beliefs and
emotions. When we analyse the story critically and we discuss it in an essay, we can explore
the aspects discussed above, interpret them and consider how the meaning might shift if
we approached it from a different perspective.
Leland et al (2013) suggest that one way of starting to analyse a text is to make notes as
we read. The notes should fall under four columns: ‘I Like; I Dislike; Patterns;
Puzzles/Problems’, (Leland et al, 2013: 183). These aspects can start a discussion about a
text and bring readers to new insights. These four columns reveal how the reader has
connected to the text, and they work together to create new perspectives in the reader.
Another method of analysing a text is to do what Leland et al (2013) call ‘cultural x-rays’
which implies that readers need to look at characters not according to ‘race, gender, or
nationality’ but ‘in terms of values and beliefs’ to ‘understand what is on the outside as well
as the inside of each person as a cultural being’, (Leland et al, 2013: 183 – 184).
Activity Three
Create two personal identities and ‘cultural x-rays’ on a page: one for yourself and one for
a character in a literary text. Write the identity aspects (race, gender, nationality, religion
and language) which are common to both in a circle in the centre of the page and those
which differ outside the central circle. Write the cultural values and beliefs of each, in order
of most to least important, under each name and compare them.

The aim is to discover that, even if characters differ from you with regard to identity, you
can still identify with them because of shared cultural beliefs and values. Sometimes, we
can add their values and beliefs to our own so as to allow a text to influence us positively in
our outlook on life and how we interact with others. Literature has the effect of making us
understand the world and our lives better.
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The process of language analysis
Jim Gee’s (1999) approach to analysing language and how it works and can shape readers’
views of a text, is cited by Leland et al (2013: 184) as a good way to start. A greeting card
is suggested as a way to begin. Gee suggests that readers look at key words, the meaning
of the words and the effect of the fonts used to provide ‘situated meanings’ (Leland et al,
2013: 184). These meanings refer to the intention and the tone of the sender as author and
the receiver as reader. Fonts, just like handwriting, represent different personality traits and
purposes. Next we look at the ‘social languages’ which include nouns, verbs and words
which reflect the language used by the “author” and which also contribute to the setting.
The ‘cultural models’ relate to the story being told, the beliefs and values needed in order
for the card to make sense and how symbols in the card add to the above as a whole (Leland
et al, 2013: 185). Different cultures, age groups and sections of society have their own
symbols with specific meanings. These will answer questions related to the influence the
card has on our thinking and our lives. From greeting cards we can move on to longer and
more complex texts.
Leland et al (2013) propose that we start analysing the different aspects of a text by re-
writing a text. The easiest is to start with a rather straightforward story like a fairy tale. We
can read a fairy tale and change the setting, plot or characters by adding features (such as
weapons or physical power), subtracting forces at work (such as making the villain less
powerful) or altering the setting (such as placing the action nearer to a person who can save
the character who is in danger). This could break the stereotypes usually associated with
characters and settings. For example, the fear of a dark wood could be removed by giving
the character a torch and a weapon. We could also change the tone associated with
characters; for example we can make them more forceful with a determined tone and
making them speak loudly; or we could make the cruel characters more likeable by making
them speak in softer tones without shouting. This will allow girls to be tougher, boys to show
a more sensitive side and the traditional villains, to appear less aggressive. Overall, the
process allows us to change preconceived notions we have in society. We could stop
associating specific words and expressions with a certain kind of character and question
old cultural beliefs and values. Leland et al (2013) call this a “what if” approach to analysing
texts. The idea is that, if we change the language usually associated with specific groups,
we can remove the discrimination in words and tone, as the language becomes neutral.
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Consequently, cruel words used to describe people lose their figurative meaning and are
no longer insulting.
Activity Four
Rewrite a story which you have read. It can be a fairy tale, a short story or even a short
book. Change the tone, setting and certain aspects of the characters so as to keep the
theme, but change how the theme is conveyed.

The main purpose of the activity is for you to learn that language can affect content without
necessarily affecting the theme. Language plays a role in how a theme is approached and
how readers will react to it. Readers can read many texts with a similar theme, but they do
not necessarily like all the texts because of the way language is used.
Different approaches to language and text analysis

Graffiti boards are suggested by Leland et al (2013) as a way to start the analysis of a text.
As readers we can have a big piece of paper next to us and as we read we jot down key
words which appeal to us, thoughts that are provoked by the text, drawings we make of
abstract concepts and emotional reactions. We can also make notes on the language,
setting and characters so that we move towards the main ingredients of language analysis.
It is best if many readers do this with the same text so that the boards can then be placed
on a wall and they can generate a discussion among the readers who can discuss their own
boards or question the ideas on the boards of other readers. The boards could lead to a list
of questions or completely new interpretations which result from the jotted-down thoughts
of all the readers being put together. Graffiti boards help to reflect what is known, what is a
misinterpretation, what still needs to be discovered and provide feedback without readers
having to go to the effort of writing long, formal critical essays.
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Activity Five
Make a collage on cardboard (at least A2 size) of the different aspects of a story or text. Try
to write down as much information as possible with the assistance of visuals, objects,
diagrams or mind maps. First write the information about the different aspects on separate
pieces of paper and then put the information together on the cardboard to show how the
aspects link with one another. You can also use different colours for the different aspects.

In order to proceed successfully in your academic career, you need to understand the
importance of making good notes, discover which type of note-taking suits you best and
learn the skills to make such notes. Try different approaches until you find the one that
allows you to gain the most knowledge in the most effective way.
Leland et al (2013) discuss interpretive stances which were developed by David Bleich,
cited in Leland et al (2013). The aim of the stances is to show us that there are many ways
to respond to texts as our interpretations are often influenced by culture, so that there can
be as many interpretations as there are cultures in the world. We also need to consider the
cultural interpretations of other people to appreciate a fuller picture and a deeper
understanding of texts. Bleich suggests that we look at a text from the following stances:
‘metaphorical, philosophical, aesthetic, analytical, intertextual and critical’, (Leland et al,
2013: 187). These stances can be adopted by individuals but are best done by many people,
each tackling one stance; or even better, groups of people tackling each stance so as to
have more variety in the interpretations. This strategy encourages us to take on new stances
as we read, trying all six stances in relation to a text. I-statement charts (explained in Unit
1) can also be used but instead of writing only a few words, such as in the activity in Unit 1,
try to write more complex ideas for each character and include a description of body
language which is associated with the character’s thoughts and emotions.
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How language works in the world and shapes our perceptions

According to Fairclough, as cited in Leland et al, (Leland et al, 2013: 188), one of the best
ways to start analysing how language works in the world is to use the different headlines
from newspaper articles on a common theme as they address an issue from different
perspectives and use language accordingly. They also use short sentences or phrases
which make an analysis easier to attempt. We first start by looking at individual words and
decide whether they are used formally and politely to show respect for someone’s status or
position or whether they express a negative view of the theme or person discussed.
Irrespective of whether language is used formally or informally, it can reflect a positive or
negative attitude which influences readers’ impressions of the themes or people discussed.
Next we look at grammatical features, such as the active voice that focuses on a person, or
the passive voice that focuses on the actual action or event. The action can also be direct
in that the words show how one person intentionally acts against another or it can be indirect
to show that the action was unintentional. Attributions (usually associated with adjectives)
link with action as they are used to describe a person in a direct manner. For example: ‘The
most famous tragedies in English Studies are attributed to Shakespeare.’ An attribute is a
feature of a person. Agency links the action to a background or setting to reveal if the setting
contributes to the action and is the agency (the cause of an action) is human or not. In
language, an agent is not necessarily the subject of the sentence, but the cause of an action.
Language helps us to understand the relationship of one character to another and whether
the one has authority over another. Lastly, auxiliary verbs help us understand whether the
actions are definite, an estimation or have direct causes and consequences for other events.
For example: ‘I might (estimation) pass my examinations if I could have the money (direct
cause) to leave work so that I would be (definite) with my books all day.’
A study of literature does not mean only reading a text, but what we do with it so as to have
a critical understanding of its functions, meanings and implications. This is usually best
achieved in groups in which a discussion brings to life many of the aspects present in a text
and helps us relate it to our life experiences. A group discussion could focus on the following
experiences and activities: ‘discussing reactions to the book, pointing out favourite parts,
raising questions about puzzling aspects, or sharing surprises ... say something, sketch to
stretch, quotable quotes, save the last word for me, or taking inventory’, (Leland et al, 2013:
190). The groups can read the whole text or parts of it at a time and then discuss it; they
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can focus on one approach or one section of the book and, finally, look at the entire book
and present a multimodal response to the book as a whole. These groups are referred to
as ‘literature circles’, it is also suggested that members be given a role such as: discussion
leader, questioner, wordsmith, connector and story mapper, (Leland et al, 2013: 190). The
problem with roles, though, is that members often stop listening to the other members and
only focus on their own role. If groups are intimidating then we can start with reading
partners where two people discuss a text.
Activity Six
Try to form ‘literature circles’ with people doing the same module using the internet as most
probably most of you live very far from each other. You can start by discussing the notes
and information provided in this study material so that you get to know one another and help
each other with weaknesses and strengths. Once you have formed a bond and are familiar
with the information you can then form a ‘literature circle’ where you discuss literary texts.

Distance education can be difficult so it makes a course much easier to approach if there is
interaction between classmates. In this instance, the interaction can help you practise
information and knowledge that may be a little too abstract to understand by yourself.
Critical writing is about analysing a text from various perspectives; interacting with
classmates provides these different perspectives.
Keeping a record of our responses

Quite often we need to read a text several times before we attempt to analyse it critically or
investigate how language is used to convey the themes. During this process we need to
make notes, drawings or diagrams so that we can keep a record of the thoughts, reactions,
emotions and ideas which are provoked by what we read. Leland et al (2013: 191) call these
records our literature logs because they record what we know and what we aim to know
further. In literature, logs should not summarise a text, but add to it in the form of ‘webs,
sketches, charts, favourite quotes, and diagrams as well as written reflections’ (Leland et
al, 2013: 191). These logs can be bound into books which act as study guides to a text and
form the basis of our analysis. They consist of multimodal responses which should cover
most of the interpretive stances discussed above. Many readers can put their logs together
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in order to compile a more complex and complete log. The basis of a log should start with
notes on: ‘one observation, one connection, one question and one surprise … one thing
(we) want to remember for always’, (Leland et al, 2013: 192), and then relate these concepts
to our own lives. A literature log can be written in an informal manner as it is not the final
draft of an academic essay, but rather focuses on gathering information on the content and
language of a text. It is only once we start writing the actual essay that we need to use
formal language. These logs can be turned into miniature books which serve as a record of
knowledge related to a text and which can be used time and again; the questions which are
answered in these logs can also be used to approach other texts.
Understanding a text
In Unit 2 we studied the idea of process drama as leading to more in-depth reading and
writing. In this Unit we take process drama a step further into an activity done after the story
has ended, when we need to analyse it. In process drama, a text is acted out as a still-
tableau to create the setting. Role playing is used to understand characters because the
audience can question the role players to gain insight. For this unit we will look at different
roles: The ‘conscience circle’ refers to characters that have to make moral decisions; here
the audience and other role players can give their insight and understanding of the situation
to help in the decision-making. ‘Draw or write in role’ refers to pretending to be characters
and processing an experience through drawing or writing. The ‘hot seat’ refers to answering
questions from the audience about the actions of characters and the circumstances that
give rise to them. The ‘mantle of the expert’ gives role players special skills in order to
understand characters or their actions much better. This is where role players will need to
do research to obtain a deeper understanding of the characters they play and, thus, have
the skills to defend their characters or understand why and how certain actions happen. The
‘student in role’ refers to activating our imagination so as to become characters in the
context of the text because the closer we are to characters, the better we understand their
thoughts and emotions. ‘Sculpting’ refers to embodying an abstract idea by using our bodies
to physically represent it. ‘Soundscape’ is used to create sounds either with our voices or
musical instruments which represent emotions. ‘Tableau’ refers to role players using their
bodies and space to create a still-life picture of a scene or to show a setting. ‘Tapping in’ is
when we keep quiet and still while drawing or writing until we are tapped and allowed to
move around or express thoughts. And ‘teachers in role’ refers to teachers or lecturers in
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roles so that they can guide the role players towards a better understanding of the text being
acted out (Leland et al, 2013: 194 – 195).
One way of trying to understand difficult texts is to make a list of the most interesting,
effective or controversial lines in a book and then discuss them as a group so as to interpret
them. The discussion starts with the person who chose the quotation explaining why they
think it is quotable. The quotes from different texts can be classified under specific
categories to observe how they contribute to the development of a theme. The activity can
also be done by writing down memorable ideas from a text that provokes readers to think
more deeply. Leland et al (2013) suggest that language is social in nature; thus, discussing,
voicing opinions, encouraging different views and expressing thoughts about a text in a
group situation are the best ways to understand it from many different angles and in great
depth. This can be done in pairs or with more people; each person reads a piece of a text
and then stop to say something about it. The “something” can relate to language, themes,
characters or the plot. The activity can also be done in writing to have a better record of
what was discussed. The members in a group could write an idea and the other members
could respond to it in writing and so compile thorough notes on a text. When the activity is
done in writing, it ensures that every member of a group gets an opportunity to voice a view.
Unfortunately, in oral discussions people are sometimes left out as they are not loud enough
to get the groups attention and do not demand an opportunity to speak as more assertive
members do.
Activity Seven
Practise discussing a text as a group on social media or getting together physically at a
common venue to investigate whether group discussions help towards understanding and
developing a fuller response to a text.

As stated in previous activities, one of the main aims of doing various activities is to find the
best way for you to understand a text in such depth that you are then able to write about it
critically.
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What we often find difficult when first approaching literature is what is referred to as the
subtext. This is the implied meaning or what is not actually said; we need to apply insight in
order to understand it. One way to do this is for us to write what we believe characters are
thinking and not only what they say. This helps us get into the story on a deeper level. If we
share our notes with other people, we will notice that we do not always share the same
ideas about what characters think, but the ideas will probably be related. Thus, we could
have two sets of notes, the one set could be used to discuss the possible meanings of what
is said and the language used to say it and the other set could be used to discuss what the
characters think and why. With the second set we also need to consider what the language
would be used if characters expressed in words what they think. This activity can also be
done with visual pictures of people doing things, but not using words because this is a good
way to practise analysing body language. We can decide the kind of language characters
would use and how they would express themselves, using a particular tone, voice or
register.
As discussed in previous Units, using “text sets” which refers to a collection of texts both
written and visual to discuss a theme can help. Some texts will be easier to understand than
others, but as they should all be related to a similar theme, the reading of one text should
facilitate an understanding of a more difficult text on the same theme. This activity also
allows for more freedom to select a favourite text and encourages variety which can make
reading, understanding, making notes and writing a more enjoyable experience. Using “text
sets” can also encourage group members to give feedback to each other, although the
feedback should always be positive so as not to discourage group members. Feedback
should be given in the form of ‘three pluses and a wish’ (Leland et al, 2013: 200). The ‘wish’
refers to something which could have been done differently. Notice that feedback should
also be critical, but not a criticism as the former builds on something while criticism implies
rejection. The feedback could first be used to evaluate a text and then be used to evaluate
students’ critical analyses of the text.
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What is important is that we also focus on the use of language in a text and not only the
content. One activity could be to make a column for each character in a text and analyse
how he/she would speak: the words used, the tone, the register and the implied meaning
which is awarded to these categories. In the first three Units we focused a lot on meaning
which is important, but now we also need to focus on how the meaning is conveyed. Even
silent pauses or half sentences are significant. Remember that in previous units we looked
at what we thought the volume of utterances would be, as this can tell a great deal about a
character’s personality or position within a text. These details will, in fact, allow us to have
a deeper understanding of a text. Leland et al (2013) suggest that characters be labelled
according to four categories: target (usually a victim); perpetrator (usually a bully); ally
(usually a friend of the target); or bystander (a neutral person who can act as a buffer
between the target and the perpetrator). Each of these will use language that reflects his or
her position in the text. As a final note, remember that all these notes should be kept in a
sketchbook (as discussed in Unit 2). The sketchbook can include categories, such as: ‘What
did I understand about the work I did … What didn’t I understand? What do I know now that
I didn’t know … What can I do better tomorrow? What do I have questions about or wonder
about?’ (Leland et al, 2013: 197).
What makes writing formal?

Formal writing ‘is characterised by more complicated grammatical structures and more
unusual vocabulary than informal language and by the avoidance of short terms … and
colloquialisms’ (Chalker et al, 1994: 157). Formal writing is usually used for official situations
such as in the workplace and in academic writing. Official documents, which include
academic essays and examinations, must be written in formal English as they are legally
binding documents. This implies that your examinations are legal documents that prove that
you showed enough knowledge to obtain a qualification. Such documents must be kept for
a long time therefore they must adhere to the standardised rules of language so that they
may be understood by people all over the world. Formal writing is neutral in that it should
not show preference for any one side of an argument; it should be objective, allowing both
sides of an argument to be expressed and it should be in the carefully constructed
sentences and paragraphs and the correct grammar of standard English. Academic essays
must be formal, unless disrupting correct grammar has a specific purpose or an essay
quotes someone who does not use language correctly.
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The argumentative essay

Academic formal essays are also argumentative in nature as they are critical, implying that
they present all sides of an issue in an unbiased and non-discriminatory manner. Critical
essays should not reflect personal emotions or experiences unless these are directly related
to the themes being discussed. An argumentative essay may focus on one, but usually
discusses various sides of an issue. There must be balance in that all sides must be given
equal attention. The writer must not actually express an opinion as an argumentative essay
should encourage readers to think, question and come to their own conclusions about the
topic. Good literature and good academic essays cannot be propaganda that presents only
one side of the argument to persuade and convince readers; objectivity is then lost. An
argumentative essay is supposed to provide information and then lead readers towards
creating meaning. The idea is that an argument presented in academic writing should not
be autocratic, that is telling readers what to think, but rather allow their minds to process the
information, make it their own and then apply it to their lives. At this point, we notice that a
good argumentative essay follows the same rules as good literature.
Assessment
How do we assess language and analytical skills? We put into practice the skills taught
above with an emphasis on how language conveys themes.
Activity Eight
Read the stanzas below and answer the questions based on them. Remember that the
activity examines language use so your answers should focus mainly on the use of
language as a means of conveying the theme.
The Case of the Missing Cookies
By: Arden Davidson
I’m taking my parents to court

to prove I’m an innocent kid.
The judge will most surely agree
that they’re wrong about what I did.
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Just because all my fingers were sticky
And chocolate was on my face,
doesn’t mean I stole those cookies.
So there! I rest my case.
(from ‘The Case of the Missing Cookies’ by Arden Davidson in Solutions for all English HL,
page 55, stanzas one and two)
1. Who do you think the speaker is?

2. Justify your answer to the previous question.
3. What do you think is the theme of the poem?
4. Does the content correlate with the language used? Explain.
5. ‘The language used in the stanzas is satirical’. Explain what you understand by this
statement.
Activity Nine
Read the extract below and answer the questions based on it.
The Elephants and the Moon
Grandpa’s eyes twinkled: “Would you like to know how the elephant became scared of the
moon?
“Many years ago, on the African plains, there was a drought. Water was very scarce. The
mighty elephants were very thirsty. But one day, they found a big pool of cool water.
“However, next to the pool, lived a warren of hares. As the big elephants went to and from
the pool each day, they trampled on and killed many hares. The hares feared that soon not
one of them would be left. Then they had an idea.”
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“Their leader went to the elephants. He said he was the ambassador of the moon. He told
the elephants that the pool belonged to the moon and the hares were the guardians of the
pool. He said the moon was very angry that the elephants were drinking water there. The
elephants could not believe this. The hare told them to come back at night and see for
themselves how the moon shook with rage in the pool when they drank.
(an extract from ‘The Elephants and the Moon’ in Solutions for All English HL,
page 28)
1. Explain what the language used tells us about the audience.

2. Does the language correlate with the content? Explain.
3. What is the effect of using direct speech in telling the story?
4. Discuss whether the kind of language used in the story would help the audience
understand how the hares tricked the elephants.
Activity Ten
Rewrite the following passage which uses slang, incorrect grammar and a very informal
register into formal English, using a polite register.
“Howzit Babe? I wanna know if you’re gonna wanna go to the club with me tonight so we
can party”, I talked to her.
“I will tell you now now as I am chilling with my girls just now”, she gave a half and half reply.
“Don’t leave me hanging or I’m thru with you” that’s what I told her.
“Actually us girls are reading a few pages of some writing that some dude wrote about his
problem with drugs. He write so sophisticated that we can’t make it but us are going to put
them words together because no book ain’t gonna get us down” she was all fire and ice.
So I say to her, “Why you wanna be all clever if you gonna be a nothing in life?”.
She tell me, “Hey, Homey, I am going get myself educated”.
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Activity Eleven
Discuss what kind of language you would use in each of the scenarios listed below. Mention
register, tone, mode and the setting. Your answer may be presented in table form.
 a teacher reprimanding a student for not performing academically

 a mother trying to teach a small child about manners
 a classmate trying to explain the theme of a book to another classmate
 a man asking his girlfriend to marry him
 young girls discussing the homework which needs to be completed
 a young, male politician trying to convince a little old lady to vote for him
 a lawyer explaining to a young girl that what she did is wrong
 a sales lady trying to get a gentleman to buy a really ugly suit so that she
can earn a commission
 a gangster trying to intimidate a policeman who wants to arrest him
 a bridegroom delivering a speech at his wedding
Activity Twelve
Write an argumentative essay on an issue which is important to you. It can be an issue
which is political, social or economic. You need to do research about two sides of the
argument. The research can use primary sources (interviewing people) or secondary
sources (using research done by someone else). Write at least 500 words. You should
use correct grammar, register and tone. Your first draft must be research notes; the
second draft must show how you put the ideas together; the third draft must be in an
essay form; the fourth draft must reflect editing and the last draft will be the refined
essay with references. Keep a record of all the drafts. If you interview people then you
need to provide their details, why they were interviewed and the date on which they
were interviewed.
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Glossary
Accommodation theory Using convergence to speak so as to be
understood by those who do not speak
well or speak using a higher register
Register The different ways ideas are conveyed
depending on the degree of formality
required
Tone The attitude or intention of a speaker
Voice The narrator’s perspective
Setting The time and place of an event
Context The political, social or economic
environment of a text
Discourse The use of words to critically evaluate a
text
REFERENCES
Chalker, S. and Weiner, E. (1994) The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Horne, F. and Heinemann, G. (2003) English in Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.
Leggat, G. and Kerr, S. (2013) Solutions for all English Home Language. Macmillan.
Routledge.
http://www.ello.uos.de/field.php/Sociolinguistics/Linguisticaccommodation (accessed 28-

02-2018)
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The answers provided below are a guide to possible answers for the activities bearing in
mind that there are different approaches to take when addressing questions. In this Unit we
have focused on the significant role language plays in conveying themes. Thus, the answers
will not deal so much with themes so much as on the role of language.
Activity Eight
6. Who do you think the speaker is?
The speaker is a child because in the first line he refers to ‘my parents’ and the whole
scenario is child-like.
7. Justify your answer to the previous question.
The language used in the stanzas is the language a child would use as it is simple and
colloquial informal, which is how a child usually expresses him or herself. There is some
slang used as well as contractions. There is also a defensive expression, ‘So there!’, which
is typically childish. Children try to use an assertive tone when defending themselves, but
their language proficiency is limited.
8. What do you think is the theme of the poem?
The theme of the poem is that the child assumes an indignant attitude for being blamed for
stealing cookies because he claims to be innocent. The ‘evidence’, cited by the speaker as
evidence of innocence, is actually proof that he took the cookies.
9. Does the content correlate with the language used? Explain.
The content correlates with the language used because the language is typical of a child’s
in relation to vocabulary and syntax and there are ideas usually associated with childhood,
such as sticky fingers and a face covered in chocolate. The ideas are expressed in child-
like language which is informal with a simple sentence structure. The tone is defensive
which reveals his hope that if he repeats an idea often then the adults will believe him and
not blame or punish him.
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10. ‘The language used in the stanzas is satirical’. Explain what you understand by
this statement.
Satire involves humour. It is amusing to picture this obviously guilty child defending his
innocence and expecting that adults will believe him. The language reflects satire as the
reasons given by the speaker for being innocent, in fact, are evidence that he took the
cookies. He has sticky fingers and chocolate on his face from eating the cookies. The poet
is gently mocking the child and enjoying the ridiculous ‘crime scene’.
Activity Nine
5. Explain what the language used tells us about the audience.
The language used is very straightforward with many simple sentences, uncomplicated
words and a clear sequence of events. These elements tell us that the audience are
children. The extract is written in such a way as to make it easy for them to understand and
follow the main ideas.
6. Does the language correlate with the content? Explain.
The language correlates with the content as the story is not a very difficult one; there are
few characters and no complicating subplot. The use of animals as characters is also quite
common in children’s stories as is the use of personification so the animals are able to
speak to one another as if they were human.
7. What is the effect of using direct speech in telling the story?
The effect of using direct speech in telling the story is that it simplifies the sentence structure
and makes it more immediate and real. The animals speak to one another; this gives them
human qualities. Children often enjoy personification as they relate well to animals. Fables
are fairy tales or stories which use animals to teach a lesson. The words are not difficult and
the tone is pleasant which is comfortable for children and makes them pay attention to and
enjoy what is said.
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8. Discuss whether the kind of language used in the story would help the audience
understand how the hares tricked the elephants.
It would seem quite easy to figure out that the water in the pool rippled so it made the
reflection of the moon ripple, thus, making it seem as if the moon was shaking in anger. The
language is uncomplicated which is apt for children as their reading skills do not allow them
to follow complex vocabulary and sentence structures. For adults this language structure
would be a little annoying as our minds would get bored with ideas which are too easy. Most
of us prefer to challenge our minds when reading, but children want to focus more on the
content without the language being an obstacle.
Activity Ten
Rewrite the following passage which uses slang, incorrect grammar and a very
informal register into formal English, using a polite register.
He spoke to the lady, “How are you, my dear? I would like to know if you would like to go to
the club with me this evening so that we may attend a party.”
She gave a half-hearted reply, “I will tell you shortly as I am socialising with my friends at
the moment.”
He then said to her, “Please do not let me wait for long or I will no longer want to go with
you.”
With passion she replied, “Actually we are reading pages from a book written by a
gentleman about his problem with drugs. His writing is rather sophisticated and a little
difficult to understand, but we will try to understand his ideas because we will not be
discouraged from gaining knowledge from literature.”
So I said to her, “Why would you want to gain knowledge if you will not use it in life?”
She answered, “Sir, I would like to attempt to be educated.”
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Activity Eleven
REGISTER TONE MODE SETTING
a teacher reprimanding a student for not performing academically
formal with a few colloquial words so stern verbal a classroom during the
as to communicate effectively with a uncompromising day but after school so
young person strict that the characters will
firm be alone
a mother trying to teach a small child about manners

colloquial but polite to show the didactic verbala room in a house,
effect of good manners firm such as, a lounge,
simple kitchen or child’s room
during the day
a classmate trying to explain the theme of a book to another classmate
formal language as it is academic patient verbal a study, the library or a
work but also colloquial language pleasant and classroom during the
when explaining the theme curious written day or a bedroom in
the evening
a man asking his girlfriend to marry him
Informal and colloquial using very pleasant verbal
a romantic venue,
positive adjectives and figures of romantic maybe
preferably outside in
speech soft spoken with a
nature or inside a
emotional few
room which has been
pleading visuals
decorated for the
occasion, a restaurant,
probably in the
evening
young girls discussing the homework which needs to be completed
informal but using jargon relevant to serious verbal a venue where they all
the subject and writing using formal focused and fit and may speak
language written aloud with bright lights
suitable for studying
a young, male politician trying to convince a little old lady to vote for him
colloquial language as he does not courteous verbal a public area where
want to show that he has a higher charming but marketing takes place
social status (convergence) friendly could or in her home
pleasant present
respectful written
aids
a lawyer explaining to a young girl that what she did is wrong
formal language using legal jargon strict verbal, the lawyer’s office, a
(divergence) stern using school or at a police
professional law station
books
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a sales lady trying to get a gentleman to buy a really ugly suit so that she can
earn a commission
informal, using many adjectives and friendly verbal a shop
figures of speech convincing
persuasive
complimentary
flattering
a gangster trying to intimidate a policeman who wants to arrest him
purposefully informal, using slang to threatening verbal Either on the streets or
disrupt language so as to show forceful in his own home
contempt aggressive
a bridegroom delivering a speech at his wedding
informal, colloquial using positive passionate verbal a reception hall
adjectives enthusiastic but
grateful reading
complimentary from
nervous notes
Activity Twelve
Write an argumentative essay on an issue which is important to you. It could be an
issue which is political, social or economic. You need to do research about two sides
of the argument. The research can be primary (interviewing people) or secondary
(using research done by someone else). Write at least 500 words. You must use
correct grammar, register and tone. Your first draft must be research notes; the
second draft must show how you put the ideas together; the third draft must be in an
essay form; the fourth draft must reflect editing and the last draft will be the refined
essay with references. Keep a record of all the drafts. If you interview people then
you need to provide their details, why they were interviewed and the date on which
they were interviewed.
It is difficult to provide a memorandum for such an essay, so it is suggested you do your

own assessment. Firstly, check that all the required drafts correctly referenced. Secondly,
give your final draft to people around you and ask them for their reaction to what you wrote.
Ask them if:
 the language use is correct and accessible;
 the content makes sense and shows two sides of the argument ;
 there is enough research to substantiate your ideas;
 the ideas are presented in a logical and interesting manner;
 the language use suits the content in that it reflects correct register and tone.
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6. UNIT 5: HOW TO WRITE A CRITICAL ESSAY

 know how to prepare to write a critical essay;
 know how to approach an argumentative essay;
 know what a problem statement is;
 know how to unpack a topic;
 know how to write an introduction;
 know how to write a conclusion.
This unit aligns with the prescribed textbooks. Carefully read through the relevant
sections in your textbooks.
 Bailey, S. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students 4th ed.
Part 1: Unit 1.4, 1.8, 1.9. Part 2: Unit 2.2.1.
 Leland, C., Lewison, M. & Harste, J. (2013). Teaching Children’s Literature: It’s
Critical! Chapter 9
Introduction
In this Unit we will explore how to write a critical essay which argues a topic in-depth and
substantially, using a balanced argument which shows objectivity and encourages readers
to gain knowledge. An argumentative essay can address various topics from all areas of
life, but in the context of this module, we will need to focus on an essay which discusses a
topic in literature. An essay on literature does not differ much from an argumentative essay
on another topic. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary suggests that during our
academic careers we will be required ‘to present a reasoned argument on a particular issue
… based on (our) research into the topic’ and even perhaps provide our opinion: in such an
essay the ‘argument must be clearly organized and supported with information, evidence
and reasons’ and the ‘language tends to be formal and impersonal’ (Hornby et al, 2015:
WT8). Kearney (2017) proposes that an argumentative essay requires the writer to take a
stance (point of view) on an issue, giving reasons and supporting evidence to justify the
views presented in the essay.
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An overall approach to an argumentative essay
When approaching an academic essay which is critical in nature or explores a point, it
cannot be written or addressed spontaneously as it would be almost impossible to achieve
success this way. Instead, Hornby et al (2015) propose that an essay should be approached
in phases. The first phase looks at the purpose of the essay, as well as the context and the
intended audience. The particulars of the audience, such as age, creed, gender and culture,
can determine the register and tone that will be used by the writer. The second phase
explores all the sides of the given thesis (an abstract idea or issue which needs to be
discussed in the essay with evidence) with short notes or sketches to reflect brainstorming.
Research must be done so as to have enough information to compile an argument and
debate counter arguments. The information needs to be organised according to a structure
that encourages the logical sequencing of ideas which best present the argument. The third
phase is a draft essay followed by a review and editing. These require that careful attention
be paid to phrasing, paragraphing and the presentation of the information that is clear and
accessible to the readers. Lastly, the fourth phase is the proofreading phase in which
grammar is checked and the essay is read aloud to estimate its impact on an audience. The
last phase could include a live audience who could give feedback on coherence, cohesion
of ideas and overall effect as to whether the essay achieves its initial aims. Other significant
aspects of an essay are the kind of language used and references to sources.
Another way of gaining knowledge, according to Bailey (2015), is to look at vocabulary used
in the question. For example, the word, “discuss”, refers to looking at opposing sides of an
issue, such as advantages and disadvantages, positive and negative effects, benefits and
drawbacks. The discussion can first argue one side of the issue by presenting the positive,
beneficial or advantageous side of an issue and then argue in favour of the opposing views.
Or an essay can take a look at each theme and examine the pros and cons of each. We
need to examine the words in the topic to direct us direction when we approach writing an
essay. We need to understand the purpose of the essay; the intended audience and the
context. These aspects are usually given to us by the words used in the topic.
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Language
In an academic essay, the language must be formal, so the word choice and sentence
structure must be grammatically correct English or standard English. There should be no
use of slang or colloquial words and the sentence structure should be as neutral as possible.
Linking words and phrases should be used for cohesion and structure to show how one
idea leads on to the next creating continuity in the essay. Linking words are also necessary
to introduce a contrasting idea, alerting the reader to ideas which oppose what they have
read thus far. Adverbs can be used to express opinion but, overall, the writing needs to be
as objective as possible. Experts can be quoted to support the argument from an academic
point of view. Please refer to the notes in Unit 1 on referencing.
As already suggested, essay writers should ‘avoid personal phrases such as in my opinion
or personally, I think …’, (Bailey, 2015: 88). Phrasing should be impersonal, using adverbs
to show whether a view is held by the minority, the majority or if it falls into a particular class;
for example, “in certain cases …”. Critical essays must avoid generalisations as they are
almost impossible to prove and tend towards unfounded discrimination. When sources are
used, the essay needs to reflect that what they say is not the final word, but one perspective.
The verbs or adverbs used to refer to the sources need to express that what sources claim
is not always authoritative and can be debated; for example, “his expert opinion is that …”.
A critical essay must be objective, so it cannot be biased in favour of only one side of the
argument. This is also seen in the language used - adverbs are usually the words which
show that the writer has a neutral attitude and one aim, that is, to discuss the topic
democratically, giving all views an equal opportunity to be expressed.
Activity One
Rewrite the following expressions so that they would fit in a critical essay in formal English:
1. Yeah, maybe there are lotsa people who say yes to it.
2. People do it all the time but don’t think what it is.
3. You must think this otherwise you are stupid.
4. The people in this book don’t know and then they do things and then they say things
and then they all land up in a mess.
5. I don’t know, maybe, who cares, it’s not like it’s really important.
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Sources
In an academic essay, sources need to be consulted that provide information, statistics,
history, world views and contrasting ideas. These give the essay substance, depth and offer
a balanced argument. Bailey (2015) is of the opinion that the way the sources are presented
is important. An essay should start by mentioning writers who previously wrote papers on
the same topic to show that research was done on the topic in the past and that the
information presented in this essay follows on from what was previously covered.
Comparing various sources shows that the information covers a broad spectrum of
perspectives and that debate is possible. Debate is an essential aspect of a critical essay
as it allows readers to gain knowledge about all sides of a question. There must be a
comparison and contrast of ideas to show the different sides which can be taken on an
issue. Thus, the sources do not all need to agree with one another. The trick is to find a
balance in an essay which allows arguments and counter arguments to have a fair and
equal opportunity to be aired and investigated. A critical essay should be democratic in
nature which is the opposite of propaganda. Propaganda is autocratic as it only looks at one
side of an argument, does not allow any opposition and has a predetermined conclusion.
Sources can also offer different sides of an argument without necessarily agreeing or
disagreeing with one another. This adds substance to an argument. An essay can follow on
from previous sources, be an interpretation of sources, offer a counter argument to sources,
be an updated version of sources or present a completely new approach. An essay can
often summarise similar views held by different sources to show agreement and similarities,
but the referencing must still clearly show which information is taken from which source.
Bailey (2015), however, suggests that if too many sources are used an essay is no longer
a discussion, but a summary or collection of paraphrased thoughts showing no insight from
the writer or that the writer has gained new knowledge on the subject. There must be some
perspective offered from the writer which reflects a personal view substantiated by research
and offering new insight. This is mostly done in the conclusion. We must always keep in
mind that whatever is said, proposed, suggested or implied must be supported by evidence;
we cannot simply say things which we think are clever without valid substantiation. This is
referred to as substantiated information.
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Bailey (2015) believes that it is not enough to know what sources have to say about a topic;
the most important thing is to know how the sources contribute to the topic of your critical
essay. A writer of a critical essay needs to investigate, summarise, evaluate and examine
the writers who agree with each other; those who disagree; the writers who debate with
each other and those who offer completely different views. It is this process which allows
the writer and the readers to gain the most knowledge from the essay. An argumentative
essay needs to interact with all these sources and perspectives and combine them in a
discussion. An essay should offer a multilateral argument that tries to cover most angles
and brings out the most important information in an insightful, critical essay that broadens
the knowledge of the writer and the readers. A critical essay also requires a writer to provide
a new perspective in the way of opinions or conclusions.
A last point on sources: even though it is easier and convenient to look for sources on the
internet, not all the sources found on the internet are reliable. Sources need to originate
from academic institutions or be approved by authorities on a subject. This is not the case
with the internet as anyone can have access to it and upload essays or papers which have
not been edited by people who set the standards for such information. We need to go to a
library and use sources in the form of books or articles which have been published, as a
library has a strict code when it comes to acquiring the written material it makes available
to students. There are valid sources on the internet, but we need to make sure that they
originate from academic institutions which are themselves recognised and that the
information has been edited or approved by people with the right qualifications and
knowledge.
Activity Two
Below are five possible topics. Go to a library or look on the internet for reliable sources
which could assist in providing information on the topics. Remember that you need to
investigate all sides of a topic so you need sources which offer opposing views of the issue:
1. Will Brexit will be worth the effort for Britain? Discuss.

2. Are people or nature to be blamed for changing weather patterns?
3. The works of Shakespeare are over-rated. Discuss.
4. Protest Poetry no longer plays a role in South African literature. Discuss.
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5. Why should we write according to the rules of standard English when we use slang on
social media and everyone understands us?
How to write a bibliography

A very important aspect of sources is that we must know how to reference sources so as to
give credit to authors and acknowledge their assistance in our writing. For this reason it is
necessary to know the different ways we can write a reference. In Unit 1 we mentioned the
different system; below are detailed notes on how to write them up.
The Harvard System is usually used for social and commercial sciences. It lists the
surname(s) of the author(s) with initial(s), the date of publication in brackets, the title of the
source in italics [or underlined if written by hand] followed by a full-stop, the city where it
was published followed by a colon and the name of the publishing company ending with a
full-stop. For example: Smith, M. (2009) Power and the State. Basingstroke: Palgrave
Macmillan. (Bailey, 2015: 53).
The Vancouver System is often used in writing about medicine or science. When writing
and referring to an author, the author’s name is written followed by a number in consecutive
order which is then linked to a numbered list of references. The references begin with the
number in brackets, the surname(s) of the author(s) with initial(s), the title in italics [or
underlined if written by hand] followed by a full-stop, the city of publication followed by a
colon, the publisher’s name and then the year of publication between brackets. For
example: (5) Jasanoff, M. Tuberculosis: A Sub-Saharan Perspective. New York: Schaffer
(2001). (Bailey, 2015: 54).
The footnote/endnote is usually used in the Humanities. It follows a summary, paraphrase

or citation in superscript (small number written near the top of the last letter of a word) which
is written in consecutive numbers throughout the paper. The footnote/endnote is usually
written in full at the bottom of the page or sometimes at the end of the paper. The reference
consists of the name(s) of the author(s) with initial(s) followed by a comma, the title in italics
[or underlined if written by hand], then between brackets the city where it was published
followed by a colon, the name of the publisher followed by a comma and the year of
publication. Outside the bracket the page number is added. For example: 3 Karl Wildavsky,
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The End of an Era: Spain 1785 – 1815 (Dublin: Dublin University Press, 2006), p.69. (Bailey,
2015: 54).
A complete and correct reference list must be provided at the end of an essay. The
reference list must be alphabetical according to surname. If there are many authors, then
the name which is listed first on the front cover of the book is placed alphabetically.
How to use references and quotations in writing

Before attempting critical reading techniques, it is important to know that what we read can
come from many different authors who need to be acknowledged by means of correct
referencing and quotations. Bailey (2015) suggests that references and quotations show
that authors have done extended reading on the subject presented and readers are directed
to the source if they want to read it in more detail. In this way we avoid being accused of
plagiarism. Sources may be presented as a summary or paraphrase, a direct quotation or
both. In all cases, the full title of the source must be included in a citation (bibliography) at
the end of the writing. When a source is referred to in a summary or paraphrase, the name
of the author is written, followed by the year of publication in brackets and then the summary
or paraphrase. For example: (Smith, 2009: 88) follows a direct quote while a paraphrase
sentence can be introduced by Smith (2009) suggests. When quoting directly, quotation
marks/inverted commas must be used followed by the name of the author, the year of
publication and a page reference in brackets, as has been done in this Unit. If there is more
than one author, the first name is used followed by “et al” (in italics), but the full names must
be provided in the reference list. When using summaries or paraphrasing, it is necessary to
use a correct ‘reference verb’ (Bailey, 2015: 53), usually in the same verb tense as the rest
of the paper. A few ‘reference verbs’ are: “suggest”, “imply”, “recommend”, “proposes” or
“according to”.
Secondary references are when reference is made to an author which is used in the primary
source. In this case, the reference starts with the name of the author of the secondary
source followed by the year of publication between brackets followed by a comma, then a
reference verb (usually ‘cited in’) to show that it appeared in the primary source which must
be included (date of publication and page reference). For example: (Leland & Harste with
Huber, 2005 as cited in Leland et al, 2013: 92).
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Quotations are used when a source expresses an idea in a specific way and ‘the original is
more concise than the summary or the original quotation is well known’, (Bailey, 2015: 55).
Quotations must be introduced by referring to the source and then providing a citation which
consists of the author’s name followed by a comma, the year of publication followed by a
colon and the page reference. If a quotation is taken from the same source and page as a
quotation preceding it then we place “ibid.” (in italics) between brackets or “op cit.” (in italics)
if it is the same source but a different page reference.
Quotations must fit into our writing while maintaining the original wording. If a quotation is
too long and only certain parts are needed then ellipses (…) are used to show that you
decided to leave some words out. If letters must be changed to upper or lower case then
they must be placed between square brackets to show the change in punctuation and when
words are inserted for clarification then square brackets are also used. Short quotations are
a part of our writing and are enclosed single quotation marks. Quotations within quotations
get double quotation marks. Longer quotations are indented and do not need quotation
marks.
Plagiarism
An idea linked to the issue of acknowledging sources is that of plagiarism. This is an extreme
offence in academic writing as people who have written research need to be recognised for
their work. We cannot simply take their words and their thoughts and pretend that they are
our own. In a nutshell, plagiarism ‘is seen as a kind of theft, and is considered to be an
academic crime’, (Bailey, 2015: 25). This, however, can be tricky as academic writing
expects sources to be used and cited, but they have to be explained and insightful
conclusions reached without breaking laws. The law on plagiarism can be summarised as:
‘anything that is not common knowledge or (our) own ideas and research (published or not)
must be cited and referenced’ (Bailey, 2015: 27). An example of plagiarism would be if I had
used the words quoted above, but without quotation marks, to make people think that they
were my own words. Plagiarism shows no respect for the knowledge of others who were
willing to share it with us; similarly, we would not want to be victims of people exploiting our
efforts and knowledge without acknowledging our contribution to the world of academia.
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One way to understand the idea of plagiarism is to appreciate why it is wrong. According to
Bailey (2015), plagiarism should be avoided as it does not show respect for the academic
efforts of others; simply copying the work of others means we do not me to a personal
understanding of the work, so that we do not gain personal insight and knowledge.
Plagiarism is easily discovered and will cause embarrassment for the culprit; the
consequences could be criminal charges or, at the very least, failing a course or being
suspended from our academic careers. These factors should encourage us to follow the
rules! Always cite your references correctly, and in full!
However, there should not be too many quotations in an essay or the writer loses credibility.
If there are quotations, they should be kept to a limited number of words, so it may be
preferable to paraphrase. Paraphrasing refers to rewriting ideas using our own words, but
still conveying the information; while summarising reduces the number of words used, it
keeps the main points.
Other ways of avoiding plagiarism are practising good study habits. Bailey (2015)
recommends that we need to give ourselves enough time to research, prepare, write and
edit an essay so that we can check for plagiarism and avoid it. We must learn to make our
own notes from sources so that we use our words and our thoughts to process the
information and gain insight. However, we must keep a record of all the sources used and
insert references, including page numbers, as we draft our essay. And, lastly, we must make
sure that our references, citations, quotations and bibliography are correct, accurate and
valid. When we pay attention to the technical aspects of an essay, such as sources and
language, we allow our content to be read without obstacles, creating a better impression
on our readers.
Activity Three
Rewrite the passages below as summaries using your own words to express the key ideas.
Avoid plagiarism.
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The extent to which consumers desire to use new technology is commonly
influenced by factors such as consumer attitudes toward specific technologies
(Bobbit and Dabholkar, 2001; Curran et al., 2003), the level of technology anxiety
exhibited by consumers (Meuter, Ostrom, Bitner and Roundtree, 2003), and
consumer capacity and willingness (Walker, Lees, Hecker and Francis, 2002).
Mick and Fournier (1998) argue that consumers can simultaneously exhibit
positive feelings (such as intelligence and efficacy) and negative feelings (such
as ignorance and ineptitude) towards new technology. Venkatesh (2000) found
that ‘computer playfulness’ and ‘computer anxiety’ serve as anchors that users
employ in forming perceptions of ease of use about new technology (Bailey,
2015:61).
Most scientists now agree that global temperatures have risen over the last
century, and that this trend is reflected in such phenomena as the melting of sea
ice and the retreat of glaciers. There is a near-consensus that over the period the
level of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the earth’s atmosphere has also risen, mainly as
a result of burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil. The common view is that the
first change is the result of the second; in other words a warmer climate has been
caused by the CO2, which has the effect of causing the heat from the sun’s rays
to be trapped inside the atmosphere; the so-called ‘greenhouse effect’. If these
theories are accepted it can be expected that temperatures will continue to
increase in future as carbon dioxide levels rise, and since this will have harmful
effects on agriculture and other human activities, efforts should be made to
reduce the burning of fossil fuels (Lombardo, 2009 cited in Bailey, 2015: 62).
The problem statement

A problem statement is not limited to academic writing; it can appear in newspapers and
verbally during any conversation in which an issue if being debated and people are trying
to convince others to adopt their way of thinking about an issue. Kearney (2017) is of the
opinion that such debates involve the causes of an issue, its significance in our lives and
the actions to be taken regarding the issue. A problem statement is a sentence that sums
up the issue and gives the direction our argument will take. Kearney (2017) suggests that,
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in an argumentative essay, we should determine whether such an issue is fact or not; we

should provide a definition of the main idea; we should assign value to the topic as a
significant aspect of our lives; we should investigate the cause and effect of the issue and
come to a conclusion as to how to resolve the matter. Obviously, an essay might not be the
final word in the discussion of a topic, but I should contribute to an understanding of the
issue.
Activity Four
For each of the topics below determine whether the issue is fact or opinion. Provide a
definition. Determine whether it has value in our lives. Investigate the causes and effects of
the issue, and propose a conclusion as to how to resolve it. Your answers can be in point
form or table form as this is preparation for the essay prior to compiling the first draft.
1. Education in South Africa is not up to standard compared to the rest of the world.
2. The study of literature does not assist people in living a better life.
3. Only good comes from giving a child corporal punishment.
4. Social media are destroying young people who do not develop thinking skills.
5. HIV/Aids can be prevented.
6. The labour laws in South Africa do not favour women.
There will be some repetition in an essay as this provides continuity, relevance, structure
and reinforcement of the topic. In summary, an essay consists of an introduction, a body
and a conclusion. The introduction presents the argument, the body discusses it in detail
and the conclusion reaffirms the essay’s stance on an issue. The body is divided into
paragraphs with each one discussing an aspect of the topic with supporting evidence. Each
paragraph begins with a topic sentence which is the main idea followed by supporting
sentences which provide evidence in the form of research statistics, descriptions,
explanations, details and examples. The conclusion should not contain any new information
as its purpose is to repeat what was said in the introduction, confirming the initial thesis in
a positive, convincing and definite manner.
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The topic
Before attempting to compile an essay, it is important to “unpack’ the topic, i.e. the topic
needs to be analysed keyword by keyword. We need to understand how much context we
need and what the scope of the question is; how much knowledge is needed; and how it
needs to be applied. Our answer requires us to analyse the question, synthesise the
information gathered from the sources so that the essay is not too long; and we need to
evaluate the question to show our understanding and to make our answer as critical as
possible. This process enables us to identify the main issue, related issues which need to
be discussed, the stance we will take in the essay, how many sides there are to the topic
and what possible counter arguments are available.
When we read the topic, we need to ask ourselves why the topic was chosen, and from
which perspective it was meant to be answered. This implies that we must be careful not to
cover too broad an area in our discussion as the essay will lack depth, but on the other
hand, our focus cannot be too limited or we will not be objective. When it comes to
argumentative essays about literature, the topic can address themes in a text or many texts,
but it can also refer to characters or language, including imagery. The aspects of language
discussed in Unit 4 can all be discussed in an essay based on a literary text.
Activity Five
Discuss how you would ‘unpack’ the topics listed below, in other words, how you would
approach them in a critical essay:
1. The main characters in the novel are advocates of the main theme, but the events
which happen force them to be otherwise.
2. The theme in the drama is relevant to all people, but not those who do not believe in
it because of certain elements in their lives.
3. The protagonist starts by being on the side of good, but then changes and assists
those who wish evil on others.
4. The main ideas associated with the theme of the text are systematically undermined
throughout the story, until they are no longer relevant to the theme.
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The introduction
An introduction to an essay needs to captivate an audience, so the introduction needs to be
creative. Kearney (2017) suggests that an introduction should present the context for an
essay which includes the main issue or the subject of the essay. The introduction must
provide an effective opening argument in the form of a quote, fact or statistic to encourage
a discussion, pique controversy or generate debate. An essay must explain the problem or
create a framework for the argument and end with a way to resolve the issue discussed in
the thesis (the abstract idea which needs to be discussed and substantiated with evidence).
The introduction states the focus of the essay and briefly outlines the argument. It can
include quotes from recognised experts in the subject to give the argument substance. The
topic is often influenced by the writer’s point of view which is presented in the introduction
and then given in depth in the body of the essay. The introduction needs to set out how the
topic will be addressed, keeping in mind the audience and what will convince them of the
essay’s points of view. The introduction usually ends with a clearly defined thesis statement
which sets out the essay’s perspective on the issue and so readers will know how the topic
will be addressed throughout the body. The introduction acts as a map for the readers; it
tells them where the essay will go, how it will get there and the ideas that will be discussed
on the way.
Activity Six
Write an introduction for the topics below outlining the focus of the essay, the point of view
of the narrator, the main thesis and the reasons which will support the thesis:
1. The main idea in the play, that money allows people to live life to the fullest, is a myth.
2. In the novel the main character embarks on a journey which changes his life forever.
Discuss.
3. Do you agree or disagree with the character’s decision to sacrifice his life for the
greater good of mankind?
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The body
The body moves the argument in the one direction and tries to convince readers of the
proposed thesis. A writer must decide on an approach to the topic and keep to it in the essay
to maintain cohesion, coherence of ideas and logical structure. The best way to accomplish
this is to interest readers in the issue by explaining the different sides of the debate and
presenting the controversy which surrounds it or making the problem clear. The body argues
the writer’s views to convince readers to see the writer’s perspective on the issue.
Therefore, the body needs to explain, using reasons and supporting evidence, why readers
should agree with the views held by the writer. The body develops points which supports
the writer’s view. This is achieved through clear topic sentences in each of the paragraphs.
Reasons should also be compared so as to reflect similarities and differences; the
comparison could also be used to undermine a counter argument by showing that the
counter argument is not as reliable or substantial as the argument supported by the essay.
Another approach, proposed by Kearney (2017), is that an argumentative essay could take
on a question-and-answer format in which the question is the proposed thesis and the
answer is the evidence to support the thesis. However, this format, is not always effective
as it can be difficult to keep this structure up throughout an essay. Furthermore, it is not
always recommended that formal writing include questions because, while they are effective
rhetorical devices they fail to encourage an in-depth investigation which goes beyond just
answering questions. An argumentative essay needs to have cohesion, but it can and must
also include additional information, that is not always directly relevant to a question, but
which provides support to the main argument.
Each topic sentence comes at the beginning of a paragraph or sections of writing if there is
a great deal of information on that point. Each new idea must be in a separate paragraph
or section. Topic sentences are a single point summary of a paragraph. This statement is
then supported by a relevant argument, that uses examples taken from research or found
in everyday life, including quotes which give the argument substance or analogies which
help readers to understand the argument better. Topic sentences can be used mentioned
in the introduction and then repeated separately for each paragraph of the body, to give the
essay structure.
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The reasons given to support an argument must refer back to the topic to give the essay
relevance and structure; this also helps to keep the writer on track. The reasons must
include possible objections or opposition to the writer’s view. These can be mentioned at
the end of each paragraph also discussed together at the end of the body of the essay. The
essay must provide opposing ideas on the topic so as to balance the argument, but at the
same time undermine them to maintain the stance adopted by the writer. In any debate,
opposing ideas must be acknowledged and incorporated into the discussion so the reader
can see the strengths and weaknesses of the argument presented. This process allows a
writer to understand the counter argument better and, thus, provide supporting reasons that
undermine it.
Activity Seven
Provide topic sentences for each the topics below, outlining how you would discuss or
explore them in the body of a critical essay. The topic sentences must reflect the reasons
you will use to support the thesis:
1. The theme of betrayal is reflected in the way the main characters behave towards each
other.
2. The main cause of the turning point in the drama lies in the main character’s attitude
to those who are victims of their circumstances.
3. The language used by the individual characters reflects their position in society and in
the hierarchy present in the novel.
Kearney (2017) provides information on three possible strategies to adopt when compiling
an argumentative essay: the Classical, Rogerian or Toulmin strategies. They can also be
combined into one strategy if the essay calls for it.
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The Classical Argument Strategy is used if an essay has a good chance of convincing
readers to adopt its views. It is best used when readers do not have their own views or are
ignorant about the topic. It is the best way is to make readers care about an issue and, thus
agree with the essay. It includes an introduction which presents the topic, gets readers
interested and presents the essay as a reliable source. The narration provides background
information on the context and defines the issue, while the partition presents the thesis and
how it will be approached. The body provides the main argument which gives evidence in
support of the topic and undermines any counter argument, while the conclusion
summarises the main points, suggests solutions and reaffirms the introduction.
The Rogerian Strategy is used to convince readers of an argument by stressing

compromises on which opposing parties can agree. It is quite effective in controversial
debates in which both sides are determined to have the upper hand. This strategy focuses
on attitude more than structure. The essay needs to present a narrator who is reasonable,
makes an effort to understand opposing views and provides a fair and sympathetic view of
all sides of an argument. The narrator looks for aspects which the opposing sides have in
common so as to establish shared beliefs and values and a willingness to adapt and adopt
or incorporate different perspectives of the topic. The conclusion needs to present a
compromise which effects a solution.
The Toulmin Strategy is used when opposing sides are strongly convinced of their views; it
uses logical reasoning and tries to limit the argument to aspects of an issue which can be
agreed upon by both sides. Therefore, it focuses on discussing only the features which are
common to both sides, but avoids aspects which are not up for discussion and aspects
which cannot be negotiated. The strategy focuses on presenting a claim or thesis that is
proven with data which is undisputed evidence. The warrant refers to the evidence which
supports the thesis and is linked to the backup in the form of additional reasons which
constitute a logical argument. For example: Discuss the topic that school uniforms should
be maintained in schools as they save money, encourage discipline and give learners a
sense of pride. (The words in italics are part of the topic but they actually give reasons in
favour of the topic). The qualifier is used to limit the topic so as to create fewer reasons for
debate; this aspect is assisted by the exceptions which exclude certain features of the topic
as they can cause more conflict than solutions. For example: Discuss the idea of school
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uniforms but only from an economical perspective. (The words in italics limit the aspects of
school uniform which could be debated thus limiting the reasons which could give rise to
more debate.)
The conclusion
A conclusion should be a reaffirmation of the introduction. The topic should no longer be a
question or a statement to be discussed, but an idea which has been discussed, justified
and proven to be correct using supporting evidence or compared and contrasted with other
information for a balanced argument. The conclusion is similar to the introduction, but with
a positive tone which answers the question asked in the introduction. Kearney (2017) is of
the opinion that a conclusion should suggest the consequences of adopting the essay’s
solution. The conclusion should be a brief summary of the body, mentioning the topic
sentences again, and using examples from everyday life to show the issue’s relevance to
the readers’ lives. The main aim of a conclusion should be to lead the readers towards
thinking, feeling or believing in something, so it needs to appeal to the readers’ emotions
and thoughts. And, lastly, the conclusion completes the framework within which the
argument is presented. Although no new information should be presented in a conclusion,
there should be enough reinforcement of the body to explain why readers should be
convinced of the essay’s point of view. Tone is very important in a conclusion because it
must be persuasive, convincing and remove doubt and ambiguity.
Activity Eight
Provide a conclusion for the following topics through summarising the possible topic
sentences and confirming the statement made in the introduction:
1. No one wins when the main character who is supposed to lead the people is as guilty
as the characters that are portrayed as evil.
2. The events in the novel lead to the ultimate sacrifice of the protagonist.
3. The saying that ‘all that glitters is not gold’ is a true reflection of the main theme of the
drama.
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Assessment
The best way for us to assess whether we have gained knowledge through the information
provided in the unit is to practise writing critical essays. It is best to start with easy topics
which do not need much research; then practise writing essays which need research,
increasing the level of difficulty until we are able to write critical essays about complex
issues in literature. Below are a few topics which can be used; they are listed in order of
difficulty, from least to most difficult:
1. What I would do if I were to win the Lotto.

2. Education is not always the key to success.
3. Women are better than men.
4. It is easy to blame the government for all the problems experienced in society.
5. HIV/Aids should be eliminated with prevention.
6. Discrimination does exist: we need to know in what form it exists in society and how
to deal with it effectively.
7. The argument of man versus woman goes back centuries and is also to be found in
literature.
8. Poetry should not be taught in primary school as it is too difficult.
9. Discuss the main theme in a play of your choice by referring to the characters and
how they reflect the theme.
10. Discuss the role women play in Shakespeare’s plays.
11. Analyse the poetry of Oswald Mtshali as a true reflection of protest poetry.
12. Protest Poetry no longer has a role to play in South African literature.
Glossary
Sources Valid forms of information which can be used to do research
for an academic essay
Argumentative essay An essay which critically analyses, interprets and discusses
a topic from many sides or only from one side
Plagiarism Using information from sources without acknowledging the
rightful authors
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The problem statement An issue which could give rise to a possible topic for an
argumentative essay
Topic An idea, theme or issue which has more than one side and
which can be argued
REFERENCES
Hornby, A.S. et al (ed.) Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary International Student’s

Edition (9th edition). Oxford University Press.
https://owlcation.com Academia Essays (May 16, 2017) accessed 05/03/2018

The answers provided below are only a guide to possible answers for the activities. There
are many possible answers that can be given, as long as they are relevant to the topics in
the activities; they show a critical approach to the essays and an insightful understanding
of the topics. The topics are somewhat abstract as they are not directly relevant to a specific
text, but they should still help you practise how to approach the different sections of a critical
essay.
Activity One
Rewrite the following expressions which might be found in a critical essay in formal
English:
6. Yeah, maybe there are lotsa people who say yes to it.
The majority of people may agree with it.
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7. People do it all the time but don’t think what it is.
Most people have been known to do it often without paying attention to the finer details.
8. You must think this otherwise you are stupid.
It is recommended that people support this so as to avoid the possibility of appearing

ignorant on the subject.
9. The people in this book don’t know and then they do things and then they say
things and then they all land up in a mess.
Most of the characters do not seem to have knowledge regarding the issue. They then act
and speak in ignorance and face negative consequences as a result.
10. I don’t know, maybe, who cares, it’s not like it’s really important.
This issue does not inspire much attention as it is not considered to be very important.
Activity Two
Below are five possible topics. Go to a library or look on the internet for reliable
sources which could provide information on the topics. Remember that you need to
investigate all sides of a topic so you will need sources which offer opposing views
of the issue:
6. Will Brexit will be worth the effort for Britain? Discuss.
This topic is quite recent so you will not find many books on the subject, but many articles.
Try to use the articles written by authorities such as historians, economists and politicians
rather than referring to people’s views offered on social media. Your sources will need to
reflect those in favour of Brexit, those who think it will fail and the reasons for their stance.
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7. Are people or nature to be blamed for changing weather patterns?
Your sources will need to be books to provide background information but also recently
published articles from scientists. The important thing is that it is a scientific topic so you
need sources that can provide scientific information as it will give them credibility. A
conclusion can express a view but the bulk of the essay should be an accurate investigation
of weather patterns throughout history and the effects modern life has on the weather.
8. The works of Shakespeare are over-rated. Discuss.
This can be a controversial topic so debate will occur. Your sources will need to be those
who have a great love for, appreciation and knowledge of Shakespeare and those who do
not think his writing has merit. Your sources will need to look at reviews from different eras
as a modern view could be different from people who discussed his work many decades
ago.
9. Protest Poetry no longer plays a role in South African literature.
This is a relatively modern topic. The role played by Protest Poetry in the country’s political
history should have come to an end in 1994, but try to find sources that do not only evaluate
Protest Poetry during the Apartheid era, but also in recent times, and look at different social
and political issues which are the subject of such poetry.
10. Why should we write according to the rules of standard English when we use
slang on social media and everyone understands us?
The best sources would be articles written by linguists, but social media would have to be
accepted as valid sources in order to discuss the opposing sides of the issue. Try to find
sources written by people who actually attempt to discuss both sides and have knowledge
of language use in modern times.
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Activity Three
Rewrite the passages below in a summary using your own words to express the key
ideas, and avoiding plagiarism.
The extent to which consumers desire to use new technology is commonly

influenced by factors such as consumer attitudes toward specific technologies
(Bobbit and Dabholkar, 2001; Curran et al., 2003), the level of technology anxiety
exhibited by consumers (Meuter, Ostrom, Bitner and Roundtree, 2003), and
consumer capacity and willingness (Walker, Lees, Hecker and Francis, 2002). Mick
and Fournier (1998) argue that consumers can simultaneously exhibit positive
feelings (such as intelligence and efficacy) and negative feelings (such as
ignorance and ineptitude) towards new technology. Venkatesh (2000) found that
‘computer playfulness’ and ‘computer anxiety’ serve as anchors that users employ
in forming perceptions of ease of use about new technology (Bailey, 2015:61).
Bailey (2015) collects information from various sources on the subject and cites them.
Various factors are given as reasons for people who want to use technology but are hesitant
to do so. The reasons range from attitude, the fear people have towards it to incompetence.
The argument reflects the pros and cons of people’s abilities. Bailey (2015) ends his
argument by citing Venkatesh (2000) who proposes that using a computer for fun while still
having fears about it influences people’s views about technology.
Most scientists now agree that global temperatures have risen over the last century,
and that this trend is reflected in such phenomena as the melting of sea ice and the
retreat of glaciers. There is a near-consensus that over the period the level of
carbon dioxide (CO2) in the earth’s atmosphere has also risen, mainly as a result of
burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil. The common view is that the first change
is the result of the second; in other words a warmer climate has been caused by the
CO2, which has the effect of causing the heat from the sun’s rays to be trapped
inside the atmosphere; the so-called ‘greenhouse effect’. If these theories are
accepted it can be expected that temperatures will continue to increase in future as
carbon dioxide levels rise, and since this will have harmful effects on agriculture
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and other human activities, efforts should be made to reduce the burning of fossil
fuels (Lombardo, 2009 cited in Bailey, 2015: 62)
Bailey (2015) refers to Lombardo (2000) who proposes that it is a commonly held view that
the earth’s temperature has risen in recent times. It is most evident in the ocean where ice
and glaciers have melted and the water level has risen. The article blames the release of
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere as the main cause due to people burning fossil fuels.
There is reference to the greenhouse effect to explain the process. The article also suggests
that the temperature will continue rising which will have negative effects for people and,
thus, require urgent preventative measures.
Activity Four
For each of the topics below, determine whether the issue is fact or opinion. Provide
a definition, determine whether it has value in our lives, investigate the causes and
effects of the issue and propose a conclusion as to how to resolve each issue. Your
answers can be in point form or table form as this is preparation for the essay, prior
to compiling the first draft.
FACT OR DEFINITION VALUE IN CAUSES AND CONCLUSION

OPINION OUR LIVES EFFECTS
7. Education in South Africa is not up to standard compared to the rest of the
world.
This is an opinion Establish which Discuss Look at history Provide
but evidence levels of personal as a cause possible ways
could show it to education will growth, and the issue to improve
also be a fact. be investigated. potential of poverty in education.
income and modern times.
ability to work
elsewhere.
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8. The study of literature does not assist people in living a better life.
Opinion Establish which Discuss Look at the Consider a
literature is literature from tradition of compromise
referred to and both an literature between
what is economic and studies versus studying
regarded as a a social the modern literature and
better life. perspective. need for encouraging
money. people to have
more practical
jobs.
9. Only good comes from giving a child corporal punishment.
Opinion Define what is Look at the Consider the Discuss
meant by issue of infringements alternative
corporal discipline and children ways of
punishment and the role it commit and punishing
for which plays in the effect of children which
infringements itsociety. Also harsh will have a
is a punishment look at punishment in positive
and for which people’s views later years. outcome.
ages. on child
behaviour.
10. Social media are destroying young people who do not develop thinking skills.
Opinion Establish which Discuss the Look at what Look at ways
forms of social role social causes of
media are media plays in youngsters to incorporating
referred to and our social and be on social social media
what is economic media and into education
considered lives. Is it fun how it affects and work
“thinking”. or work? their work. activities.
11. HIV/Aids can be prevented.
Fact Define the Consider the Discuss the Discuss ways
disease and to advantages of attitude of of teaching
what extent it ending the people people the
can be HIV/Aids towards the benefits of
prevented. epidemic. disease and prevention.
the
disadvantages
of the
epidemic.
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12. The labour laws in South Africa do not favour women.

This is an opinion Refer to the Look at the Discuss the Consider ways
but evidence laws which will advantages of history of of improving
could show it to be considered women women in the the working
also be a fact. and who is earning more job market and conditions of
categorised as money. how it will women without
“women”. affect people if harming the
it does not economy.
change.
Activity Five
Discuss how you would ‘unpack’ the topics listed below. In other words, how you
would approach them in a critical essay:
5. The main characters in the novel are advocates of the main theme, but the
events which happen force them to be otherwise.
Discuss the main theme and the aspects of the characters which reflect it; then discuss the
events which happen which are relevant to the theme and how they force the characters to
change and thus behave contrary to the theme.
6. The theme in the drama is relevant to all people, but not those who do not
believe in it because of certain elements in their lives.
Discuss the theme and how it is relevant; then discuss the elements in people’s lives which
are contrary to the theme and, thus do not allow people to believe in it. You can also propose
ways people can change their lives to behave according to the ideals of the theme.
7. The protagonist starts by being on the side of good, but then changes and
assists those who wish evil on others.
Discuss the positive qualities of the protagonist; the events which happen that force him to
change his attitude and behaviour and how he helps those who are evil. Evaluate whether
the protagonist had any choice in the matter.
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8. The main ideas associated with the theme of the text are systematically
undermined throughout the story, until they are no longer relevant to the theme.
Start by discussing the main ideas as aspects of the theme; then discuss how events
happen that cause people to change their minds and how their behaviour undermines the
main theme.
Activity Six
Write an introduction for the topics below reflecting the focus of the essay, the point
of view of the narrator, the main thesis and various reasons which will be used to
support the thesis:
1. The main idea in the play, that money allows people to live life to the fullest, is
a myth.
Money has always played a big role in the lives of people since the beginning of time. It is
often believed that money can, in fact, buy happiness but it is a myth. The truth is that
billions of people live fairly good lives without money because they understand the true
value of life. The essay will prove the truth of the above statement by analysing the aspects
of life from different perspectives. The essay will examine the role of family, friends and
emotions in people’s lives; it will examine the need for self-fulfilment given by honest work
and relationships and it will examine how giving materially and emotionally is more
rewarding than simply taking money. The thesis of the essay is that money has no emotions
while emotional fulfilment is the true measure of living life to the fullest.
2. In the novel the main character embarks on a journey which changes his life
forever. Discuss.
Life is often compared to a journey into the unknown where every decision made determines
our destiny or even our fate. This is true in the novel as the main character discovers too
late that his decisions will change his life forever. At the end of the novel, he looks back and
decides that there were four important decisions that changed his life: his decision to leave
home; his decision to not study but rather look for work; his decision to leave his country in
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search of fame and fortune; and his decision not to marry for love. The thesis of the essay
is to determine whether the character’s life changes for better or worse.
3. Do you agree or disagree with the character’s decision to sacrifice his life for
the greater good of mankind?
The character’s decision to sacrifice his life for the greater good of mankind can be seen
from both a positive and a negative perspective depending from whose perspective the act
is viewed. Some believe that the character has no other choice because his death will free
his people from oppression; he will be seen as the hero who is needed to encourage people
to take action and he has to set the example for others. On the other hand, he could choose
to work with the oppressive regime, educate his followers to think for themselves and
organise a peaceful rebellion, thus avoiding bloodshed. These factors will form the thesis of
the essay.
Activity Seven
Provide topic sentences for the topics below, reflecting how you would explore the
topic in the body of a critical essay. The topic sentences must reflect the reasons you
will use to support the thesis.
4. The theme of betrayal is reflected in the way the main characters behave
towards each other.
Start by discussing the theme of betrayal in the text; then discuss the behaviour of each
character towards the other characters individually and how each betrays the others. Lastly,
have a final paragraph in the body which discusses what is similar in the behaviour of all
the characters and how the similarity encompasses the idea of betrayal in all its different
aspects.
159
5. The main cause of the turning point in the drama lies in the main character’s
attitude to those who are victims of their circumstances.
Discuss the main character, his attributes, flaws and actions; then discuss the victims
individually and the circumstances in which each finds himself and lastly how the main
character treats each victim and how it brings about a turning point in the drama, be it a
death, a change in attitude or a change in the main character’s circumstances.
6. The language used by the individual characters reflects their position in society
and in the hierarchy present in the novel.
Discuss each character separately, the language he uses and if it reflects his position in
society or if it contrasts with his circumstances. Discuss whether the language is sincere or
used to climb the social ladder reflecting the hierarchy in society.
Activity Eight
Provide a conclusion for the following topics by summarising the possible topic
sentences and confirming the statement made in the introduction:
4. No one wins when the main character who is supposed to lead the people is as
guilty as the characters that are portrayed as evil.
In conclusion, it is evident that a good leader can bring about success or failure as a good
leader sets the example; he recognises the strengths and weakness of his followers and
can direct them on a path to success. In this text the main character starts by having all the
attributes necessary to achieve success, but gives in to his weaknesses and becomes the
opposite of who he was. This causes problems for his followers who are left with no direction
and eventually follow him on the path to evil. The moral is that people who are leaders carry
the burden of ensuring success for all and, thus have no choice but to keep to the path of
righteousness.
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5. The events in the novel lead to the ultimate sacrifice of the protagonist.
In the end, the protagonist has to die in order to save the lives of those who committed evil
and in so doing, caused harm to the victims. The people’s decision to declare war; their
refusal to be trained as soldiers; their refusal to follow orders and their desire for money and
glory forced the protagonist to sacrifice his life so as to achieve victory in battle. The
protagonist had no desire to be a hero, but he had to do what was right for those who were
innocent.
6. The saying that of ‘all that glitters is not gold’ is a true reflection of the main
theme of the drama.
The drama, ultimately, serves as a moral illustration that all that glitters is not gold. The
characters, as an ensemble, believe in what turns out to be a myth. They are gullible when
they are promised to make a profit quickly and instead lose their money; they are promised
to win their money back by allowing a corrupt person to achieve political power but instead
they become victims of oppression. They finally realise that even giving their support to the
enemy is dangerous as they are eventually all killed for fear of them betraying the new
leader. Had the characters not wanted to follow the glitter, they would have eventually found
gold in the form of a fulfilling life.
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Tutorial Letter 501/0/2020: Applied English Language For Foundation and Intermediate Phase - First Additional Language

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ENG2611/501/0/2020

Tutorial Letter 501/0/2020

Applied English Language for Foundation

Department of English Studies

2. UNIT 1: EXPLORING CRITICAL READING .................................................................7

3. UNIT 2: USING READING SKILLS FOR CRITICAL WRITING .................................45

4. UNIT 3: INFORMED READING AND WRITING FOR EDUCATION ..........................79

5. UNIT 4: EXPLORING LANGUAGE AND ANALYTICAL SKILLS ............................105

6. UNIT 5: HOW TO WRITE A CRITICAL ESSAY .......................................................133

3. Credits attached to the module

4. Purpose of the module

The module aims to:

5. Outcomes and assessment criteria

3.1 Apply selective critical interpretation/reading strategies to analyse the meaning

2. UNIT 1: EXPLORING CRITICAL READING

By the end of this unit you should:

In Chapter Three, Leland et al (2013) make a few recommendations as to what constitutes

Identifying critical texts

Commentary on the activity:

Critical reading techniques

For example, consider the following statement:

Commentary on the activity:

Note-taking and annotations

How to combine sources in writing

Aspect of the story Story or book

Commentary on the activity:

At the Bomb Testing Site

At noon in the desert a panting lizard

It was looking at something farther off

There was just a continent without much on it

Reading for knowledge

How we process what we read

2. Syntax refers to grammar and patterns of language. It focuses on the structure of

Person being Greeting Tone and Register

Obstacles to reading and understanding - miscues

Reading and writing

Reading and music

Commentary on the activity:

How technology assists reading

Commentary on the activity:

The seven steps in the reading process

Step Outcome Reflection

How to assess reading

Semantics the study of meaning attributed to written language

Lee, H. (1960) To Kill a Mockingbird. Pan Books (20th printing 1982).

Ndebele, N.S. (1983) Fools and Other Stories. Picador Africa.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES AND FEEDBACK

10. Look up any words whose meaning you do not know.

Looking at the poem in detail:

13. Discuss the verb tenses used and their implication.

14. Discuss the desert setting of the poem.

Looking at the extract in detail:

19. Why would the interrogator deny that it is a persecution?

20. What does the interrogator’s body language reveal?

21. Discuss the connotations of ‘dead of night’.

A connotation is a connected or figurative meaning. Night is often associated with actions

24. How do you think the narrator feels?

25. How do you think the children in the classroom feel?

3. Which emotions does he reveal?

4. What are his concerns?

5. What does he think will be the consequences?

6. How does the Mother feel?

7. How does the brother feel?