9.

FLOW THROUGH PIPES L = length of pipe,

V =mean velocity of flow, and
9.1 Introduction D = diameter of the pipe
A pipe is defined as a closed conduit of circular section through which the fluid flows Equation (9.1) is referred to as Darcy’s formula.
filling the cross-section completely. The fluid in the pipe has no free surface, and the pipe is 9.3 Losses of Energy in Pipelines
pressurised. If a pipe runs partially full, atmospheric pressure exists inside the pipe and it is The losses may be considered as shown in Fig 9.2
treated as an open channel. Energy losses
Frictional resistance to fluid flow depends on; area of wetted surface, density of fluid,
surface roughness of pipe and frictional co-efficient (which is a function of Reynolds Number
Re). Frictional resistance increases with square root of velocity (V2) and it is independent of Major losses Minor losses
fluid pressure. ( a) (b,c,d,e,f,g,h)
9.2 Loss of Head Due to Friction in a Pipe Fig 9.2 Energy losses in a pipeline
Consider a liquid of velocity v flowing through a pipe of diameter D, over a short length L  Major losses:
between sections 1-1 and 2-2 as shown in Fig 9.1. (a): These are due to friction and may be calculated using Darcy’s formula.
 Minor losses:
1 L 2 (b) Loss due to sudden expansion of the pipe.
(c) Loss due to sudden contraction of the pipe.
(d) Loss due to bend in pipe.
(e) Loss due to pipe fittings e.t.c.
1 2 (f) Loss due to obstruction in pipe.
(g) Loss at entrance to a pipe.
Fig 9.1 Head Loss Due to Friction
(h) Loss at exit from a pipe.
As the flow occurs, there will be a frictional resistance. 9.3.1 Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement (he).
According to Froude, Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2 before and after enlargement as shown in Fig 9.3.
Frictional resistance = f′×contact area ×(velocity)2, where f′ = a coefficient 2
depending on roughness of pipe. 1
 Frictional resistance = f′(PL)V2, where P = perimeter of pipe. v1,p1,a1 p2 a2, v2
As the flow occurs, there will be loss of energy in doing work to overcome frictional resistance.
Loss of energy/s
1
= work done in overcoming frictional resistance/s 2
= frictional resistance×distance moved per second. Fig 9.3
= f′ (PL)V2×V = f′PLV3
Weight of liquid discharged/s = wav, where a = area of pipe Let p1, v1, and a1 be the pressure intensity, velocity and area of the pipe at section
Loss of energy/unit weight of liquid, 1-1. The corresponding values at section 2-2 are p2, v2 and a2. Loss of energy is due to
f PLV 3 the formation of eddies.
hf = Let p′ = pressure intensity of liquid eddies on area a2-a1
waV he = loss of head due to sudden enlargement
f PLV 2 Applying Bernoulli’s equation to sections 1-1 and 2-2,
= …(i)
wa p1 V12 p V2
2   z1  2  2  z 2  h e
πD w 2g w 2g
For circular pipe, P = πD and a =
4 where h e  loss of head due to sudden enl arg ement.
p πD 4 Also z1 = z2 for horizontal pipe
  
a πD 2 / 4 D p V2 p V2
f   4  LV 2  1  1  2  2  he
or h f  w 2g w 2g
dw
p  p 2 V12  V22
Let f  be a coefficient such that f  =
fw or h e  1  …(i)
2g w 2g
Consider control volume of liquid between sections 1-1 and 2-2. Force acting on
 fw 
4 LV 2 liquid in control volume in the direction of flow,
2g 4fL LV 2
hf      Fx = p1a1+p′(a2-a1)-p2a2
wD D 2g Experimentally, p′=p1
4fL V 2  Fx = p1a1+p1(a2-a1)-p2a2 = p1a2-p2a2
or hf   …(9.1) or Fx = a2(p1-p2) ...(ii)
D 2g Momentum of liquid/s at section 1-1,
where hf = loss of head due to friction, = mass×velocity
f = coefficient of friction,
= ρa 1 V1  V1  ρa 1 V12
1 pmk 2 pmk
 Momentum of liquid/s at sections 2-2, V22  1 
2

= ρa 2 V2  V  ρa 2 V22 hc    1 …(ii)
2g  c c 
 Change of momentum per second, 2
= ρa 2 V22  ρa 1 V12 V22 1 
k , where k    1
a 2 V2 2g c
 c 
From continuity equation, a1V1= a2 V 2 or a1=
V1 If the value of Cc is assumed equal to 0.62,
2
Change of momentum/s,  1 
k   1  0.375
a V   0.62 
 ρa 2 V22  ρ 2 2   V12  ρa 2 V22  ρa 2 V1 V2
 V1  kV22 V2
hc   0.375 2
Or change of momentum/s, 2g 2g
 ρa 2 (V22  V1 V2 ) …(iii) If the value of Cc is not given, the head loss due to contraction is generally taken as,
But net force acting on control volume in the direction of flow must be equal to the v2
 h c  0.5 …(9.3)
rate of change of momentum, i.e. Eq.(ii) = Eq.(iii); 2g
 (p1  p 2 )a 2  ρa 2 (V22  V1 V2 ) 9.3.3 Loss of Head at Entrance to a Pipe
p1  p 2 This occurs when liquid enters a pipe which is connected to a large tank or reservoir. In the
or  V22  V1 V2 case of rounded or bell mouthed entrance, or inlet of a pipe with sharp cornered entrance,
ρ
Divide by g on both sides: entrance loss is taken as equal to that of a sudden entrance (sudden contraction),
p1  p 2 p1  p2 V 2  V1 V2 V2
  2 or h e  0.5 …(9.4)
g w g 2g
p1  p 2 where V = velocity of liquid in pipe.
Substitute above values of in equation (i): 9.3.4 Loss of Head at Entrance to a Reservoir
w
This loss is taken as similar to sudden enlargement,
V22  V1 V2 V12  V22 2V22  2V1 V2  V12  V22 V 2  V12  2V1 V2
 he     2 V2
g 2g 2g 2g h er  …(9.5)
2g
(V1  V2 ) 2
or h e  …(9.2) where V = velocity at outlet of pipe.
2g 9.3.5 Loss of Head Due to a Bend in Pipe
The above relation is called Borda’s equation or Carnots equation. This loss is generally taken as,
V2
9.3.2 Loss of Head Due to Sudden Contraction (hc). hb  k …(9.6)
Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2, before and after contraction (Fig 9.4). 2g
where k = coefficient of bend depending on angle of bend, radius of curvature of
1 bend and diameter of the pipe, and
C 2
V = mean velocity of flow of fluid.
p1, a1 p2,a2 9.3.6 Loss of Head in Various Pipe Fittings
This loss of head in various pipe fittings (such as valves, couplings etc.) is taken as,
C 2 V2
h pf  k …(9.7)
1 2g
Fig 9.4 where k = coefficient of pipe fitting, and V = mean velocity of flow of fluid.
Loss of head is due to sudden enlargement from vena contracta to smaller pipe. 9.3.7 Loss of Head Due to Obstruction of Pipe
Let: ac = area of flow at C-C This occurs due to an obstruction in a pipe on account of reduction in cross-sectional area
Vc = velocity of flow at C-C of the pipe by the presence of obstruction.
a2 = area of flow at sections 2-2 Consider a pipe of area ‘a’ when obstructed as shown in Fig 9.5. Vena-contracta is
V2 = velocity of flow at section 2-2 formed beyond section 1-1.
hc = loss of head due to sudden contraction 1 2
Now, hc = actual loss of head due to enlargement from section C-C to section 2-2,
and Eq.9.2 is given as, Vc

(V  V2 ) 2 V22  Vc  V Area, a′ V
hc  c    1 …(i)
2g 2g  V2  Area, a

From continuity equation,

1 2
V a 1 1
a c Vc  a 2 V2 , or c  2   Fig 9.5
V2 a c a c / a 2 c c
Substituting the value of Vc/V2 in equation (i), Let: a′ = maximum area of obstruction
3 pmk 4 pmk
 ac = area at vena contracta 9.4.3 Total Energy Losses
V = velocity of liquid in pipe For the pipeline shown in Fig 9.7, the energy losses are:
Vc = velocity of liquid at vena contracta V2
V = velocity at section 2-2 (i) Head loss at ‘a’ at entrance to pipe = 0.5 1
2g
Loss of head due to obstruction = loss of head due to enlargement from vena contracta to
section 2-2, 4f1 L1 V12
(ii) Head due to friction in 'a-b’ =
V  V 2 2gD1
 c …(i)
2g V22
(iii) Head loss at ‘b’due to sudden contraction = 0.5
From continuity equation, 2g
acVc = aV ...(ii) 4f 2 L 2 V22
If Cc = coefficient of contraction, (iv) Head loss in ‘b-c’ due to friction =
2gD 2
area at vena contracta ac
 CC   V2  V3 2
a  a' a  a' (v) Head loss at ‘c’due to sudden enlargement =
or ac = Cc×(a-a’) 2g
Substitute value in equation (ii), 4f L V 2
aV (vi) Head in ‘c-d’ due to friction = 3 3 3
 C c  a  a'Vc  aV, or Vc  2gD 3
C c a  a' V32
Substitute value of Vc in equation (i), (vii) Head at loss ‘d’ at entrance to reservoir =
2g
Head loss due to obstruction,
2
 aV  Example: 9.1 Two reservoirs as shown in Fig 9.8 are connected by a pipeline which is 150mm
  V
Vc  V  2
 C c a  a'  diameter for the first 6m and 250mm in diameter for the remaining 15m. The entrance and exit
h obs   are sharp and change in section sudden. The water surface in the upper reservoir is 6m above
2g 2g
2
that in the lower reservoir.(a) Determine: (i) the losses of head which occur (ii) the
V2  a  discharge.(b) Draw the H.G.L. and T.E.L. lines. Take f = 0.01 for both pipes.
or h obs    1 …(9.8)
2g  C c a  a' 
9.4 Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Lines
9.4.1 Hydraulic Gradient Line (H.G.L.)
This is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (p/w) and datum head (z) of
Solution
a flowing liquid with respect to some reference point, and is obtained by joining top of all
vertical ordinates showing pressure head (p/w) of a flowing liquid, from the centre of pipe (Fig A
V12/2g TEL
9.6). Slope of H.G.L., i = h/L., where L is the length of the pipeline from A to B.
A HGL
V22/2g
a
h
V1 B
L1 b
B D1
V2
L2 C
D2 c
Fig 9.6: Hydraulic Gradient Line Fig 9.8
Let V1 and V2 be the velocities in the 150mm and 250mm diameter pipes
9.4.2 Total Energy Line (T.E.L)
respectively.
Total energy line (or Energy Gradient Line, E.G.L.) is defined as the line which gives the
Due to continuity,
sum of pressure head, datum head and kinetic energy of a flowing liquid in a pipe, with respect 2 2
to some reference point. (Fig 9.7) π 2 π D   250  25
D1 V1  D 22 V2 , or V1   2  V2    V2 , or V1  V2
4 4 D
 1  150  9
A (i) Loss of head at ‘a’ entrance to 150mm pipe,
V12/2g T.E.L.
2
V12  25  V
2
V2
V22/2g  0.5  0.5  2  3.858 2
a H.G.L. 2g  9  2g 2g
V32/2g (ii) Frictional head loss ‘a-b’ in 150mm pipe,
V1, L1, f1, D1 b 2
B 4f 1 L1 V12 4  0.01  6 V12 V2  25  V
2
V2
V2, L2, f2, D2 c      1.6 1  1.6  2  12.346 2
d D1 2g 0.15 2g 2g  9  2g 2g
Fig 9.7: Total Energy Line V3, L3, f3, D3
5 pmk 6 pmk
 (iii) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement ‘b’, L1, L2 and L3 the lengths of the pipes
V1  V2 2 V 2  25 
2
V2 V1, V2 and V3 the velocities in the respective pipes
 2   1  3.160 2 If hf1, hf2 and hf3 are the head losses in the respective pipes, the total head loss is
2g 2g  9  2g
given by;
(iv) Frictional head loss ‘b-c’ in 250mm diameter pipe, hf = hf1+hf2+hf3
4f L V 2 4  0.01  15 V22 V2 4fL V 2 4f1 L1 V12 4f 2 L 2 V22 4f 3 L 3 V32
 2 2 2    2.40 2 or        …(i)
D2 2g 0.25 2g 2g D 2g D 1 2g D2 2g D3 2g
(v) Loss of head at entrance to lower reservoir ‘c’, If f1=f2 = f3 = f,
V2 V2 Discharge Q = a1V1 = a2V2 = a3V3
 2  1.0 2
2g 2g π π π
Or Q  D12 V1  D 22 V2  D 32 V3
V22 2
4 4 4
Total head loss = 3.858  12.346  3.160  2.40  1.0  22.764 V2 4Q 4Q 4Q
2g 2g  V1  , V2  , V3  ,
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to A and B; πD12 πD 22 πD 32
Total energy at A = Total energy at B+losses Substituting in equation (i):
or H = 0+losses  4Q 
2
 4Q 
2
 4Q 
V2 4fL1  2  4fL 2  2  4fL 3  2 
or 6  22.764 2  πD1   πD 2   πD 3 
2g hf   
d 1  2g d 2  2g D 3  2g
 V2  2.274m / s
Discharge Q = a2V2 4  16fQ 2  L1 L 2 L 3 
     …(ii)
π π 2  2g  D15 D 52 D 53 
  D 22  V2
4 Head loss in equivalent pipe,
π 4fLV 2
  0.25 2  2.274  0.112m 3 /s hf  , (assuming f is the same as in a compound pipe)
4 2gD
Actual head losses: Q Q 4Q
V2 where v   
(i) Loss at entrance to 150mm pipe = 3.858 2  3.858  0.2635  1.02m a πD 2 / 4 πD 2
2g L = length of pipe = L1+L2+L3
2
V22  4Q 
(ii) Frictional loss in 150mm pipe = 12.346  12.346  0.2635  3.25m 4fL  2 
 πD   4  16fQ  l 
2
2g
 hf  …(iii)
V 2
2gD π  2g  D 5 
2

(iii)Loss at sudden enlargement = 3.160 2  3.160  0.2635  0.84m

2g Taking head loss in compound pipe as equal to that of equivalent pipe,
V2 4  16fQ 2  L1 L L  4  16fQ 2  L 
(iv) Frictional loss in 250mm pipe = 2.40 2  2.40  0.2635  0.63m   2  3  2
2g π 2  2g  D1 5 D 2 5 D 3 5  π  2g  d 5 
V2 L L L L
(v) Loss at entrance to lower reservoir = 1.0 2  1.0  0.2635  0.26m Or  1  2  3 …(9.9)
2g D 5 D1 5 D 2 5 D 3 5
Total head loss = 6.00m (difference between the two reservoirs). Equation (9.9) is known as Dupuit’s equation.
Note: Discharge if minor losses are neglected would depend on the velocity based
4f L V 2 4f L V 2 Example: 9.2 Three pipes of lengths 800m,500m and 400m and of diameters 500mm, 400mm
on the following equation: H  1 1 1  2 2 2
2gD1 2gD 2 and 300mm respectively are connected in series. These pipes are replaced by a single pipe of
length 1700m. Determine the diameter of the single pipe.
9.5 Flow Through Pipes in Series
An equivalent pipe when pipes are connected in series is defined as the pipe of uniform Solution
L L L L
diameter having loss of head and discharge equal to the loss of head and discharge of a  1  2  3
compound pipe consisting of a different lengths and diameters. D 5 D15 D 2 5 D 3 5
Consider a compound pipe as shown in Fig 9.9. 1700 800 500 400
  
1 2 3 D5 0.5 5 0.4 5 0.35
D  0.007118
5

 D  0.3718m
V1, D1 ,L1 V2, D2, L2 V3 , D3 ,L3

Fig 9.9: Pipes in Series

Let : D1, D2 and D3 be the diameters of component pipes
7 pmk 8 pmk
9.6 Flow Through Parallel Pipes d5 1
Suppose a main pipe branches at section 1-1 into two lengths L1 and L2, and of diameters or   0.25
D5 4
D1 and D2, and again unite at section 2-2 to form a single pipe as shown in Fig 9.10
d
 0.25  0.7578
1/ 5
Q1, L1, V1, D1 or
D
 d  0.7578D  227 say 230mm
1 2
Q Q 9.7 Flow Through a By-Pass (or Diversion)
A by-pass is a small diameter pipe connected in parallel to the main pipe. The ratio of the
1 2
discharge in the by-pass to the total discharge is known as the by-pass coefficient. The by-pass
may be used to determine the total discharge in the main pipe if the by-pass coefficient is
known. Since the discharge in a by-pass is small, it may be easily determined by using a
Q2, L2, V2, D2
venturimeter or any other measuring meter.
Fig 9.10: Pipes in Parallel Consider a bye-pass connected to a main pipe as shown in Fig 9.11. Let Q be the discharge
In the arrangement shown, the two pipes of lengths L1 and L2 are in parallel, and Q divides through the main pipe, and q the discharge through the by-pass, between sections 1-1 and 2-2.
into components Q1 andQ2, The total discharge in the main pipe just before the by-pass is (Q+q).The by-pass coefficient
Q1 +Q2 = Q according to the definition is{q/(Q+q)}.
Loss of head at sections 1-1 and section 2-2 is equal to the loss of head in any one of the v, d
branched pipes.
 hf  hf1  hf 2 1 2
4f 1 L1 V12 4f 2 L 2 V22
Or  …(i)
2gD1 2gD 2 D V
1 2
Q 4Q 16Q 2 Fig 9.11: By-pass
But V  Q/a   , or V 2  2 4
π 2 πD 2
π D
D Let l, d, and v be the length, diameter and velocity respectively for the by-pass. Then L,D
4 and V are the corresponding values respectively for the main pipe. Since the main pipe and the
Also f  f 1  f 2 by-pass are in parallel between sections 1-1 and 2-2,
Substituting in equation (i) : Head loss in main pipe = head loss in by-pass
4fl116Q12 4fl 2 16Q 22 4fLV 2 4fLv 2 v2
   k' …(i)
2gD15 2gD 52 2gD 2gd g
Q12 L 2 D15  v2 
   where k'   represents loss of head at inlet and outlet sections of the
Q 22 L1 D 52  g 
It should be observed that if a number of pipes are connected in parallel, the total diversion (main losses in the by - pass due to bends, meter etc.)
loss of head in the system is equal to the loss of head in any one of the pipes. Dividing both sides of equation (i) by (4f/2g),
Total loss of head in the above system,
 L 2 L 2
 V    v  kv
2
= loss of head from section 1-1 to section 2-2 …(ii)
Also hf = hf1 = hf2 = hf3 = hf4 D d
Total discharge, k
where k 
Q = Q1+Q2+Q3+Q4 4f
fL1Q12 fL 2 Q 22 fL 3 Q 32 fL 4 Q 24 Equation (ii) may be written as,
 hf     …(9.10)  V2 
3.0257D1 3.0257D 2 3.0257D 3 3.0257D 54
5 5 5 D L 
 2     k
v  L d 
Example: 9.3 It is intended to use 300mm diameter pipes as the mains for distribution of water From the continuity equation,
in a city. But since pipes over 250mm diameter are not available, it is decided to use two  
Q D 2 V and q  d 2 v
parallel mains of the same diameter. Determine the diameter of the parallel mains pipes. 4 4
Substitute values in equation (iii),
Solution: Q2 / D4 D  L 
Let D = diameter of originally planned single main = 300mm    k
q2 / d4 Ld 
d = diameter of each parallel main, with discharge of each = Q/2
5
L = length of each pipe Q  D   L  dk 
Since the head loss in the two arrangements is the same,     
2
q d  L 
Q Adding unity to both sides,
2
fL 
fLQ 2
hf    
3.0257D 5 3.0257d 5
9 pmk 10 pmk
 5 below 3.0m of water, determine : (a) the minimum depth of the pipe below the summit of the
Q  D   L  dk 
1  1     ridge. (b) the discharge. Take f = 0.006, and atmospheric pressure head as 10.3m of water.
q d  L 
5
Qq  D   L  dk  x
 1     8m C
q d  L 
q 1 A
  …(9.11)
Qq 5
 D   L  dk  40m
1    
d  L  B
Equation (9.11) gives the expression for the by-pass coefficient.
Note. Sometimes the by-pass coefficient is defined as {(Q+q)/q}. Fig 9.12

Solution
Example: 9.4 A by-pass 125mm in diameter and 100mm long is installed along a main pipe Given: Diameter of siphon, D = 0.2m
2.5m in diameter. The length of the main pipe between the inlet and exit of the by-pass is 10m. Difference in two levels between two reservoirs, h = 40m.
(i) If the minor losses in the by-pass are equivalent to the frictional loss in a length of 2.5m, Total length of pipe, L = 8000m
determine the by-pass coefficient (ii) If the discharge in the by-pass is 0.0015m3/s, determine the Height of ridge above water level in upper reservoir = 8m
discharge in the main. Coefficient of friction, f = 0.006
Solution: Length of siphon from upper reservoir to summit, L1 = 500m
Minor losses in the by-pass = frictional loss in the 2.5m length of by-pass Let: Depth of pipe below summit of ridge in upper reservoir = xm
v2 4fLv 2 4f  2.5  v 2  Height of siphon above water level in upper reservoir = (8-x)m
Or k'     Pressure head at C = Pc/w = 3.0m of water absolute
g 2gd d  2g 
Atmospheric pressure head, Pa/w = 10.3m of water
k ' 2.5 Applying Bernoulli’s equation to points A and B, and taking datum line through B,
   k or kd  2.5
4f d we have:
p A VA2 p V2
  z A  B  B  z B  head loss due to friction from A to B
w 2g w 2g
From equation (9.11), 4fLV 2
or 0  0  40  0  0  0 
q 1 2gD

Qq 5
 D   L  dk  4  0.006  8000  V 2
1      40 
d  L  2  9.81  0.2
or V  0.904m/s
1 1
  Now apply Bernoulli’s equation to points A and C and assume datum line passing
5
 2.5   10  2.5  2001 through A:
1    
 0.125   10  p A VA2 p V2
  z A  C  C  z C  head loss due to friction from A to C
1 w 2g w 2g
 The by - pass coefficient 
2001 Substituting pA/w and pC/w in terms of absolute pressure:
Discharge in the main = q×2001 = 0.0015 ×2001 = 3.002m3/s V2 4fLV 2
10.3  0  0  3.0  c  8  x  
2g 2gD
9.8 Siphon
0.904 2 4  0.006  500  0.904 2
A siphon is long bent pipe employed for conveying water from a reservoir at a higher 10.3  3.0   8  x  
elevation to another reservoir at lower elevation when the two reservoirs are separated by a 2  9.81 2gd
ridge or high level ground in between them.  x  3.24m
The highest point of the siphon is called a summit and the pressure at this point is lower (ii) Discharge, Q = area × velocity
than atmospheric pressure. Pressure at the summit should not be less than about 2.7m of water π
  0.2 2  0.904  0.0283m 3 /s
absolute otherwise dissolved air and other gases would come out from water and collect at the 4
summit. Hence a siphon should be laid such that no section of the pipe will be more than 7.6m
(i.e.10.3m-2.7m =7.6m) above the hydraulic gradient at that section. In order to limit reduction
of pressure at the summit, the length of the inlet leg (rising portion of the siphon) of the siphon
is also limited so as to reduce frictional head.

Example: 9.5 A siphon of diameter 200mm connects two reservoirs whose water surface levels
differ by 40m as shown in Fig 9.12. The total length of the pipe is 8km. The pipe crosses a ridge
which is 8m above the level of water in the upper reservoir and the length of the siphon from the
upper reservoir to the ridge is 500m. If the absolute pressure head at the summit is not to fall
11 pmk 12 pmk
 9.9 Transmission of Power by Pipeline d ( p)
Power transmission through pipes by flowing water depends on; 0
dV
(i) discharge
d   4fLV 3 
(ii) the total head available at the inlet of the pipe. or  wA HV    0
Consider a pipe AB connected to a tank as shown in Fig 9.13. dV   2gD 
 4fLV 2 
or wA H  3  0
 2gD 
H A B 4fLV 2
or H  3 0
V 2gD
L  4fLV 2 
or H  3h f  0  h f  2gD 
 
Fig 9.13  H  3h f
H
Let H = head of water available at the inlet of the pipe, m or h f  …(9.13)
L = length of the pipe, m 3
D = diameter of the pipe, m
V = velocity of water in the pipe, m/s Example: 9.6 A pipe of length 2000m is used for 150kW power transmission in which water has
hf = loss of head due to friction a pressure f 4500kN/m2 at the inlet. Determine the diameter of the pipe and efficiency of
f = coefficient of friction transmission if pressure drop over the length of pipe is 700kN/m2. Take f= 0.005.
Weight of water flowing through the pipe per second, Solution
W = wAV = wQ, …(i) Given: Length of pipe, L= 2000m
Coefficient of friction F= 0.005
πD 2
(where A = ) Power transmitted, P= 150kW
4 Pressure at inlet, p= 4500kN/m2
Net head of water available at the outlet B, (neglecting minor losses), Pressure drop= 700 kN/m2
hp = Total head at inlet- loss of head due to friction Pressure head at inlet,
= (H-hf) …(ii)
p 4500  10 3
 4fLV 2  H   458.716m
 where h f   w 9.81  10 3
 2gD  Loss of head,
Power supplied at the inlet = wQH …(iii) 700  10 3
Power transmitted at the outlet of the pipe, hf   71.356m
9.81  10 3
= weight of water per second head at outlet (i) Diameter of the pipe, D:
= wQhp …(iv) Head available at outlet of pipe = H  h f  458.716  71.356  387.36m
Efficiency of transmission,
Power transmitted, P  wQ( H  h f ) kW
wQh p h p
η  …(v) or 150 = 9.81Q387.36
wQH H where Q = discharge through the pipe (m3/s)
w = specific weight of water = 9.81kN/m3
Efficiency of transmission,  Q = 0.0395 m3/s
hp H  hf h π
η   1 f …(9.12) But Q = AV = D 2  V
H H H 4
or h f  1  ηH 0.395  4
2
0.0503
or V  2
 …(i)
πD D2
 Condition for maximum power transmission
4fLV 2
From equation (iv), power transmitted at the outlet of the pipe, Head lost due to friction, h f 
wQ hp = wQ(H-hf) = wAV(H-hf) 2gD
πd 2  4fLV 2  4  0.005  2000V 2 2.0387V 2
=w  V H   or 71.356  
4  2gD  2  9.81  D D
Substituting value of V from equation (i),
 4fLV 3  2
= wA HV   2.0387  0.0503  5.158
 2gD  71.356    
D  D2  D5
It is evident from the above equation that power transmitted depends upon the velocity of 5
water V if other parameters are kept constant. or D  7.229  10
5

Power transmitted will be a maximum when:  D = 0.149m or 149mm

13 pmk 14 pmk
 (ii) Efficiency of transmission, η : 2gH a2
H  h f 458.716  71.356  v  2 …(9.14)
η   0.844 0r 84.4% :  4fL  A
H 458.716 1  
 D 
Discharge through nozzle, Q = av
9.10 Flow Through Nozzles
A nozzle is tapering mouthpiece, which is fitted to the outlet end of a pipe, as
shown in Fig 9.14.  Power Transmitted Through Nozzle

Mass of liquid at outlet of nozzle/s, m = ρav

1 1 1
Kinetic energy of the jet at the outlet of the nozzle = mv 2  ρav v 2  ρav 3
H V 2 2 2
v 1
Power available at the outlet of the nozzle = ρav 3 watts
Pipe dia. D Nozzle dia. d 2
Power available at the inlet of the pipe = wQH
Fig 9.14 Efficiency of power transmission from the nozzle,
The total energy at the end of the pipe consists of pressure energy and kinetic power available at the outlet of nozzle
energy. By fitting a nozzle at the end of the pipe, the total energy is converted into η
power available at the inlet of pipe
kinetic energy. Nozzles are used where higher velocities of flow are required, such as at
1
the end of a penstock in case of Pelton wheel turbine or at the end of a hose of a fire ρav 3
extinguisher.  2
For the nozzle shown, wQH
Let H = height of water level in the reservoir above centerline of the nozzle But w = ρg and Q = av
L = length of the pipe 1  
ρav 3
D = diameter of the pipe v2  1 
d = diameter of the nozzle  η 2   
ρg  av  H 2gH  4fL a 2 
V = velocity of flow in the pipe 1  2
 D A 
v = velocity of flow at outlet of nozzle
hf = loss of head due to friction in the pipe 2gH
 v …(9.15)
f = coefficient of friction for the pipe 4fL a 2
Loss of head due to friction in the pipe, 1  2
D A
4fLV 2
hf 
2gD  Condition for Maximum Power Transmission Through Nozzle
Head available at the end of the pipe (or at the base of the nozzle), Energy head available at the end of the nozzle,
= head at inlet of pipe - head lost due to friction  4fLV 2 
H-hf = H  
 4fLV 2   2gD 
= H-hf =  H  
 2gD  As the water flows out of nozzle, this energy head is converted into kinetic
Neglecting minor losses and assuming losses in the nozzle are negligible: energy head.
Total head at inlet of pipe = total head (energy) at the outlet of the Ignoring losses in the nozzle,
nozzle+losses v2
H-hf =
v2 2g
But total head at outlet of nozzle = kinetic head =
2g Power available at outlet of the nozzle,
v2 v 2 4fLV 2  4fLV 2  v2 1 1
 H  hf    h f   P = wav = ρav 3  ρav  v 2
2g 2g 2gD  2gD  2g 2 2
From continuity equation in the pipe and outlet of nozzle, where v2 = 2g(H-hf)
av 1   4fLV 2 
AV  av or V   P = ρav 2g H  
A 2   2gD 
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get
 4fLV 2 
or P = wav  H   …(9.16)
2
 2gD 
v 2 4fL  av  v 2 4fLa 2 v 2 v 2  4fLa 2 
H       1  
2g 
From continuity equation,
2g 2gD  A  2g 2gD  A 2 DA 2  av
AV = av or V=
A
Substitute value of V in Equation (9.16),
15 pmk 16 pmk
  4fL a 2 v 2  Thus for maximum power transmission through a nozzle, the diameter of the nozzle is
P = wav  H    given by Equation (9.19)
 2gD A 2 
dp Example: 9.7: A nozzle is fitted to a pipe of diameter 100mm and 300m long, the coefficient of
Power transmitted will be a maximum when 0
dv friction being o.o1. If the head available at the head of the nozzle is 120m, determine the
d   4fL a 2v2  diameter of the nozzle and the maximum power transmitted by a jet of water discharging freely
or  wav H   2   0 out of the nozzle.
dv   D  2g A  Solution
d   4fL a v 
2 3 Given: Length of pipe, L= 300m
or  wa  Hv     0 Coefficient of friction f = 0.01
dv   D  2g A 2 
Head of water, H= 120m
4fL  a2 v 2 2  Diameter of the pipe, D= 100mm=0.1m
or H  3  v2  0  2  V 
D  2g  A  (i) Diameter of the nozzle for maximum power, d:
1/ 4
 D5   0.105 
1/ 4

d       = 0.0254m
 4fLV 2
 8fL    
or H-3hf = 0  h f     8 0.01 300
 2gD  Or d = 25.4mm
H (ii) Maximum power transmitted by the jet, P:
 hf  …(9.17) H
3 For maximum power transmission, head lost due to friction =
Equation (9.17) indicates that the power transmitted by a nozzle is maximum when the 3
head lost due to friction in pipe is equal to one-third the total head supplied at the inlet 120
Available head, h = 120   80m
of the pipe. 3
Velocity of water through the nozzle,
 Diameter of the Nozzle for Maximum Power Transmission v  2gh  2  9.81  80  39.618m / s
Total head available at reservoir,
Power, P = wQH = wavH  Q  av 
v2
H  hf  
2g = 103  9.81   0.02542  39.618  80W =15.755kW
4
But H  3h f Or P =15.755 kW
v2 v2
 3h f  h f  or 2h f  9.11 Moody Diagram
2g 2g
Head loss due to friction in steady uniform flow is given by Darcy-Weisbach equation
2  4fLV 2
v 2
as;
or 
2gD 2g λLV 2
From continuity equation, hf  (∵ λ =4f) …(i)
2gD
av
AV = av or V= where λ is a non-dimensional coefficient, which for turbulent flow can be shown to be a
A VD
2  4fL a 2 v 2 v 2 function of k/D, the relative roughness, and Reynolds number Re ( R e  ); k is the
  2  υ
2gD A 2g effective roughness size of the wall.
A 2 8fL A 8fL For laminar (or viscous) flow, (Re  2100), hf can be obtained theoretically in the form
or  or  …(9.18) of Hagen-Poiseuille equation:
a2 D a D
32μLV
hf  …(ii)
Equation (9.18) gives the ratio between the areas of the supply pipe and the nozzle for ρgD 2
maximum power transmission through the nozzle. Equating equations (i) and (ii);
Substituting the values of A and a in Equation (9.18) and simplifying: λLV 2 32μLV
2 
π 2  2gD ρgD 2
4 D  8fL 32μLV 2gD 64μ
π    λ  
 d 
2 D ρgD 2 LV 2 ρgD
 4 
64  VD μ
D 4 8fL or λ  R e  ; υ  
or  or D5=8fLd4 Re  υ ρ
d4 D
1/ 4
In the case of turbulent flow, experimental work on smooth pipes by
  D5  Blasius (1913) yielded the relationship;
d    …(9.19)
 8fL 

17 pmk 18 pmk
 0.3164 Solve equations (i) and (ii) simultaneously to obtain solution to the
λ 1/ 4
…(iii) problem.
Re
Direct substitution of λ from equation (i) into (ii) yields a complex
Later work by Prandtl and Nikuradse on smooth and artificially roughened
implicit function in velocity V which can only be evaluated by trial or
pipes revealed three zones of turbulent flow:
graphical interpolation.
(i) Smooth turbulent zone in which the frictional factor λ , is a function of
A simpler computational procedure is obtained if terms other than frictional
Reynolds number only and expressed by;
head loss in equation (i) are initially ignored. Then equation (vii) can be
1 R λ used to obtain an approximate value of velocity V.
 2 log e …(iv)
λ 2.51  
(ii) Transitional turbulent zone in which λ is a function of both k/D and Re. hf  k 2.51υ 
(iii) Rough turbulent zone in which λ is a function of k/D only and expressed Thus V  2 2gD log   …(iii)
by; L  3.7D h 
 D 2gD f 
1 3.7D  L 
 2 log …(v)
λ k hf 50
But hf = H =50;   0.01
Equations (iv) and (v) are known as the Karman-Prandtl equations. L 5000
Colebrook and White (1939) found the function resulting from addition of the  0.03  10 -3 2.51  1.13  10 6 
rough and smooth equations (iv) and (v) in the form;  V  2 2  9.81  0.2  0.01 log   
 3.7  0.2 0.2 2  9.81  0.2  0.01 
1  k 2.51 
 2 log    …(vi)  1.564m/s
λ  3.7 D R e λ  Terms other than friction loss in equation (i) can now be evaluated.
fitted observed data on commercial pipes over the three zones of turbulent flow. The V2
hm = 11.5  1.435m , where hm denotes sum of minor head losses.
Colebrook- White equation was first plotted in the form of λ  R e diagram by 2g
Moody, and hence is generally referred to as the ‘Moody Diagram’. A better estimate of hf is thus hf = 50-1.435 = 48.565m
Combining the Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook- White equations, (i) and (vi), Again from equation (iii), V=1.541m/s
yields an explicit expression for the velocity V: Repeating until successive values of V are sufficiently close yields;
 k 2.51υ  V=1.541m/s, hf = 48.61m, and hm = 1.39m, so that Q = A×V= 48.41l/s
V  2 2gDS f log    …(vii) Convergence is usually rapid since friction loss usually predominates.
 3.7D D 2gDS f 
Example: 9.8: A uniform pipeline, 5000m long, 200mm in diameter and roughness size 0.03mm, (b) Use of Moody Chart
conveys water at 150C between two reservoirs as shown in Fig 9.15, the difference in water level This involves determination of Darcy friction factor. Minor losses need not
2
be neglected initially. However the solution is still iterative and an estimate of
between which is maintained constant at 50m.In addition to the entry loss of 0.5 V , a valve
2g the mean velocity is needed.
2 Estimate V=2.0m/s
produces a head loss 10 V . Determine the steady discharge between the reservoirs using: (a) VD 2  0.2
2g Re    3.54  10 5
υ 1.13  10 6
the Colebrook-White equation (b) the Moody diagram. Take the kinematic viscosity of water at
150C as 1.13×10-6m2/s. k 0.03  10 3
Relative roughness,   0.00015
D 0.2
A From Moody chart, λ = 0.015
2 Rearranging equation (i);
V
Velocity head = α 2gH
2g V …(iv)
λL
B 11.5 
D
Valve A better estimate of the velocity is given by;
2  9.81  50
V  1.593m / s
Fig 9.15 0.015  5000
11.5 
0.2
Solution
1.593  0.2
Apply Bernoulli’s equation to A and B: Revised R e   2.82  10 5
H = entry loss + velocity head + valve head loss + friction head loss 1.13  10 6
Hence λ =0.016 and equation (iv) yields V=1.54m/s
V2 V2 V 2 λLV 2
 0.5   10  …(i) (Further changes in λ due to small change in V will be undetected in Moody
2g 2g 2g 2gD diagram)
(a) Colebrook-White equation; Thus accept V= 1.54m/s, and Q = 48.41l/s
1  k 2.51 
 2 log    …(ii)
λ  3.7 D R e λ

19 pmk 20 pmk