GENERAL PROPERTIES OF WAVES

Waves → the transfer of energy without the transfer of matter

Classified into mechanical and electromagnetic

Mechanical like sound
Electromagnetic like light

Transverse
● The wave in which particles vibrate perpendicular (up and down ) to the direction of the
wave propagation
● Has crest and trough

Longitudinal
● The wave in which particles vibrate parallel ( back and forth ) to the wave propagation
● Compression and rarefaction

LONGITUDINAL TRANSVERSE

Sound waves Light waves

Needs a medium Can travel in vacuum ( does not need a

Cannot travel in vacuum medium

Particles vibrate parallel Particles vibrate perpendicular

Wave made from compressions and Wave is made from crest and trough
rarefaction

Amplitude → the maximum / minimum position distance a point moves from it rests
position

Wavelength → the distance between any 2 successive points on the wave

From crest to crest or
From compression to compression

Wave speed→ the distance moved by the wave in one second

Or the speed of the wave

Frequency → the number of waves passing at a certain point in one second

Period (T) → the time take to make a complete wave

 The relationship between velocity , frequency and wavelength

Wave speed = frequency x wavelength

V= f x ⅄
m/s Hz m

f=1/t
f= 1/time period
Hz seconds

Refraction of waves

Refraction is the change of direction of the wave when it enters from one medium to another
The wave speed and wavelength change but the frequency stays the same

From deep to shallow medium From shallow to deep medium

Speed increases Speed decreases

Wavelength decreases Wavelength increases

No change in frequency No change in frequency

Ray bends towards the normal Ray bends away from the normal
 Reflection of waves

→ angle of incidence = angle of reflection

The bending of the wave when they hit a reflecting surface
→ the law of reflection states that
● The angle of incidence(i) = the angle of reflection (r )
→ the angle of incidence
● Angle between the incident ray and normal of the reflection surface
→ the angle of reflection
● The angle between the reflected ray and the normal of the reflecting surface
→ the normal
● The line drawn perpendicular to the reflected surface at the point of incidence
● 90 degrees
The wave speed , wavelength , frequency , are constant only change is in the direction
of the wave

Diffraction of the waves

→ diffraction is when the waves pass thro a whole or opening in a barrier that is in their
way
– wave spread in all direction as they pass from the whole and the wave font becomes
circular
→ wave speed , wave length and frequency and the the same the only difference is th
eshape of the wave

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
→ the entire range of wavelengths or frequencies of electromagnetic radiation
● Electromagnetic waves are all transverse waves
● Electromagnetic waves travel through air and vacuum
Speed = 3 x10^8 m/s
➢ Radio Waves
➢ Microwaves
➢ Infrared
➢ Visible light
➢ Ultraviolet
➢ X- ray
➢ Gamma rays
 WAVE SOURCE USES HARM

Radio wave Radio and TV Broadcasting TV No harms

transmitters and radio programs

Microwaves Microwaves Cooking and Can heat body

transmitter and satellite tissue the same it
oven transmissions heats food

Infrared Hot objects Night visions and Causes skin burns

heaters , heat
sensitive thermal
imaging cameras ,
remote controls

Visible light The light we detect Optical fibers and No harm

with our eyes photography

Ultraviolet Sun and UV lamps Fluorescent lamps, Damage to the cell

sterilizer surgical surface and
equipment blindess

X - ray X- ray tubes Imaging bones Mutation , damage

Security check ( cells
metals )
Limit exposure
Avoided during
pregnancy and
wear lead shields
for protection

Gamma rays Radioactive Used to kill Mutation , damage

material cancerous cells cells
Sterilize food and
surgical equipment
PRECAUTIONS

Precautions while using gamma rays:

1- Use long tongs
2- Use lead aprons
3- Limit exposure time
4- Point source away from you.

Precautions while using X- rays:

1- Stand behind a screen
2- use a lead apron
3- avoid when pregnant
4- Large distance between from x-ray source.
 5- limit exposure time/ low dosage
6- Other people not allowed in the room when x-rays being taken
7- Monitor frequency of x- ray session

Gamma rays → highest frequency , shortest wavelength , highest energy

Radio waves → lowest frequency , highest wavelength , lowest energy

As we go from gamma to radio

→Wavelength increases
→Frequency decrease
→ Energy decreases

Electromagnetic waves VS sound waves

→ Electromagnetic waves can travel through a medium and vacuum but sound waves
can only travel through a medium
→ electromagnetic waves are transverse sound waves are longitudinal
→Electromagnetic waves travel faster than sound waves

Digital signals

→ Digital signals are used in transmitting data

→Signals that have 2 values only

In order to increase the data transfer

● Increase the frequency
● Increase the bandwidth
● Use additional bit rate
Analog signals : these are not digital signals , which means they do not have 2 values only
Light waves
Light waves characteristics
→ light waves travel with a speed of 3 x 10^8 m/s
→ light wave can travel through vacuum and air
→ light waves are transverse waves ( it is a electromagnetic wave)

Reflection of waves

The bending of the wave when they hit a reflecting surface

→ the law of reflection states that
● The angle of incidence(i) = the angle of reflection (r )
→ the angle of incidence
● Angle between the incident ray and normal of the reflection surface
→ the angle of reflection
● The angle between the reflected ray and the normal of the reflecting surface
→ the normal
● The line drawn perpendicular to the reflected surface at the point of incidence
● 90 degrees

REMEMBER
❖ When a wave reflects only the direction of the wave changes while the speed , frequency
and wavelength of the wave does not change as the wave is traveling in the same media
❖ The direction of the wave front is perpendicular to the direction of the incident and the
reflected rays

THE REFLECTED IMAGE FORMED ON A MIRROR

→ formed on distance behind the mirror equal to the distance between the mirror and the body
→ virtual image
→ laterally inverted
→ upright ( erect)
→ the same size of the object
REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Refraction : the change of direction of light when it passes from a medium to another medium
that has a different density
→ it occurs when the light travels from a less dense medium to a more dense medium or the
opposite

From less dense to higher dense medium

● The ray will bend towards the normal

● The angle of incidence is greater than the angle of refraction
→ angle i > angle r
● examples
→ air to glass
→ air to water
From higher dense to less dense

● The ray will bend away from the normal

● The angle of incidence will be less than the angle of refraction
→ angle i < angle r
● examples
→ glass to air
→ water to air

P.O.C HIGH DENSE TO LOW DENSE LESS DENSE TO HIGH DENSE

Direction of the bending Away from the normal Towards the normal

speed increases decreases

wavelength increase decreases

Frequency No change No change

EFFECT OF REFRACTION
→ an object in a high dense medium appears in a higher position thats it actual position

REFRACTIVE INDEX (n) :

→ The measure of the change of speed the waves experiences when it travels across a
boundary between 2 different media
→ the refractive index has no unit because it is a ratio between the speed of light in 2 different
media

Equation :
n= sin i / sin r
n= sin ( angle of incidence ) / sin ( angle of refraction )
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
→ during refraction some rays refract and other reflect internally
→ in total internal reflection all the rays reflect and no rays refract
→ total internal reflection happens when rays travel from higher density to lower density
medium

Conditions

→ total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is bigger than the critical angle

What is the critical angle

→ it is a value for the incident angle

→ at which refraction happens with 90 degrees

This only happens from a high dense medium into less dense medium
→ when the incidence angle (i) = the critical angle (c ) the refracted ray refracts perpendicular
on the normal (90 degrees)

Refractive index

Sin c = 1/n

Applications of total internal reflection

Optical fibers

→ used in communication and data transfer

● Light enters the fiber with an angle greater than the critical angle so total internal
reflection takes place till the light exits the optical fiber and image is formed on the other
side
● Optical fibers is a very thing piece of fiber composed of 2 different types of glass
● The center is made with glass that has a high refractive index surrounded by a different
type of glass with a lower refractive index

The light enters in the inner core and strikes the boundary of the 2 glass at an angle that
is greater than the critical angle

Endoscope

→ it is a medical device used to take images of the inside of a patient's body without the need of
surgery
● Depends on total internal reflection

Prism with 180 refection

→ 180 degrees reflection prism reflects the ray twice inside the prism as shown in the figure
Dispersion of light
→White light is composed of
➢ Red
➢ Orange
➢ Yellow
 ➢ Green
➢ Blue
➢ Indigo
➢ violet
→ white light is the combination of the colors above and it is the light that the human eye can
see

Dispersion of light : Is the separation of white color into the above combination ( color
mentioned above) using a prism

→ the light refracts twice

● Once it enters the prism and once it leaves the prism
● Red → refracted with the least angle , it has the highest speed and has the least
frequency and highest wavelength
● Violet → refracted with the most angle , lowest speed , most frequency and
lowest wavelength
● As we move from red to violet the frequency increases and wavelength
decreases
● Above red is infrared radiation can be detected by thermometer ( temp rises in
this area)
● Under violet is ultraviolet radiation , can be detected by photographic films (
making it black )

SOUND
→ sound waves are longitudinal waves
→ sound waves are produced as a result of vibrating objects
→ need a medium to travel thro cannot travel in vacuum
→ the speed of sound depends on the medium it is in

Sound waves are classified into 3 categories

1- infrasound = below 20 Hz
2- audible sound = in range of 20 Hz up to 20000 Hz
3- Ultrasounds = about 20000 Hz

Humans can only hear audible sound

Longitudinal waves

→ particles vibrate parallel to the wave propagation

→ ade from compression and rare fraction

Compressions : the area where the particles are close together and have a high pressure
Rare fraction : the area where the particles are far apart from each other and have less pressure

Wave properties

1- frequency : the number of complete waves per second

2- amplitudes : the maximum/ minimum distance a point moves from its rest positions

How wave properties affect sound

Pitch - how high or low the sounds i

The pitch of the sound depends on the frequency and sound wave
The higher the frequency of the wave the higher the sound vice versaZ

Loudness - how loud or soft the sound is

The loudness of sound depends on the amplitude of the wave
The larger the amplitude the lound the sounder and vise versa

Pitch and frequency are directly proportional

Loudness and amplitude are directly proprotinal

Echo

→ when the sound is reflected and re heard after a short time of hearing the original sound
→ it is similar to the original sound reflected
→ sound can be reflected by flat walla , cliffs and hills
→ sound cannot be reflected by soft materials like sponge
→ between the echo and the original sound there is a delay
→ the speed of sound in air is 330m/s

How to measure the speed of sound in air

Direct method

1. 2 people stand abt 1km away from each other , the distance is measured using a
measuring tape
2. Person A fires the gun and person B starts the stop watch once he sees the smoke and
stops the stop watch once he hears the gunshot
3. Then speed = distance . time
4. Repeat and take average

The echo method

1. A person stands 50m from a flat wall . distance measure using a measuring tape
2. The person claps or throws a stick and then immediately starts the stop watch and stops
it once he or she hears the echo
3. Speed = distance x 2 / time
4. Distance is timed by 2 because the sound will travel once from the person to the wall
and from the wall to the person
5. Repeat and take average
6. The longer the distance the more accurate the results are

Oscilloscope
A device that converts sound waves into a graph to be able to study the properties of sound
waves
The oscilloscope is connected to a microphone that detects the sound
The settings are then adjusts and the graph is observed

Doppler effect

The sound pitch changes as the sound sources moves towards/ away from the observer