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The Late Cretaceous Impact of the Trindade Mantle Plume: Evidence from
Large-volume, Mafic, Potassic Magmatism in SE Brazil

Article in Journal of Petrology · February 1995

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 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 36 NUMBER I PAGES .89-229

S. A. GIBSON1*, R. N. THOMPSON1, O. H. LEONARDOS2, A. P. DICKIN3 AND J. G. MITCHELL4

'DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM, SOUTH ROAD, DURHAM DHi 3LE, UK
"DEPARTMENTO DE GEOQUIMICA E RECURSOS MINERAIS, INSTITUTO DE GEOCIENCIAS, UNIVERSIDADE DE BRASILIA,
70910 BRASILIA DF, BRAZIL
'DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY, McMASTER UNIVERSITY, is8o MAIN STREET WEST, HAMILTON, ONTARIO, CANADA L8S 4M1
'DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, THE UNIVERSITY, NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE NEi 7RU, UK.

The Late Cretaceous Impact of the

Trindade Mantle Plume: Evidence from
Large-volume, Mafic, Potassic
Magmatism in SE Brazil
When the subcontinental lithospheric mantle undergoes heating remobilization of subcontinental lithospheric mantle that had
and/or extension, some of the earliest mafic melts to be generated been enriched by small-volume K-rich melt fractions since the
are those rich in volatiles and potassium. In some cases, e.g. Late Proterozoic.
when a plume impinges on thick cratonic lithosphere or when New K/Ar ages for mica separates show that the kimberlites,
the amount of extension is very small, K-rich mafic igneous madupitic olivine lamproites and kamafugitic rocks were
rocks may be the only surface expression of mantle melting. The emplaced together with large carbonatite-bearing plutonic com-
Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province, in SE Brazil, is one of the plexes at ~ 85 Ma. Reconstructions ofplate motions show that,
world's most voluminous mafic potassic provinces (>15000 at this time, the location of the Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province
km3), which until recently was relatively unknown. The mag- coincided with the postulated position of the present-day Trin-
mas were emplaced into a narrow Proterozoic mobile belt close dade (or Martin Vaz) plume. We propose that the widespread
to the surface margin of the Sao Francisco craton, and it is one Late Cretaceous alkaline magmatism in SE Brazil may have
of several Cretaceous alkaline igneous provinces that are located been caused by impingement of this plume on the base of the
around the margin of the Parana sedimentary basin in Brazil subcontinental lithosphere. Heat penetrating the lithosphere, both
and Paraguay. by conduction and advection by asthenospheric-source decom-
Detailed geochemical analyses ofsamplesfrom throughout the pression melts, may have caused melting of the readily fusible
Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province show that it is composed of a parts of the lithospheric mantle and the genesis of mafic potassic
relatively diverse suite of ultrapotassic-potassic, ultramafic— and (afterfractionation) carbonatite magmas. The Proterozoic
mafic, silica-undersaturated lavas and hypabyssal intrusions, mobile belt (the Brasilia Belt) appears to have acted as a
i.e. kimberlites, madupitic olivine lamproites and kamafugitic 'thinspot' relative to the adjacent Sao Francisco craton, allowing
rocks. These all have very high concentrations of incompatible greater upwelling and melting of the asthenosphere. Sub-
trace elements and are all strongly enriched in light rare earth sequently, as the craton passed over the plume, volcanism was
relative to heavy rare earth elements (e.g. La/Tb = 50-230). 'switched off' until the Early Tertiary when the plume re-
Wide variations in major element ratios, which are unrelated to emerged from beneath the westward drifting South America
the effects of crystal fractionation in these magmas (e.g. CaO/ continent and was the magma source for oceanic-islands and
AI2O3), suggest that the mafic potassic rocks were derived from seamounts of the Trindade-Vitoria chain.
a heterogeneous mantle source. They show relatively restricted
ranges of initial 87Sr/86Sr (0-70436-0 -70588) and zNit5
values of —4 to —8, intermediate between Group I and II INTRODUCTION
South African kimberlites. T^DM Nd isotope model ages of It is now a widely accepted belief that volatile-rich,
~900 Ma suggest that the magmas were derived by the mafic potassic magmas represent some of the earliest

•Corresponding author I Oxford University Press 1995

 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 36
melts to be generated when the lithospheric mantle
undergoes heating and/or extension (e.g. McKenzie,
1989; Thompson et al., 1990; Dudas, 1991; Latin &
Waters, 1992; Gibson et al., 1993). Exceptions to this
include regions that have experienced voluminous
precursor magmatism, such as in parts of the Rio
Grande rift and the Cameroon Line (Gibson et al.,
1992). In previous studies we have documented the
relationship of mafic potassic magmas with zones of
lithospheric mantle extension and thinning (Gibson
etal., 1993; Thompson & Gibson, 1994). One of the
conclusions of this work was that mafic potassic melts
are generated by very small amounts of lithospheric
thinning and so can be used to monitor the width of
extensional zones. Most of the detailed studies con-
cerning the relationship between mantle plumes and
the origins of continental and oceanic magmas have
focused on large-volume tholeiitic magmas, such as
those that form continental flood basalts and oceanic
plateaux (e.g. Storey et al., 1989; Peate et al., 1990;
Ellam & Cox, 1991), rather than mafic potassic
rocks. The generation of these voluminous magmas
has been accounted for by three contrasting models:
(1) plume impact on the base of the lithospheric
mantle accompanied by large-scale melting of the
former (Richards et al., 1989; Campbell & Griffiths,
1990); (2) widespread melting of hydrated litho-
spheric mantle by a plume (Gallagher &
Hawkesworth, 1992); (3) decompression melting of a
hot plume-head beneath a region already under-
going extension as a result of external plate motions
(White & McKenzie, 1989). In each case, some of
the earliest melts to be generated from the litho-
sphere are of a relatively small volume and are those
whose sources are readily fusible. Also, when a
plume impinges beneath a thick craton, the amount
of asthenospheric upwelling and degree of melting
may be relatively small, so that readily fusible, vola-
tile-rich melts may be the only surface magmatic
expression. These melts are typically mafic and
potassic, and crystallize at or near the surface to
form rocks such as kimberlites and lamproites. When
a plume impinges beneath continental lithosphere of
variable thickness the amount of decompression
melting will be greater beneath the thinner rather
than the thicker lithospheric segments (e.g.
Thompson & Gibson, 1991). Therefore, mafic potas-
sic melts will typically be concentrated on the era-
tonic margins, where the lithosphere may be slightly
thinner and allow modest asthenospheric upwelling,
relative to beneath the centre of the craton.
Potassic-rich mafic melts contain xenoliths that
are derived from deep in the Earth's mantle and,
together, they provide important direct information
about its composition. Furthermore, volatile-rich,
190
NUMBER I FEBRUARY 1995
small-fraction melts represent some of the most
extreme products of mantle enrichment processes
and usually have very high concentrations of incom-
patible trace elements. This contrasts with the relat-
ively low incompatible element concentrations that
are typical of many continental flood basalts.
Because of this, open-system processes (such as crus-
tal contamination) have little or no effect on the
whole-rock chemistry and radiogenic isotope sig-
nature of mafic potassic rocks. The susceptibility of
continental flood basalts to geochemical overprinting
by post-genesis processes has resulted in recent con-
troversy over interpretations of their contributing
mantle sources. The study of small-fraction, volatile-
rich melts therefore provides a unique insight into
the composition of the mantle and enables us to
enhance our understanding of global geodynamic
processes (see Crough et al., 1980; England &
Houseman, 1984; Le Roex, 1986; McKenzie, 1989).
The Late Cretaceous Alto Paranaiba Igneous
Province, SE Brazil, is one of the world's largest and
relatively unknown mafic potassic igneous provinces.
Here we provide new detailed geochemical analyses,
together with K/Ar dates, and debate the cause of
this widespread magmatism, i.e. mantle plume vs
extension.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province (APIP) is one
of numerous provinces of Cretaceous alkaline
igneous rocks that occur around the margin of the
Ordovician-to-Cretaceous sedimentary Parana Basin
in Brazil and Paraguay (Fig. 1). As Fig. 1 shows, the
magmatism around the Parana Basin has a con-
siderable age range overall (see below). The APIP
has commonly been associated with a larger NW—
SE-trending zone of Late Cretaceous alkaline
igneous rocks that extends for 2000 km and coincides
with a series of Proterozoic mobile belts around the
northern margin of the Parana Basin (Herz, 1977;
Almeida, 1986; Almeida & Svisero, 1991). The
APIP lies at the SE end of this postulated zone, and
was emplaced into a narrow Proterozoic mobile belt
(the Brasilia Belt), close to the present-day surface
limit of the Archaean Sao Francisco craton (Fig. 2).
In SE Brazil, the Brasilia Belt masks the western
boundary of the Sao Francisco craton but, despite
this, gravity (Almeida et al., 1980; Pires, 1986) and
xenolith studies (Leonardos et al., 1993a) indicate
that the APIP lies well within the subsurface limits of
the craton. Preliminary results of a NW-SE tele-
seismic traverse, from the Sao Francisco craton across
the Brasilia Belt and the Parana Basin, suggest that
the present-day lithosphere thickness is > 130 km
 GIBSON et at. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL

AMAZONAS
CRATON

IPORA
PROVINCE
(80-90) SAO FRANCISCO
CRATON

PARANA
BASIN
SERRA DO MAR
PROVINCE
(54-80)
EASTERN PONTA GROSSA
PARAGUAY
PROVINCE PROVINCE
128-132 (67-132)

ANITAPOLIS
(132)

Fig. 1. Location of the Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province and the distribution ofother Cretaceous alkaline igneous provinces around the margin of
the Parana sedimentary basin [modified from Ulbrich & Gomes (1981) and Schobbenhaus et ol (1984)]. O . •—Early and Late Cretaceous com-
plexes, respectively. Ages of magmatism are shown in parentheses. These ages are either K/Ar determinations on mica separates or Ar/Ar whole-
rock determinations (see text for discussion). Data sources: Table 1; Sonoki & Garda (1988); Velazquez (1992); Basu et d. (1993); Renne et al. (1993) and
our unpublished data (Ipora Province and Lages). Inset shows the location of the Parana Basin and Sao Francisco craton together with other major
cratons and basins in Brazil.

'9'
 OME 36 NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY 1995

FRANCISCO
CRATON

Intrusions, pipes & plugs

Mata da Corda Fm (lavas & seds)
Plutonic complexes
Areado Fm
Serra Geral Fm (lavas & seds)
PROTEROZOIC
ARCHAEAN
THRUST
Fig. 2. lectonic setting of the Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province, in the Proterozoic Brasilia Belt that separates the Sao Francisco craton from the
Parana sedimentary basin [modified from Schobbenhaus et al. (1984)]. Sample locations of mafic alkaline rocks are as follows: B, Bocaina; CC,
Corrego do Douro; CV, Corrego Varjao; I, Indaia; L, Limeira; MA, Morro Alto; ML, Mata do Len<;o; P, Pantano; PV, P050 Verde; SB, Serra do
Bueno;TR,Tres Ranchos.

beneath the NE margin of the Parana Basin, and that
the crustal thickness of the craton to the west of the
APIP is ~40 km (James & Assumpcao, 1993).
The Sao Francisco craton is one of the major
shield areas on the South American platform (Fig.
1). Radiometric U/Pb dating of granitoid intrusions
and greenstone belt volcanism indicates that the
cratonic nucleus stabilized at — 2720 Ma (Machado
et al., 1992). In the Early Proterozoic (2060 Ma),
after a period of relative crustal stability, the south-
ern margin of the craton was affected by the Trans-
Amazonian orogeny. This major thermo-tectonic
event caused amphibolite-facies metamorphism and
partial melting of the Archaean crust (Machado et
al., 1992). A Pan-African ocean-floor igneous and
sedimentary sequence, the Araxa Group, developed
around the SW margin of the craton in the Middle
Proterozoic. Following the deposition of the upper-
most unit of this group (the Canastra Formation),
and before the deposition of shallow marine clastic
sediments of the Bambui Group, a major phase of
dyke emplacement occurred in the region (Sial et al.,
1987). Subsequently, in the Late Proterozoic
Brasiliano orogeny (400-750 Ma; Almeida, 1978),
both the Araxa and Bambui Groups were thrust
eastward over the Sao Francisco craton. This was
caused by the collision of the Sao Francisco and
Amazonia and/or the Rio de la Plata cratonic nuclei
during the amalgamation of the Gondwana super-
continent (Ramos, 1988; Pimentel & Fuck, 1992;
Unrug, 1992; Storey, 1993). The Proterozoic rocks
are at present preserved as a succession of thrust
slices, known as the Brasilia Belt (Almeida, 1967;
Schobbenhaus et al., 1984).

19a
 GIBSON et al. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL

The development of the large intra-cratonic variously described as kimberlites and lamproites
Parana Basin coincided with the end of the (e.g. Rinmann, 1917; Svisero et al., 1984; Barbosa,
Brasiliano orogeny (Ordovician-Silurian). There is 1991; Ramsay & Tompkins, 1994), and carbonatite-
no evidence as yet of a precursor central rift beneath bearing plutonic complexes (e.g. Silva et al., 1979;
the basin, and its initial subsidence may have been Rodrigues & Lima, 1984; Gomes et al., 1990).
caused by: (1) cooling of the Gondwana shield fol-
lowing the Brasiliano orogeny (Zalan et al., 1987), or
(2) an increase in crustal stresses during the break- FIELD CHARACTERISTICS
up of a Late Precambrian supercontinent (Klein & The APIP consists of a wide variety of igneous forms
Hsui, 1987). Further major extension of the Parana that include dykes, pipes, plugs, diatremes, lava
Basin occurred during the Carboniferous-Permian flows, pyroclastic deposits and large plutonic com-
and Jurassic-Cretaceous periods, together with the plexes. We have attempted to sample as many of
accumulation of up to 5 km of sediments (Zalan et these as possible, to obtain a representative suite of
al., 1987). The last phase of this process coincided magma types from this province. We shall briefly
with voluminous outpouring of tholeiitic magma of describe some of these occurrences below.
the Parana flood basalts between 137 and 127 Ma
(Turner et al., 1994). This magmatism is thought to Lavas
be related to lithospheric extension, linked to the rise By far the most voluminous surface manifestations of
of the Tristan plume, during the early opening of the mafic potassic magmatism in the APIP are the lavas
South Atlantic (White & McKenzie, 1989; and tuffs of the Mata da Corda Formation (Fig. 2).
O'Connor & Duncan, 1990; Peate et al., 1990). The Examples of preserved vent and crater facies of these
lack of evidence for strong uplift in the record of the lavas are present at Serra do Bueno and Presidente
Late Jurassic—Early Cretaceous basin sediments sug- Olegario. The lavas and tuffs outcrop throughout
gests that the basin was located on the outermost the whole of the province, from Presidente Olegario
flanks of the plume (Thompson & Gibson, 1991). in the north to Sao Gotardo and possibly Oliveira
Some of the alkaline rocks around the southern (Saadi et al., 1991) in the south (Fig. 2), and cover
margin of the Parana Basin (Fig. 1) appear to have an area of >4500 km2 (Leonardos et al., 1991). They
been emplaced at approximately the same time as overlie the Lower Cretaceous Areado Formation and
the flood basalts and may also be related to the same reach thicknesses of > 100 m in the Sao Gotardo-
thermo-tectonic event, e.g. Anitapolis (132 Ma, Quintinos—Carmo do Paranaiba region. The Mata
Renne et al., 1993) and Jacupiranga (132 Ma, Basu da Corda volcanics are usually weathered to a fertile
et al., 1993). The spatial and temporal relationship, brown soil that typically reaches several tens of
and the genesis, of these Early Cretaceous, small- metres in thickness and is often capped by a hard
and large-melt fractions forms part of our current lateritic crust. Nevertheless, fresh outcrops of the
work in progress and is beyond the scope of this volcanics occur in recent road cuttings and on steep
present study. slopes of the dissected escarpment of the Serra da
The flood basalts appear to have been associated Mata da Corda. Below is a brief discussion of our
with large sill complexes and dyke swarms (Peate et sample localities.
al., 1990). In SE Brazil, some of these dykes are
concentrated in a NW-SE-trending structural and Presidente Olegario
gravity high that coincides with the Brasilia Belt— The region around Presidente Olegario (18°25'S, 46°26'W; Fig. 2)
the Alto Paranaiba Arch (Costa & Sad, 1968; Hasui appears to have been the site of numerous volcanic centres from
et al., 1975). Costa & Sad (1968) used the arch to which thick sequences of lavas and tuffs were erupted (Leonardos
divide the Cretaceous sediments of the Bauru et al., 1991). The volcanic succession consists of many tens of
metres of amygdaloidal lava flows and pyroclastic rocks, which
Formation in the Parana Basin from those of the vary in dast size from ash to lapilli and blocks. The block-sized
Lower Cretaceous, and Mata da Corda Formations, ejecta consist of both volcanic and unexposed plutonic facies.
in the Sao Franciscan Basin. Thick diamond-bearing Abundant xenoliths of dunite, melilitite and pyroxenite are con-
conglomerate horizons are present in both of these centrated in selected tuff horizons. The sequence is cut by numer-
formations and may be evidence of rapid uplift and ous thin dykes and an intrusive feeder that has strongly disrupted
erosion throughout the region (Dardenne et al., 1991; the adjacent flat-lying Lower Cretaceous sandstones (Leonardos et
Gallo, 1991). The Late Cretaceous volcanic activity al., 1991).
was widespread, over an area of > 10 km , and
covered the arch region (Leonardos & Meyer, 1991). Patos de Minas-Carmo do Paranaiba
This volcanism was contemporaneous with the On the escarpments of the Serra da Mata da Corda, close to the
towns of Patos de Minas and Carmo do Paranaiba, numerous
intrusion of mafic potassic rocks (this work), outcrops of the Mata da Corda volcanics occur (Moraes el al.,

'93
 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 36 NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY I 9 9 5

1986; Seer et al., 1989). In this region the volcanic succession con- Corrego do Couro and Mono Alto
sists of interbedded lavas and pyroclastic deposits, with horizons These are small dykes, 10 km apart, that outcrop north of the
containing bombs and lapilli (e.g. Villa Real de Fonte). Olivine- town of Abadia dos Dourados (18°17'S, 47°32'W and 18°19'S,
rich, air-fall, crystal tuffs may also be seen. Some of the tuffaceous 47°29'W; Fig. 2). They are emplaced into mica schists of the
material appears to have been deposited by mass-flow processes, Araxa Group and are formed by massive porphyritic rocks con-
such as at Mata Burrinho. The volcanics in the Patos de Minas taining dunite xenoliths and abundant olivine macrocrysts.
and Carmo do Paranaiba area are cut by numerous thin ( ~ 5 cm
wide) olivine-phyric dykes containing phenocrysts up to 4 mm in
length that show evidence of flowage differentiation. Corrego Varjdo
The Corrego Varjao vent outcrops 14 km to the northwest of
One of the freshest outcrops is beside the road between Carmo
Carmo do Paranaiba, at Fazenda Grotao (18°54'S, 46° ^"W; Fig.
do Paranaiba and Quintinos, on a prominent mesa at the base of
2). It is ~25O m in diameter and is composed of volcanic
the escarpment (18°54'S, 46°10'W). This outlier consists ofa 20 m
agglomerates and breccias, lapilli and crystal tuffs. Blocks in the
thick succession of interbedded tuffs, agglomerates and lavas that
breccia include melilitite and picritic leucitite. The vent has been
overlie sandstones of the Lower Cretaceous Areado Formation. A
emplaced into, and has deformed, sandstones and conglomerates
wide variety of rock types is present, ranging in composition from
of the Lower Cretaceous Areado Formation (Seer et al., 1989).
olivine- to mica-phyric. The latter contains megacrysts (up to 2
cm) of phlogopite set in a fine-grained groundmass. Phlogopite
separates from the freshest of these lavas yielded a K/Ar age of Indaid 1and II
83-6 ± 1-4 Ma (Table 1). The Indaia intrusions are located between the towns of Monte
Carmelo and Coromandel (18°34'S, 47°28'W; Fig. 2). They are
Sao Gotardo emplaced into granitic gneisses and schists (Meyer et al., 1994).
Around the town of Sao Gotardo (Fig. 2), in the south of the Indaia I and II are very similar both in size and appearance to
APIP, the Mata da Corda volcanics are characterized by rich the Limcira intrusions (see below). Indaia I is an ultramafic
brown soils. Unfortunately, all of the lavas are deeply weathered intrusion that is ~200 m in diameter and contains xenoliths of
and unexposed, even on very steep slopes. The only fresh samples spinel lherzolite, dunite and harzburgite (Meyer et al., 1994).
of igneous rock in this region occur near Agro Villa (19°22'S, Indaia II is smaller (90 m in diameter) and much finer grained
49°06'W) as clasts in poorly exposed conglomerates of the than Indaia I.
Cretaceous Uberaba Formation. This unconformably overlies the
green and red shales and siltstones of the Proterozoic Bambui Limeira Iand II
Group. Hasui & Cordani (1968) have obtained K/Ar ages of 80 These intrusions are located a few kilometres to the NW of Indaia
and 87 Ma from similar clasts in this region. (Fig. 2). Limeira I is an elongate ultramafic intrusion (200
mX 175 m) and contains xenoliths of dunite, harzburgite and spi-
Intrusions, vents and deeply weathered nel lherzolite. Limeira II is a slightly smaller intrusion (75 m in
diameter) and outcrops 150 m north of Limeira I. This is finer
pipes grained than Limeira I and it is partially surrounded by a margin
The intrusions, vents and deeply weathered pipes of of fine-grained breccia (Meyer et al., 1994).
the APIP predominantly outcrop in two distinct
regions, around the towns of Coromandel in the Mata do Lengo
north and Bambui in the south (Fig. 2). The Mata do Lenc,o intrusion outcrops 10 km NE of Morro Alto,
Aeromagnetic maps show that hundreds of dipole 3 km NW of Morro Vermelho (18°17'S, 47°25'W; Fig. 2). It is a
anomalies are present in the APIP (Bosum, 1973). small intrusion, ~ 5 0 m in diameter, that was emplaced into mica
Some of these coincide with surface outcrops of schists of the Araxa Group (Tallarico et al., 1993). The Mata do
intrusive alkaline rocks or deeply weathered pipes, Lenijo intrusion is well exposed and is formed of a massive dark
porphyritic rock that exhibits local flow structures. It contains
which have been regarded variously as kimberlites xenoliths of glimmerite, harzburgite and dunite, and local country
and lamproites (Svisero et al., 1984; Barbosa, 1991). rock (Tallarico et al., 1993). Megacrystal phlogopite from the
Others, especially in the Coromandel area, are not Mata do Lenco intrusion yielded a K/Ar age of 83 Ma (Table 1).
connected with any exposed igneous rocks and may
represent evidence of hidden intrusive igneous Pdntano
activity in the APIP. The Pantano intrusion occurs ~ 4 3 km east of Coromandel and 32
km west of Patos de Minas (18°35'S, 46°50'W; Fig. 2). It has
Bocaina intruded schists of the Proterozoic Canastra Group. The intrusion
The Bocaina intrusion is located 15 km west of Davinopolis, at the has a sigmoidal shape (700 m x 250 m) and is slightly zoned with
intersection of the Paranaiba river with the Serra da Bocaina respect to the occurrence and abundance of diopside, monticellite
(18°09'S, 47°38'W; Fig. 2). The 3 m wide dyke was recently dis- and glass ocelli (Meyer et al., 1994). Hama et al. (1979) obtained a
covered in drill core and is associated with several brecciated pipes K/Ar whole-rock age of 80 Ma for this intrusion.
(Magalhaes & Moreira, 1989). These have been emplaced into
schists of the Araxa Group. The dyke contains numerous glim- Serra do Bueno
merite nodules (up to 5 cm in diameter) and macrocrysts of phlo- The Serra do Bueno diatreme outcrops near the town of Bambui,
gopite and olivine together with rare titanomagnetite (Leonardos in the south of the APIP (19°43'S, 46°03'W; Fig. 2). It is located
et al., 19934). The breccias contain fragments of both Proterozoic close to several Cretaceous ultramafic potassic pipes (e.g. Almeida,
basement and the intrusion. Boa Esperanqa, Cana Verde, Inga and Quarteis) that have

194
 GIBSONetal. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL

Table 1: K/Ar ages ofphlogopite separates

Atmospheric
Locality Sample no. K20 (wt%) Rad "Ar (mm3/g) contamination (%) Age(Ma±1o)

Mata do Lenco 91SB31 8-10 ± 0 0 3 (2-24 ± 002) x10" 2 20-9 83-7 ± 0-8
(2-23 ± 002) x10~ 2 29-9 83-4 ± 0-8
2
Carmo do Paranaiba 92SOB100a 9-85 ± 0 - 1 2 (2-721 ± 0 0 3 2 ) x 10" 20-1 83-6 ± 1 -4
92SOB100b 7-52 ± 0 0 7 (1-858 ± 0022) x10" 2 14-5 75-0 ± 1 - 1

K/Ar ages were determined at the University of Newcastle using the technique described by Wilkinson etal. (1986). Decay constants are
from Steiger & Jager (1977).

previously been described variously as kimberlites (Barbosa, 1991)
and lamproites (Ramsay & Tompkins, 1994). Unlike the other
pipes in the region, the Serra do Bueno diatreme is well exposed.
It is composed of two distinct facies; a crater facies dominated by
lapilli tuffs and a magmatic hypabyssal facies formed by a kama-
fugite intrusion (Gibson et al., 1994). Laser 40 Ar/ 39 Ar analyses of
olivine phenocrysts from the intrusion yielded an isochron of
90 ± 4 Ma (Gibson et al., 1994).
Ires Ranchosfield
In the northern part of the APIP, 5 km NW of Tres Ranchos
town, a cluster of several dozen pipes outcrop (Fig. 2). Our sample
was collected from a 100 m wide pipe that outcrops at Fazenda
Alagoinha (18°19'S, 47°49'W). It consists of a massive porphyritic
ultramafic rock that often shows breccia structures and contains
angular fragments of carbonated granite together with abundant,
sub-rounded to rounded xenoliths of dunite and harzburgite
(Danni et al., 1991). Garnet lherzolite xenoliths are also present
(Leonardos et al., 1993fl). Gonzaga & Tompkins (1991) have
stated that this is the only diamond-bearing pipe known in the
region.
Deeply weatheredpipes
The APIP also contains numerous deeply weathered pipes, e.g.
Almeida, Boa Esperanqa, Cana Verde, Inga, Japecanga, Mamoes,
Morunga, P050 Verde, Quarteis, Santa Clara and Vargem
(Svisero et al., 1984; Barbosa, 1991; Tompkins, 1991*; Ramsay &
Tompkins, 1994). Some of these vents cut lake sediments, e.g.
Japecanga (Tompkins, 19914) and Santa Clara (our unpublished
data). Although it is possible to collect relatively fresh megacrysts
from these localities, the host rock is typically very strongly
weathered. Nevertheless, where possible, we have collected and
analysed some of this material. Unfortunately, the tendency for
these pipes to weather so deeply may have introduced some sam-
pling bias (away from ultramafic rock types) into our study of the
APIP, as these deeply weathered pipes seem to be some of the few
known localities that contain a varied and abundant megacryst
population (including garnets, Cr-diopsides and ilmenites).
Plutonic complexes
The lavas and hypabyssal intrusions of the APIP are
both spatially and temporally associated with large
carbonatite-bearing plutonic complexes (Silva et al.,
1979; Gomes et al., 1990;fig.2). Although it is not
the specific aim of this study to examine the genesis
of any of these individual complexes, they do contain
rock types (including dunites and rocks previously
described as lamprophyres) that are significant to
our understanding of the causes of ultramafic potas-
sic magmatism in the APIP. We shall only briefly
review these complexes below.
Araxd
This complex (which is also known as Barreiro) occurs 10 km
south of the town of Araxa (19°40'S, 46°57'W; Fig. 2). It is a cir-
cular complex, 4-5 km in diameter, that has intruded quartzites
and schists of the Proterozoic Araxa Group. Most of the intrusion
is concealed by laterite, but carbonatite and glimmerite are pre-
sent in drill cores from the central area (Rodrigues & Lima,
1984). 'Lamprophyre' dykes are both radial and concentric to the
complex (Silva etal., 1979). Biotite from the Araxa glimmerite has
yielded K/Ar ages of 89 and 97 Ma (Hasui & Cordani, 1968).
Catalao I and II
In the northernmost part of the APIP, near the town of Catalao,
two plutonic complexes have been emplaced into the Araxa
Group. Catalao I (18°08'S, 47°50'W; Fig. 2) forms an approxi-
mately circular dome that covers an area of ~ 2 7 km 2 . This con-
sists of a carbonatite core surrounded by pyroxenites, glimmerites,
serpentinized peridotites and a small amount of nepheline syenite
(Barbosa et al., 1970; Danni et al., 1991). Samples obtained from
drill cores show that the complex is cut by ~ 5 m wide phlogopite
picrite dykes (see below). Alkali syenites yielded K/Ar ages of 85
Ma (Hasui & Cordani, 1968). Catalao II (18°02'S, 47°52'W) is
poorly exposed, 5 km north of Catalao I. It forms a 14 km 2 cir-
cular dome.
Salitre I and II
Two interconnected intrusive complexes outcrop at Salitre
(19°03'S, 46°47'W; Fig. 2). They have been intruded into the
Proterozoic Bambui Group. The largest of these is Salitre I (35
km 2 ). Both of the intrusions consist of carbonatite, phlogopite and
olivine pyroxenite, and nepheline and peralkaline syenite
(Mariano & Marchetto, 1991). They are connected by outcrops of
trachyte. Drill core samples from Salitre I contain dunite and
cross-cutting 'lamprophyre' dykes (Mariano & Marchetto, 1991).
Salitre II is not exposed, but drill core samples show that it is
composed of biotite and olivine pyroxenite and is cut by small
dykes of 'carbonated lamprophyre'. K/Ar ages of 83 Ma and 86
Ma were obtained by Hasui & Cordani (1968) on mica from the

'95
 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLOME 36 NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY 1995

pyroxenite. Whole-rock K/Ar analyses on phonolites yielded ages exchange and/or argon loss. Many of these rocks
of 79 and 95 Ma [Gomes, quoted by Sonoki & Garda (1988)]. contain leucite, which is readily altered to analcite,
and the loss of potassium (and presumably radio-
Serra Negra genic 40Ar) during this process is certainly a factor in
Immediately north of Salitre is Serra Negra (18°55'S, 46°50'W;
perturbing the K/Ar system of the whole-rock sam-
Fig. 2), one of the largest plutonic centres in the APIP (Mariano
& Marchetto, 1991). This is a 65 km oval complex that has ples. Likewise, Rb and Sr movements will affect Sr-
2

intruded quartzites and phyllites of the Proterozoic Bambui isotopic ages. Also, some of these rocks contain
Group. The core of the intrusion consists of calcite carbonatite interstitial glass that readily undergoes devitrifica-
(sovite) and pyroxenite (also known as bebedourite; Troger, 1928) tion (a common cause of disturbance to K/Ar whole-
and peridotite. A large intrusion of serpentinized dunite occurs at rock ages), especially in this region of intense
the northern edge of the Serra Negra complex. This is cut by thin tropical weathering.
dykes (<5 cm wide) of phlogopite picrite. Biotite from the peri-
dotite yielded K/Ar ages of 83-84 Ma (Amaral el al., 1967). Petrographic criteria for recognizing potentially
disturbed whole-rock and mineral K/Ar ages are
Tapira both difficult to specify and highly subjective in their
The southernmost large plutonic complex in the APIP is exposed application during thin-section investigation. Simple
at Tapira (19°53'S, 46°50'W; Fig. 2). The complex is 6 km in geochemical criteria have, however, been suggested
diameter and consists of carbonatites, pyroxenites with local for recognizing disturbance to the K/Ar system in
occurrences of dunite, trachyte and syenite (Brod, 1993). It is biotite micas. Clauer (1978, 1981) and Clauer et al.
emplaced into Precambrian quartzites of the Canastra Group. The (1982) have shown that preferential loss of argon,
complex is deeply weathered with a laterite thickness of up to 200
m. A melilite-rich rock has also been described from this complex
relative to potassium, occurs in biotite micas ex-
(Guimaraes et al., 1980). A recent study of the drill core material hibiting up to 60% loss of potassium. No disturbance
has also shown that the complex is cross-cut by thin phlogopite to the K/Ar age was detectable until > 1 0 % potas-
picrite dykes (J. A. Brod, pers. com., 1993). K/Ar ages of 86-87 sium loss had occurred. This is consistent with the
Ma were obtained from biotite in pyroxenite [Gomes, quoted by conclusions of Zartman (1964), who could recognize
Sonoki & Garda (1988)]. no effect on biotite mica K/Ar ages that had experi-
enced up to 15% potassium loss. The correlated loss
of potassium and argon in biotite micas has been
AGE OF MAGMATISM reviewed by Mitchell & Taka (1984) and Mitchell et
Until this study, the exact age relationship between al. (1988), who concluded that a loss of up to 20% of
the hypabyssal intrusions, large plutonic complexes, both elements has little effect on the K/Ar age. It is
and the lavas and tuffs of the Mata da Corda the well-defined and universal geochemical make-up
Formation was enigmatic. This is mainly because the of the unperturbed mica structure that allows recog-
extrusive and intrusive rocks rarely outcrop together nition of potential geochemical (and therefore
and the field relationship between them is unclear. isotopic age) perturbation.
Also, published radiometric ages of the APIP cover a We have invoked both of the above criteria, to
very large time span, ranging from 40 to 120 Ma demonstrate the effectively closed-system behaviour
[see compilations by Ulbrich & Gomes (1981) and of the K/Ar system in the phlogopites selected for
Sonoki & Garda (1988)]. These ages were pre- analysis. The KjO content of natural phlogopite in
dominantly obtained by K/Ar analyses on whole- its pristine state is 9-8 w t % (Deer et al., 1965). To
rock samples and mica separates, but many of the minimize the effects of perturbation we have con-
analyses have large errors and are probably not centrated on hand-picked phlogopite megacrysts. A
reliable indicators of the age of APIP magmatism. mica separate from a lava exposed in the lower part
Our study of the Serra do Bueno intrusion (Gibson of the Mata da Corda Formation yielded a K/Ar age
et al., 1994) and also our recent attempts to date the of 83-6 Ma (Table 1). The mica is very fresh in thin
Corrego Varjao intrusion emphasize the problems section and has a K2O content of 9-85 wt %; using
that may be encountered when determining whole- geochemical criteria alone, we regard this an accu-
rock ages of mafic potassic rocks. In the case of the rate age. It is noteworthy in this regard that a dif-
Corrego Varjao intrusion, we selected petro- ferent mica separate from the same lava has a lower
graphically fresh samples of a melilitite and a K 2 O content (7-52 wt%) and yielded a slightly
kamafugitic rock (see below for discussion of lower age (75-0 Ma), consistent with previously
nomenclature) for K/Ar whole-rock age determina- suggested evidence of the effect of potassium loss on
tion. These samples gave ages of 77-8+1-1 and age. We have also dated a mica separate from the
57-3 + 0-6 Ma, respectively. As both samples came Mata do Lenqo intrusion. This has a K 2 O content of
from the same small intrusion, it is evident that the 8 1 w t % and yielded an age of 8 3 5 Ma. The con-
isotopic system has been perturbed by potassium cordancy (at one standard deviation) of the two ages

196
 GIBSON etal. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL
obtained from the geochemically least perturbed
micas independently corroborates the geochemical
evidence and establishes the geological significance
of the ages obtained from these specimens.
Figure 3 shows that the ages we have determined
for the Mata da Corda lava and the Mata do Lenc,o
intrusion are similar to previous K/Ar ages of micas
from the large plutonic complexes, such as Tapira
[86-87 Ma; Gomes, quoted by Sonoki & Garda
(1988)], Araxa (89 Ma; Hasui & Cordani, 1968),
Salitre (83-86 Ma; Hasui & Cordani, 1968) and
Serra Negra (83-84 Ma; Amaral et al., 1967).
Importantly, these K/Ar mica ages are similar to U/
Pb ages of zircons derived from the Pogo Verde (86-
87 Ma) and Esperanqa 1 kimberlite pipes (80 Ma;
Davis, 1977). The concordancy of ages obtained
from independent isotopic systems is a particularly
convincing test of the absence of perturbation suf-
fered by the isotopic systems in question. Figure 3
shows that this time interval corresponds to whole-
rock K/Ar ages for Catalao (85 Ma; Hasui &
Cordani, 1968), Pantano (80 Ma; Hama etal., 1979)
and clasts in conglomerate at Sao Gotardo (80-87
Ma; Hasui & Cordani, 1968). Therefore, using well-
Mata da Corda - • Lava
Serra do Bueno - •
Pocp Verde -
*
Hypabyssal
Pantano - D Intrusions
Mata do Lenqo -
Sao Gotardo - •
Catalao - •
Salitre - • (e.g. Tres Ranchos, Indaia I and Limeira I) have
Plutonic
Serra Negra - • Complexes
Araxa - •
Tapira - • this present study, and also repetitive, to examine
1—•—1—•—I—•—1—•—
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Age (Ma)
Fig. 3. Age of magmatism in the Alto Paranaiba Igneous Pro-
vince. Localities are shown in Figs 1 and 2. Different symbols illus-
trate various dating techniques and are as follows: • , K/Ar mica;
D , K/Ar whole-rock; 0 , laser Ar/Ar whole-rock; •&, U/Pb zircon.
Sources of data: Table 1; Amaral et al. (1967); Hasui & Cordani
(1968); Davis (1977); Hama et al. (1979); Sonoki & Garda (1988);
Gibson etal. (1994).
substantiated K/Ar determinations from this work
and K/Ar ages from previous studies, together with
U/Pb ages, we have been able to establish that the
hypabyssal intrusive rocks, large plutonic complexes
and volcanics of the Mata da Corda Formation were
emplaced contemporaneously. Furthermore, alkaline
magmatism in the whole of the APIP appears to
have occurred over a narrow time interval between
80 and 90 Ma (Fig. 3). This time span coincides with
the 80 Ma peak of magmatic activity proposed by
Ulbrich & Gomes (1981), who noticed a cluster of
K/Ar ages for the intrusions of the APIP at this time.
Our results contrast with those of Bizzi et al. (1993,
1994), who suggested that activity in the APIP
occurred over a time span of 40 Ma and that the
Mata da Corda lavas postdate the large plutonic
complexes and the hypabyssal intrusions of Tres
Ranchos, Limeira and Indaia. However, their work
is based on Rb/Sr determinations on micas for which
the age data have very large error bars.
The time interval that we have established for the
magmatism in the APIP also coincides with 78—90
Ma ages that w,e have determined for mafic potassic
rocks in the Ipora Province (our unpublished data).
This province is also located on the margin of the
Parana Basin, 400 km NW of the APIP (Fig. 1).
PETROGRAPHY
The similarity between some mafic igneous rocks of
the APIP and kimberlites was first noted by
Rinmann (1917). The general consensus of sub-
sequent studies (e.g. Danni et al., 1991; Leonardos et
al., 1991; Sgarbi & Valenca, 1993; Meyer et al.,
1994) seems to be that, in terms of their constituent
mineral assemblage and mineral chemistry, the
extrusive and some of the intrusive rocks of the APIP
resemble those of the kamafugite family, described
from East Africa by Holmes (1950). Nevertheless,
some of the most ultramafic intrusions in the APIP
been described as kimberlites, owing to their appar-
ent petrographic, mineralogical and chemical simi-
larities to South African kimberlites (Bizzi et al.,
1994; Meyer et al., 1994). It is beyond the scope of
detailed petrographic variations of each sample
location in detail and so we have compiled Table 2
140 as a summary of our own and previously published
work. Below we present a brief petrographic
description of the main rock occurrences.
Lavas
The lavas in the APIP are typically porphyritic and
have a fine-grained groundmass. They generally
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 J O U R N A L OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 36 NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY 1995

Table 2: Summary of petrography and mineral chemistry ofpotassic mafic magmatic rocks in the
Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province

Phlogopite

Location Mineralogy Olivine TiO2 AI2O3 FeOt Clinopyroxene Reference

Presidente or Fo89-9, 5-0-8-0 8-5-10-5 6-3-9-1 Ca47Mg46Fe8to Leonardos era/. (1991)

Olegario Olt, Phi
Lavas Olt, Di, Phi, Amph, Perov, Mt

Carmo do PhlS, Cpx Sgarbi & Valenca (1991,1993)

Paranaiba Cpxt, Phi, Ap, 01,
Lavas Leu, Perov, Mt
Cpxt, Phi, Perov, llm, Mt,
Ap, Leu, Mel, Kal, Gl.

Limeira I & Or, Cpx, llm. Phi 1-0-1-6 100 6-5-7-0 Meyer era/. (1994)
Indaia I Olt
Intrusions Perovt, Ap, Mont Sp

Limeira II 81 Or, Phi 5-7-6-1 110 5-6 Meyer era/. (1994)

Indaia II Olt, Cpx, Phi, Perov,
Intrusions Mont Ap, Sp

PSntano or 0 6-4-8 50-120 5-8-7-7 Meyer era/. (1994)

Intrusion Olt, Olt, Phi, Cpx, Perov, (micro-
Mont Mt, Sp pheno-
crysts

Corrego or Fo88-89 6'7 7-3-7-6 7-3 Our unpub. data

Varjao Olt, Cpx
Intrusion Olt, Cpx, Perov

Serra do Olt Foss-aa 60 80 95 Gibson eta/. (1994)

Bueno Dyke Olt, Cpx, Phi, Sp,

Perov, llm. Leu, Gl.

Tres Ranchos or F090-92 0-2-5-0 7-12-5 4-5-9 Danniefa/. (1991)

Intrusion Olt, Phi
Olt, Phi, Sp, Perov, Ap
GntH, Sp

Mata do Lenco PhlS Tallaricoefa/. (1993)

Intrusion Phlt, 01
Olt, Phi, Cpx, Sp, Perov, Ap

Bocaina PhlS Foams 3-2-4-7 7-3-13-0 6-3-11-3 Leonardos et al. (1993A)

Intrusion Phlt, 01
Ort. Phi. Cpx. Perov

Serra Negra Olt, Phi 4-1 4-9 17-6 Our unpub. data
dykelet Ort, Phi, Perov, Mt.Ap

Catalao dyke Olt. Phi 3-5 11-5 8-6 Our unpub. data
Olt, Phi, Perov, Mt.Ap

'Macrocryst. tPhenocryst. tGroundmass. IMegacryst. ^Xenocryst.

Amph, amphibole; Ap, apatite; Cpx, clinopyroxene; Gnt garnet; II, ilmenite; Kal. kalsilite; Leu. leucite; Mont monticellite; M t magnetite; 01, olivine; Perov,
perovskite; Phi, phlogopite; Sp, spinel.

198
 GIBSON et al. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL

have an essential mineralogy of olivine, clinopyr- macrocrysts of green diopside, Mg-ilmenite and
oxene, ilmenite, perovskite and phlogopite. phlogopite. Limeira II and Indaia II are relatively
Accessory phases include richterite, magnetite, fine grained and contain schlieren of glass and
leucite, kalsilite and glass. On the basis of their nepheline (Meyer et al., 1994).
phenocryst content they may be subdivided into Some intrusions in the APIP contain phlogopite as
olivine- or clinopyroxene-phyric lavas. an abundant groundmass phase (Morro Alto and
Corrego do Couro), and also sometimes as mega-
Olivine-phyric crysts and phenocrysts and in abundant glimmerite
At Presidente Olegario the lavas are composed of xenoliths (Mata do Lenqo and Bocaina). The mega-
abundant olivine phenocrysts (up to 2 mm) and crysts are commonly kink banded and are up to 10
sparse phlogopite phenocrysts ( < 1 mm) that are set mm in length. In the Mata do Lengo intrusion the
in a groundmass of olivine, diopside, phlogopite, phlogopite megacrysts form ~30% of the rock. They
richterite, perovskite, magnetite and glass. typically have a zone of spinel inclusions that marks
Xenocrysts of magnetite, perovskite and ilmenite are an abrupt core-mantle compositional change (see
also present. Some of the olivines show reaction rims below). Olivine and phlogopite also occur as pheno-
of richterite + phlogopite. The modal abundance of crysts (< 1 mm in length) and in the groundmass.
the constituent minerals is variable: olivine (20- Diopside is present only as an accessory groundmass
50%); perovskite (10-15%); phlogopite (<15%); phase along with spinel, perovskite and apatite
diopside (10-25%); richterite (<10%); magnetite (Tallarico et al., 1993).
(5-15%); ilmenite (<15%); apatite (<2%); glass The Tres Ranchos intrusion is distinct from our
(5-30%). Secondary minerals, such as Ba-zeolites other APIP samples in that it consists of abundant
and chalcedony, may comprise up to 30% of the (50 modal %) rounded olivine macrocrysts (<10
amygdaloidal lavas. mm), together with sparse xenocrysts of spinel (<0-5
mm) and garnet (<5 mm). Euhedral phlogopite
Clinopyroxene-phyric phenocrysts (<l-5 mm), which are often carbon-
ated, are also present. These are set in a fine-grained
In the Carmo do Paranaiba region some of the lavas groundmass of rounded serpentinized olivine micro-
contain abundant phenocrysts of clinopyroxene, crysts, phlogopite, spinel, perovskite and small
phlogopite, apatite and leucite together with micro- secondary patches of calcite.
phenocrysts of ilmenite and perovskite. These are set
in a fine-grained groundmass of clinopyroxene,
analcitized leucite, magnetite, phlogopite, melilite Mafic dykes associated with plutonic
and kalsilite (Sgarbi & Valen$a, 1993). The lavas complexes
exhibit variable textures; some have aligned prisms
As we have described above, all of the large carbon-
of clinopyroxene, others are seriate. Phenocrysts of
atite-bearing plutonic complexes in the APIP are
both phlogopite and clinopyroxene are up to 1 cm in
associated with mafic dykes. The samples used in this
length and some of the latter show evidence of strong
study were collected from Serra Negra and Catalao
compositional zonation.
II, but similar dykes have been collected from the
complexes at Salitre and Tapira (J. A. Brod, pers.
Intrusions com., 1993). They typically contain euhedral phe-
All of the larger hypabyssal intrusions in the APIP nocrysts of olivine that are generally <3 mm in
are characterized by an essential mineralogy of oli- length. The olivine is usually concentrated towards
vine, phlogopite, perovskite and spinel ± diopside. the centre of the dykes and forms ~60% of the rock.
Apatite, ilmenite, Ti-magnetite, monticellite and Apart from olivine, phlogopite is the only other
leucite are present as accessory phases. Olivine abundant mineral phase. It occurs as laths (up to 2
occurs as macrocrysts in all of the intrusions, but mm in length) that are generally aligned and exhibit
varies considerably in modal amount. For example, a good flow texture. Some of the phlogopite crystals
olivine forms ~35 modal % of the Limeira I, Indaia have deep brown rims in plane-polarized light; this is
I and Pantano intrusions but only 10 modal % of probably evidence of strong marginal chemical
Limeira II and Indaia II. In some intrusions, such zonation towards annite. Perovskite, magnetite and
as Corrego Varjao and Serra do Bueno, phlogopite apatite are present as accessory phases. The petro-
reaction rims occur around the olivine phenocrysts. graphy of these dykes does not appear to conform to
In addition to their high olivine content, the Limeira any previously established nomenclature but, on the
I and Indaia I intrusions are distinctive from their basis of their high modal olivine and phlogopite
satellite intrusions in the APIP in that they contain contents, we shall refer to them as phlogopite

•99
 JOURNAL O F PETROLOGY VOLUME 36
picrites. It is noteworthy that we have also observed
similar phlogopite picrite dykes cutting the lower
part of the volcanic succession in the Mata da Corda
Formation. We emphasize that these distinctive
dykes are an important, previously undiscovered
feature of the APIP, and that they cut mafic pyro-
clastics, carbonatites and the ultramafic silicate parts
of the large plutonic complexes. As such, we regard
them as crucial evidence of the co-magmatic nature
of this province, including its carbonatites.
MINERAL CHEMISTRY
In this study we are mainly concerned with deter-
mining the genesis of the mafic potassic magmas in
the APIP. It is clearly beyond the scope of this paper
to discuss the wide variations in mineral chemistry
that are present in individual intrusions and lavas,
and we shall only discuss general variations and
compositional trends. A summary of the results from
recent studies of mineral chemistry in mafic potassic
magmatic rocks at relevant localities in the APIP is
shown in Table 2.
Olivine
The olivine in the APIP exhibits only a slight com-
positional variation. The olivine is highly magnesian,
in the range F084-92 (Table 2). The olivine macro-
crysts tend to be the most forsteritic (F088-92) ar>d
they have similar compositions to euhedral olivine
crystals that have been interpreted as phenocrysts;
e.g. Limeira II (F088-92; Meyer et al., 1994). In some
intrusions olivine microcrysts show slight composi-
tional zonation, e.g. F084-87 in Pantano (Meyer etal.,
1994). Table 2 shows that in general the composition
of olivine in the intrusive and extrusive rocks is very
similar.
Phlogopite
One of the few minerals that shows a wide composi-
tional variation in mafic potassic igneous rocks is
phlogopite. Because of this, variations in phlogopite
composition, especially contents of TiC>2, AI2O3 and
Fe2O3* (total iron), have been used to assess petro-
genetic relationships within and between provinces
(Mitchell, 1986). As we have described above, phlo-
gopite in the APIP occurs in a wide variety of forms
and these show a corresponding variation in com-
position. We have attempted to illustrate this in Fig.
4, by plotting AI2O3 vs TiC>2 for micas in both the
intrusive and extrusive rocks. For comparison, we
have also shown the fields of mica from the MARID
(mica—amphibole-rutile-ilmenite-diopside) xenolith
suite, kimberlites, Leucite Hills (Wyoming)
NUMBER I FEBRUARY 1995
madupite, and the West Kimberley (Australia) and
Smoky Butte (Montana) lamproites. In general, the
cores of phlogopite macrocrysts and phenocrysts (e.g.
Pantano, Mata do Lengo and Bocaina) have moder-
ate TiC>2, Fe2C>3* and AI2O3 contents. In the most
olivine-rich intrusions, such as Tres Ranchos,
Limeira I, Indaia I and Pantano, these phlogopites
exhibit crystallization trends towards Ti02-poor
tetraferriphlogopite and occupy the same field as
kimberlite micas (Fig. 4). In the other less olivine-
rich intrusions, e.g. Mata do Lengo, the phlogopite
shows a core-to-rim enrichment in TiC>2, i.e. towards
compositions that are typical of lamproites.
Phlogopite phenocrysts in the Bocaina intrusion have
moderate TiO 2 (4-5 w t % ) , A12O3 (12-13 w t % )
and Fe2C>3* (6-7 wt%) contents and also plot in the
field of kimberlite mica (Fig. 4). Phlogopite from the
groundmass of the same intrusion has much lower
TiO 2 (3 w t % ) and A12O3 (7 w t % ) and higher
Fe2C>3* (11 w t % ) contents and plots in the same
field as madupitic grbundmass micas from the
Leucite Hills (Leonardos et al., 19936). The
Presidente Olegario lavas and the Serra do Bueno
and Corrego Varjao intrusions have similar phlogo-
pite microcryst compositions; they have high TiC>2
(5-7 wt%) and moderate A12O3 (7-11 w t % ) and
Fe2C>3* (6—9 w t % ) contents. These are similar to
West Kimberley and Leucite Hills madupite micas
(Fig. 4; Leonardos et al., 1991; Gibson et al., 1994).
From the above discussion, it is clear that there is
not a characteristic overall compositional trend for
the phlogopites in the APIP and, unlike many other
provinces, the phlogopites overlap the fields of both
kimberlites and lamproites in terms of their TiC>2
and AI2O3 contents. This is mainly because the
composition of most of the phlogopite mantles and
groundmass crystals reflects the local post-emplace-
ment crystallization environment rather than the
composition of the parental magma.
Clinopyroxene
Mitchell & Bergman (1991) have shown that
kimberlites and lamproites have virtually identical
clinopyroxene compositions, but that other potassic
rocks show distinct differences (Fig. 5). Table 2
shows that all of the pyroxenes in the APIP are
diopsides (Ca48Mg46Fe6) and that they exhibit very
little solid solution towards enstatite or hedenbergite.
In terms of Ca, Mg and Fe contents, clinopyroxenes
have a very similar composition to those in
lamproites (e.g. West Kimberley groundmass pyrox-
enes and Kapamba, Zambia). The relatively low Al
contents and variable Ti contents are similar to
pyroxenes in lamproites and kimberlites (Fig. 5).
 GIBSON etal. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL

Leucite Hills Madupite

groundmass micas

0 8 10 12
TiO 2 (wt %)
Fig. 4. Variation of T1O2 and A12O3 contents in phlogopite crystals from the Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province. The fields of phlogopite in kimber-
lites, selected lamproites and the MARID (mica—amphibole-rutile—ilmenite-diopside) xenolith suite are shown for comparison (Dawson &
Smith, 1977; Smith et al., 1978; Jaques it al, 1986; Scott-Smith et al, 1989; Mitchell & Bergman, 1991). • , Bocaina (Leonardos et al, 19934); D ,
Catalao I (phlogopite picrite dyke, our unpublished data); • , Tres Ranchos (Danni et al., 1991); A , Presidente Olegario (Leonardos et al, 1991);
A , Pantano (Meyer et al., 1994); O , Limeira I and Indaia I (Meyer*/ al., 1994); 0 , Limeira II and Indaia II (Meyer et al., 1994); + , CorregoVarjao
(our unpublished data); O , SerradoBueno (Gibson*/ al., 1994); • , SerraNegra (phlogopite picrite dyke, our unpublished data).

0.10 T Lamproites S ^^- as analcite. Also, all of the large plutonic complexes
Kimberlites ^ ^ ^ ^
were associated with substantial hydrothermal
r systems. Wherever possible, we have only analysed
Uganda ) samples that are petrographically fresh but, despite
this, Table 3 shows that some are characterized by
i
0.05 - •

•• / Roman Province
very high loss-on-ignition (LOI) values, and that not
a all of this group are rich in phlogopite. To allow
intraprovincial comparisons, we have calculated
Kapamba
major element contents on a volatile-free basis. We
have tried to focus on samples with relatively low
0.00 • ' •—•—i—•—'—•—
LOI values when discussing major element varia-
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 tion, to minimize the effects of hydrothermal altera-
Al tion. However, we acknowledge that this procedure
may cause a bias towards the less olivine-rich
Fig. 5. Variation of atomic Ti and Al (on the basis of six oxygens)
in clinopyroxene from the Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province. A , samples. In Fig. 6 we have illustrated the effects of
lavas; • , intrusions. The fields of clinopyroxene in world-wide hydrothermal alteration and weathering on whole-
lamproites, East African kamafugites, Kapamba and Roman Pro- rock chemistry in our samples from the APIP by
vince lavas are shown for comparison. Data sources: Cundari &
Ferguson (1982), Scott-Smith et al. (1989), Leonardos el al.
differentiating between samples with very high ( > 5
(1991), Mitchell & Bergman (1991). wt%) and low LOI. From this diagram it is appar-
ent that the concentrations of major elements
(especially SiO2, Yc2O3* a n d K2O) and some of the
WHOLE-ROCK CHEMISTRY more mobile trace elements (e.g. Ba and Rb) have
Hydrothermal alteration and weathering been significantly affected by alteration.
The APIP is located in a region of intense tropical
weathering, and in some cases this has also resulted Major element variation and chemical
in the breakdown of primary mineral and glass classification
phases and the formation of secondary minerals, such The lavas and hypabyssal intrusions of the APIP
 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 36 FEBRUARY 1995

Table 3: Representative whole-rock analyses

Locality: Presidente Presidente Presidente Presidente Carmo do Carmo do Carmo do Carmo do

Olegario Olegario Olegario Olegario Paranalba Paranaiba Paranalba Paranalba
Rock type: Kam Kam Kam Kam Kam Kam Kam Kam
Occurrence: Lava Lava Lava Lava Lava Lava Lava Lava
Sample: XUXA 90SB17 92SOB9 92SOB10 92SOB12 92SOB13 90SB20 92SOB91

SiO2 40-40 40-87 39-20 39-37 36-32 42-21 41-32 37-95

TiO 2 6-91 6 63 6-33 6-38 6-25 507 3-30 7-39
AI2O3 5-62 5-75 5-25 5-37 6-47 5-79 706 6-47
Fe 2 O 3 - 15-44 1502 14-71 14-83 17-53 13-62 10-60 15-78
MnO 021 022 0-20 0-21 0-27 0-34 0-19 0-21
MgO 1505 16-12 17-35 17-16 13-47 1504 15-18 10-15
CaO 12 45 11-83 11-56 11-25 12-70 13-74 13 32 15-92
Na 2 0 039 0-58 0-68 0-70 0-52 1-16 1-74 032
K2O 1-28 1-39 2-19 1-84 1-90 0-75 3-44 1-58
P2O5 0-55 033 0-57 0-57 2-11 0-60 1-37 1-63
Total 98-30 98-74 9803 97-68 97-53 98-31 97-53 97-40
LOI 0-66 606 3-96 3-91 9-59 6-30 406 7-73
Ba 19400 11672 5977 14628 6784 16274 3023 12376
Cr 635 567 630 566 278 649 28 153
Cu — —- — — — 157
Hf 16-77 — 16-54 17-89 22-82 11-71 1507 16-82
Ga 24 19-3 16-1 20-9 19-6 19-8 12-9 20-6
Nb 243 238 220 217 284 189 246 318-1
Ni 534 509 556 557 142 564 125 147
Rb 146 183 260 205 202 19 389 220-7
Sc 31-4 352 32-3 31-8 32-1 30-7 35-2 39-8
Sr 1926 1933 3659 2732 2258 1407 5191 2258
Ta 1500 — 13-67 17-89 11-49 13-27 1200 15-34
Th 302 — 282 28-9 23-4 23-5 15-57 24-8
U 5-00 — 5-43 5-35 6-73 5-11 4-80 5-78
V 362 355 311 302 329 334 436 748
Y 280 240 19 9 206 32-3 34-5 13-9 30-5
Zn 102 106 102 101 129 86 114 110
Zr 757 805 608 615 1038 461 623 776
La 223 — 251 207 293 214 170 264
Ce 415 — 446 421 432 — 362 464
Nd 168 — 205 181 196 167 118 176
Sm 253 — 290 250 290 21-6 18-3 25-4
Eu 6-06 — 702 6-97 7-28 5-30 5-28 6-79
Gd 19-8 — 19-5 18 9 180 — 17-2 160
Tb 2-41 — 1-92 2-36 2-59 1-88 1-85 1-83
Ho 0-76 — 1-29 — 1-29 093 0 85 1-11
Tm 0-30 — 0-40 0-40 0-50 — — —
Yb 1-59 — 1-60 1-42 2-21 2-47 1 82 2-05
Lu 0-17 0 18 0-14 028 0-15 020 0 29
87
Sr/ 8e Sr m 0-705573 0-705674 0-705258 0-705483 — 0-705704 0-704934 —
143
Nd/1"Ndm 0-512330 0-512357 0-512352 0-512328 — 0-512323 0-512440 —
•"Sr/OOSr, 0-705309 — 0-705010 0705222 — 0-705658 0-704673 —
i43Nd/i«N(j|
0-512280 — 0-512305 0 512282 — 0-512280 0 512388 —

•Total Fe expressed as Fe2O3.

Major elements presented on a volatile-free basis.
87
Sr/ 88 Srand Nd/ 1 4 4 Nd isotopic ratios are presented as measured (m) and initial values (/) corrected to 85 Ma.
Elemental determinations made by XRF and INAA at the University of Durham. Isotopic determinations made at McMaster University.
(See Appendix for analytical procedures and discussion of techniques.) Grid references of sample localities are provided in the text
Kam, kamafugite; Kim, kimberlite; MOL, madupitic olivine lamproite; Phi Picrite, phlogopite picrite.
 GIBSON etal. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL

Table 3: continued

Locality: Carmo do Carmo do Carmo do Carmo do Carmo do Carmo do Serrado Serra do

Paranalba Paranalba Paranaiba Paranalba Parnalba Parnalba Bueno Bueno
Rock type: Kam Kam Kam Kam Kam Kam Kam Kam
Occurrence: Lava Lava Lava Lava Lava Lava Intrusion Intrusion
Sample: 92SOB94 92SOB97 92SOB99 92SOB100 92SOB108 92SOB111 92SOB4 92SOB5

SiO 2 37-14 40-35 3806 45-45 3683 35-89 40-49 40-75

TiO 2 7-78 6-26 753 5-60 6-89 6-31 4-39 4-33
AI203 628 6-50 6-14 8-45 5-97 560 6-58 6-25
Fe 2 O 3 ' 16-69 14-46 1605 1305 16-31 1600 13-71 13-53
MnO 023 0-24 0-21 0 18 025 0-20 0-20 0-19
MgO 11-20 10-33 984 8-40 10-65 10-56 15-69 15-91
CaO 16-23 15-12 16-45 11-21 17-89 16 88 12-39 12-84
Na 2 0 0-27 0-56 0-29 1-32 2-91 0-26 1-45 1-39
K20 1-41 1-57 200 2-30 0-65 1-10 2-60 2-11
P2O5 1 91 1-31 1-79 0-66 1-64 1-48 1-39 1-37
Total 99-14 96-70 98-36 96-62 99-99 94 28 9889 98-68
LOI 8-31 6-81 7-62 1-87 3-66 3-61 388 3-43
Ba 4685 25818 5550 38611 1630 36684 1764 2052
Cr 122 109 71 37 90 28 905 773
Cu 168 184 164 144 190 195 — —
Hf 19-95 17-14 17-97 18-31 20-53 2863 11-26 11-69
Ga 20-5 13 21-9 14-2 13-4 11-3 12-5 15-8
Nb 313 2692 313-4 283-1 285-2 279-4 146 138
Ni 130 176 124 115 175 171 450 490
Rb 197-6 255-6 209-8 417-6 62-4 2393 112 69
Sc 54-4 34-2 37-7 29-8 42-3 34-3 25-8 30-3
Sr 1850 2414 2272 1978 2698 3018 2030 2866
Ta 19-21 13-89 17-16 18-36 17-54 14-27 9-51 10-16
Th 29-4 22-8 25-1 352 33-3 267 16-64 19-44
U 8-13 4-87 6-73 7-16 6-55 5-97 3-12 3-49
V 708 771 717 686 271 565 282 260
Y 38-4 32-6 36-9 35-5 35-6 352 320 34-9
Zn 110 100 104 97 102 112 118 117
Zr 799 833 760 775 991 1209 626 507
La 278 234 276 270 301 280 173 201
Ce 502 428 — 494 519 519 306 362
Nd 252 167 195 220 229 197 130 154
Sm 33-1 23-6 25-9 33-2 36-1 27-7 21-7 25-4
Eu 8-13 660 6-70 7-82 8-14 7-37 5-32 6-13
Gd 21-3 — — 23-3 25-4 — 15-8 21-8
Tb 242 204 2-22 268 2-56 2-19 208 —
Ho 1-27 100 1-22 1-35 1-20 108 092 102
Tm — — — — — — — 0-40
Yb 1-29 2-57 228 3-81 2-50 2-63 2-12 231
Lu — 0-23 0-22 0-38 0-29 0-33 0-26 0-27
e7
Sr/ 86 Sr m — — — 0-706503 — 0-705247 — 0-705259
143
Nd/ 1 4 4 Nd m — — — 0-512303 0-512278 — 0-512367
87
Sr/ 88 Sr, — — — 0-705767 — 0-704970 — 0-705175
1
«Nd/'"Ndi — — — 0-512252 — 0 512231 — 0-512312

203
 J O U R N A L O F PETROLOGY VOLUME 36 NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY 1995

Table 3: continued

Cdrrego Corrego Pantano Limeira I Limeira II Indaia I Indaia II Tres Bocaina

Varjao Varjao Ranchos
Kam Kam Kam Kam Kam Kam Kam Kim MOL
Sill Block Intrusion Intrusion Intrusion Intrusion Intrusion Intrusion Intrusion
90SB22 90SB23 90SB26 90SB27 90SB28 91SB19 91SB2O 91SB29 93SOB155

39-58 36-66 35-45 33-74 42-60 3274 41-42 4000 38-45

618 5-60 4-98 2-64 3-27 2-72 3-31 1-55 5-23
5-63 4-68 2-80 2-16 6-96 259 7 04 3-11 6-68
14-14 15-17 14-67 11-97 10-69 12 04 10-64 11-47 1300
0-20 0-20 024 022 0-19 022 0-19 0-22 0-17
19-54 20-18 2508 31-93 1507 30 65 15-35 37-38 22-56
9-81 12-97 11-35 12-31 14-61 13-39 13-34 4-43 7-14
109 0-45 0-29 0-16 1-12 0-55 1-90 0-22 1-45
2 19 1-76 263 103 252 1-14 3-43 0-67 3-33
021 0-63 1-43 2-74 1-52 3-20 1 38 107 0-72
98-56 98-31 98-92 98-90 98-56 99-25 9801 100-12 98-73
4-57 200 6-75 9-46 4-24 9-20 3-85 11-22 12-12
2746 1590 2974 2782 2937 2436 3184 2659 2052
1028 706 1485 1521 923 1499 970 J1913 1390
— — — 74 — — — 1— 60
17-63 900 15-33 15-65 17-94 14-28 13-43 7-54 906
14-9 8-6 9-5 50 11-7 6-5 12-7 3-50 —
203 199 233 162 179 195 183 216 136
788 776 947 1110 393 908 375 1530 560
177 115 202 92 169 49 145 38 178
256 30-7 31-9 250 31-3 26-8 286 14-3 18 3
6203 2899 1470 1818 2900 1957 2433 1143 1070
11-59 12-18 13-73 1301 12-67 12-81 11-58 11-49 8-85
21-8 20-5 227 270 30-9 29-6 29-5 40-4 22-6
3-18 4-53 4-55 5-40 6-46 4-55 5-61 750 3-41
337 229 103 164 135 169 143 31 187
33-4 24-6 204 373 39-5 41-5 38-2 260 11-4
107 86 86 78 93 81 90 73 66
853 244 782 794 640 890 638 332 330
176 208 219 302 303 316 303 402 149
364 399 — 598 583 — 599 601 304
137 168 151 254 240 258 232 229 134
21 0 233 223 33-3 32-6 41 0 31-6 33-4 14-5
5-20 5-95 4-50 885 8-79 8-30 8-27 5-84 383
14-9 209 — 24-8 224 260 24-2 13-4 —
1-45 1 39 1-52 2-18 2-71 205 2-45 1-39 1-34
0-91 — — — — 1-25 1-16 0-67 —
— 0-24 — 0-31 032 0-40 0-40 — —
200 200 1-68 1 86 229 1-78 2-62 1-75 205
023 0-15 0-17 0-19 0-28 0 19 0-25 0-17 0-16
0705933 0-704807 0-705678 0-705436 0-705739 — 0-705712 0-704774 0-705486
0-512193 0 512356 0 512379 0 512325 0-512301 — 0-512261 0-512349 0-512252
0-705834 0704669 0-705200 0-705260 0-705536 — 0-705504 0-704658 0-704906
0-512142 0-512310 0-512330 0-512281 0-512256 — 0-512215 0-512300 0-512216

204
 GIBSON et al. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL

Table 3: continued

Locality: Bocaina Mat a do Morro Alto Corrego Catalaoll Catalao II Serra Sao Corrego
Lengo do Couro Negra Gotardo Varjao
Rock type: MOL MOL MOL MOL Phi Picrite Phi Picrite Phi Picrite Syenite Melilitite
Occurrence: Intrusion Intrusion Intrusion Intrusion Dyke Dyke Dyke Clast Xenolith
Sample: 93SOB156 91SB31 92SOB218 92SOB219 91SB25 91SB26 92SOB7 92SOB114 90SB24

SiO2 36-53 39-50 37-59 42-14 35-26 34-70 41-45 57-20 44-51
TiO 2 4-70 5-54 4-96 3-35 6-34 6-24 5-77 3-65 4-86
AI 2 O 3 4-71 6-73 4-96 505 4-30 4-46 5-84 10-77 7-19
Fe2O3- 13-58 12-34 13-25 1206 1600 16-12 14-37 11-74 13-39
MnO 0-21 0-18 0-19 0-16 0-27 0-24 0-21 0-16 0-18
MgO 21-68 19-15 23-04 2526 19-39 18-67 19-71 3-68 7-15
CaO 11-97 8-87 10-16 7-79 8-49 1000 7-39 1-60 11-51
Na2O 0-74 0-64 0-88 1-74 024 0-34 0-95 0-31 0-68
K20 3-98 5-17 1-60 1-14 405 4-48 1-98 9-71 6-80
P205 0-99 0-53 1-34 0-76 303 3-16 1-33 1-12 1-93
Total 9909 98-65 97-97 99-45 97-36 98-41 9901 99-94 98-20
LOI 8-77 239 2-94 2-18 7-50 7-85 9-68 385 1-54
Ba 2276 2159 2244 1812 3477 4119 1203 2547 4551
Cr 1631 2805 1260 1539 862 854 408 217 78
Cu 77 — 77 67 — — — 78 181
Hf 9-52 1506 13-60 8-51 21-81 22-27 16-97 12-67 21-40
Ga — 15-9 17-3 11-7 5-1 14-4 10 252 20
Nb 206 185 159-6 109 296 294 186 170-9 176
Ni 650 707 1005 1170 551 358 316 92 137
Rb 187 329 180-2 178-9 272 278 110 264-2 151
Sc 19-8 25-9 20-7 18-7 32-5 32-7 37-3 21 2 47-3
Sr 1673 1179 1493 1066 1246 1804 934 1186 1739
Ta 12-16 16-13 7-57 7-93 17-10 17-67 9-80 6-98 6-20
Th 26-5 17-38 13-48 12-29 328 30-3 24-4 27-3 840
U 508 3-70 2-84 2-24 6-45 6-71 402 608 3-13
V 379 256 207 200 226 246 459 409 267
Y 232 22-9 232 19-5 37 1 36-3 28-3 570 24-2
Zn 85 82 83 73 124 123 108 131 113
Zr 408 642 659 408 1285 1232 859 631 625
La 180 170 151 117 325 325 263 193 116
Ce 418 289 311 238 688 636 446 302 194
Nd 163 130 129 100 265 260 193 138 80
Sm 18-7 16-4 16-9 14-9 35-5 35-1 29-5 19-1 130
Eu 4-65 4-23 4-36 3-79 8-75 858 7-38 5-21 3-75
Gd — 12-8 9-3 — 9-1 9-3 200 — 11-9
Tb 1-65 1-34 1-25 1-16 302 2-87 2-20 1-99 1-33
Ho 0-91 0-57 0-58 — 1-16 1-42 1-27 1-54 —
Tm — 0-30 — — 0-50 0-30 0-50 — —
Yb 2-35 1-83 1-11 1-35 2-75 282 2-22 3-68 2-25
Lu 0-16 0-15 0-13 0-17 0-29 0-27 0-25 0-49 0-25
87
Sr/ 88 Sr m 0-705341 0-705727 0-705399 0-706093 0-705559 0-705372 0-704764 0-705963 0-705808
143
Nd/'"Ndm 0 512340 0 512288 0-512211 0-512175 0-512242 0-512255 0-512329 — 0 512292
87
Sr/88Sri 0-704952 0-704753 0-704978 0-705507 0-704799 0-704834 0-704354 0-705186 0705505
i43Nd/i44Nd.
0-512302 0-512246 0-512167 0-512125 0-512197 0-512210 0-512278 — 0-512238

205
 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 36 NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY I 9 9 5

20 i 60 1

15
— 40
E
d
! Cpy
co o
O W 20

if o

A * Oft

ti

20 10 20 30 40

MgO (wt 7.) MgO (wt %)

Fig. 6. Variation in contents of selected major and trace elements with MgO. Vectors illustrate the effects of crystal fractionation. Closed and open
symbols denote samples with low ( < 5 wt %) and high LOI values, respectively. A , A, lavas of the Mata da Corda Formation; • , • , hypabyssal
intrusions; O , • , dykes associated with the large carbonatite-bearing plutonic complexes by circles.

206
 GIBSON etal. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL
exhibit a very wide, continuous range in MgO (3-37
wt%), with Fe2O3* contents (11-16 wt%) and mg-
numbers ranging from 39 to 87, i.e. they are mafic to
ultramafic rocks. The lavas generally have lower
MgO contents (<20 wt%) than the intrusive rocks,
but some overlap occurs between 15 and 20 wt %
MgO (Fig. 6). As we have mentioned above, K2O
contents and hence K2O/Na2O ratios are very vari-
able within these rocks, ranging from 1 to 16 in the
freshest samples. The rocks may therefore be classi-
fied as potassic-ultrapotassic. Despite the fact that
mafic potassic rocks are an extremely small group
volumetrically, on a global scale they exhibit con-
siderable differences in terms of their whole-rock
chemistry, both between and within igneous pro-
vinces. There is currently no consensus of opinion on
the best method of classifying these rocks (e.g. Foley
etal., 1987; Mitchell & Bergman, 1991; Rock, 1991)
and the mafic potassic magmatic rocks from the
APIP reinforce the difficulties that are encountered
using current schemes. Although we do not wish to
become involved with controversies about nomen-
clature, we believe that it is important to distinguish
between the major rock types of the APIP, to clarify
their petrogenesis.
One of the earliest attempts to classify ultra-
potassic rocks on a chemical basis was by Sahama
(1974), who recognized that kamafugites—unlike
lamproites—are strongly undersaturated with
respect to silica and have higher contents of CaO
and Fe2O3*. We have plotted our samples from the
APIP, along with the fields for kamafugites and
lamproites, and West Kimberley olivine lamproites
(Jaques et al., 1986; Fraser, 1988), on diagrams of
CaO vs SiO2 (after Sahama, 1974) and GaO vs
A12O3 (after Foley et al., 1987; Fig. 7). Most of the
lavas and some of the intrusions have relatively high
CaO (11-18 wt%), and low SiO2 (45-32 wt%) and
A12O3 (5-8 wt%) contents, and plot in the same
field as East African kamafugites. The latter have
TiO 2 concentrations that reach 8 wt % in some of
the lavas.
The only fresh rock that we have collected from
the APIP whose composition (and mineralogy)
resembles a true kimberlite is the sample from Tres
Ranchos. This is ultramafic (MgO = 37 wt%), silica
undersaturated (SiO2 = 40 wt%), potassic (K2O/
Na2O = 1 -5) and has low contents of CaO (4-4
wt%), A12O3 (3-1 wt%) and TiO 2 (16 wt%).
Other intrusions, previously classified as kimberlites,
such as Limeira I, Indaia I and Pantano (Svisero et
al., 1984; Bizzi et al., 1994; Meyer et al., 1994), have
similar contents of A12O3 (2-7 wt%) but much
higher CaO (11-15 wt%) and TiO2 (2-3-5 wt%)
contents and, in this respect, are distinct from Tres
207
Ranchos. Using the classification scheme of Sahama
(1974) and Foley et al. (1987), Limeira I, Indaia I
and Pantano resemble kamafugites. These intrusions,
however, are distinguished from the lavas by their
much lower TiO2 contents (Fig. 6) and high CaO/
A12O3 ratios (Fig. 8).
Some intrusions, especially those containing
abundant poikilitic groundmass phlcgopite (e.g.
Corrego do Couro, Mata do Len$o and Bocaina)
have intermediate contents of CaO (7-12 wt%) and
A12O3 (~5 wt%), relative to the kamafugitic lavas
and intrusions, and the Tres Ranchos kimberlite.
They also have higher contents of K2O (up to 5-5
wt%). The Mata do Lenc,o intrusion is the most
extreme 'end-member' of this group, and is ultra-
potassic (K2O/Na2O = 81), perpotassic (K2O/
Al2O3 = 0-77) and peralkaline [(K2O + Na2O)/
Al2O3 = 0-86]. Additionally, it has low SiO2 (39
wt%) and high MgO (19 wt%) contents. In terms
of mineralogy and whole-rock composition, this rock
most closely resembles the olivine lamproite from
Sisimuit, Greenland (Scott-Smith, 1979). This rock,
like Mata do Len$o, has abundant poikilitic
groundmass phlogopite together with groundmass
clinopyroxene and high CaO, relative to other lam-
proites, and therefore has madupitic affinities
(Mitchell & Bergman, 1991). The other intrusions
have compositions that are intermediate in terms of
CaO, and A12O3 contents between the Mata do
Len$o olivine lamproite and the kamafugitic rocks,
but have slightly higher MgO contents. In view of
their petrographic similarities to Mata do Lengo, we
shall classify them all together as madupitic olivine
lamproites in the remainder of this study.
Trace element variation
In the mafic potassic magmatic rocks of the APIP,
compatible trace elements exhibit large variations in
concentration. For instance, Cr and Ni contents
range from 25 to 2000 p.p.m. and from 70 to 1530
p.p.m., respectively, and show positive correlations
with MgO (Fig. 6). Scandium is also often present in
very high abundances especially in the kamafugitic
rocks (25-54 p.p.m.). Concentrations are noticeably
lower in the olivine lamproites (18-26 p.p.m.) and
the Tres Ranchos kimberlite (14 p.p.m.).
The APIP magmas are characterized by very high
concentrations of incompatible trace elements (e.g.
Ba= 1500-6000 p.p.m., Th= 12-40 p.p.m.). In this
account we use the term 'incompatible trace
element' to refer to the same group of elements as
those that behave incompatibly during basalt genesis
and evolution. Obviously, as will be made clear
below, some of these elements behave as compatible
 JOURNAL O F PETROLOGY VOLUME 36 NUMBER I FEBRUARY I 9 9 5

20
a)

15

I 10-
o
S Alto Paranafba

W. Kimberley Olivine Lamproites

30 35 40 45 50 55 60
SiO2 (wt %)

20 T
b)

15

I 10 Alto
o Paranaiba / ^
8

10 15 20
AI 2 O 3 (wt %)
Fig. 7. Classification of mafic alkaline rocks in the APIP using the schemes proposed by (a) Sahama (1974) and (b) Foley et al. (1987). All of the
samples shown have < 5 w t % LOI (with the exception of Trcs Ranchos, open square), > 3 w t % MgO and are potassic (i.e. K 2 O>Na 2 O).The
field of West Kimberley olivine lamproites is fromjaques et al. (1986) and Fraser (1987).

o •

^ Limeira 1
elements in the APIP magmas. To make compar-
* Kamafugite * Indaia 1
5
D
isons between the main rock types in the APIP we
Olivine Lamproite
have plotted normalized multi-element diagrams
4 •
• Kimbertite A
Pantano
(Fig. 9). These show that all the rocks have rela-
o ° Dykes related to complexes tively smooth patterns that peak at La and all of the
3 A low-H2O+ samples have (Ba/La)n ratios < 1 . The
§ A
patterns are generally similar for both the intrusive
A
3 D

2 phi
4

A
D and extrusive rocks, with most of the samples having
., o' large troughs at K and Sr. Nevertheless, slight var-
A 0 o " Ranchos
1 - / a iations are apparent; the lavas of the Mata da Corda
/cpx Formation commonly have troughs at P whereas
n- some of the large intrusions, such as Limeira I and
0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 Indaia I, have troughs at Ti and are depleted in Nb
mg - no. and 1'a relative to La (Fig. 9). The Mata do Lenqo
Fig. 8. Variation of m^-number ([Mg/(Mg + Fe)] with CaO/ and Bocaina intrusions are exceptional, in that they
A12O3. (Note the high mg-number and Ca0/AI2O3 ratio of Lime- have only a relatively slight depletion of K. Also,
ira 1, Indaia 1 and Pantano but low CaO/AI2O3 ratio and high they have low concentrations of incompatible
mg-number of Tres Ranchos.) Vectors show the effects of crystal
fractionation on m^-number and Ca0/Al2O3 ratios. elements, such as REEs, Y and Zr, in comparison

208
 10000

Kimberlite & Kamafugitic Lavas

Kamafugitic Intrusions

1000 -

Presidenle OlegSrio
(92SOB9)

TrSsRanchos (91SB29) Carmo do Paranaiba

10 - (92SOB100)
Limeira II (90SB28)
Cmmo do Pnrannibn
0) Limeiral (91SB19) (92SOB9I)
o
X
3
Madupltic Olivine Phlogopite Picrlte dykes
Lamproite Intrusions (related to plutonic
o complexes)
1000 -r
1o
o
d

• Serra Negra (92SOB7)

10 •:

• MatadoLengo(9iSB31) • Calataoll(91SB26)
• Boeaina(93SOB156) • Catalaollf91SB25)

H h -t- -I h
Ba Rb Th K Nb Ta La Co Sr Nd P Sm 2r Hf Ti Tb Yb Lu Ba Rb Th K Nb Ta La Ce Sr Nd P Sm Zr HI Ti Tb Yb Lu

Fig. 9. Normalized multi-element diagrams of a representative suite of mafic potassic intrusive and extrusive rocks from the Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province. Overall the patterns are similar but
slight variations are apparent, especially in relative abundances of K, Nb,Ta, P andTi (see text for discussion). The normalization factors are chondritic, except for Rb, K and P which are bulk-Earth
values (Thompson el a/., 1984). Analyses are fromTable 3.
 VOLUME 36 NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY 1995

with the kamafugitic rocks and kimberlite. It is Bergman, 1991). The negative Sr anomaly of the
notable that the small mafic potassic dykes, which APIP rocks is similar to those of the rocks in many
are typically associated with the large carbonatite- lamproite provinces (Foley et al., 1987), but the
bearing complexes, have similar concentrations of almost ubiquitous trough at K is distinct from the
incompatible elements and normalized patterns to patterns of samples in many lamproite, kimberlite
the hypabyssal intrusions and lavas of the APIP and kamafugite provinces (Fig. 11). The absence of
(Fig. 9). any significant relative depletions in high-field-
The mafic potassic magmatic rocks of the APIP strength elements (Nb and Ta) in the APIP samples
are characterized by very high abundances of rare contrasts with the Roman Province and Leucite
earth elements (REE). For example, La and Lu Hills; the Nb concentrations (96-364 p.p.m.) of the
concentrations reach 1300 and 11 times chrondric APIP rocks are similar to those of West Kimberley
values, respectively. Significantly, the highest con- lamproites and East African kamafugites. The Zr
centration of LREE (light REE) is present in the contents of the APIP mafic rocks (332-1451 p.p.m.)
Tres Ranchos intrusion (La = 402 p.p.m.), the most are lower than those of the Leucite Hills and West
MgO-rich rock that we have analysed from the Kimberley, and the former do not exhibit distinct
APIP. The highest content of HREE (heavy REE; peaks at Zr and Hf on normalized multi-element
Lu = 0-49 p.p.m.) is present in a clast from Sao diagrams. The abundances of REE in the APIP are
Gotardo, which has the lowest MgO content. This similar to those in the most enriched lamproites (e.g.
high HREE content may reflect the effect of frac- West Kimberley) and also some micaceous kimber-
tional crystallization in the evolution of this rock. All lites (e.g. New Elands, Australia) and the Italian
of the mafic potassic magmatic rocks in the APIP are kamafugites. Other micaceous kimberlites, such as
enriched in LREE relative to MREE (middle REE), Finsch Mine (South Africa), and the East African
with La/Sm ratios in the range 6-12 (Fig. 10). The kamafugites have much lower REE abundances. The
Tres Ranchos intrusion exhibits the most extreme lavas and all of the intrusions except Tres Ranchos
enrichment in LREE relative to MREE and has the in the APIP have La/Sm and La/Yb ratios that are
highest La/Yb ratio (230). The 'lamproitic' intru- comparable with East African kamafugites, Group 2
sions have some of the lowest La/Yb ratios (70—100) kimberlites and North American lamproites
of all the mafic potassic rocks.
The variations and high concentrations of
compatible elements, such as Cr and Ni in the
olivine lamproites and kimberlite and Sc in the
kamafugites, are comparable with other world-wide
occurrences of these rock types (Mitchell &

350 1000

300 \
Tom Ankole \
Kamafugites / S
\
250
/
\ •'•.
TRx f
; W. Australia '. I
200 •
• Lamproites • s
m '
\

\
'

I
150 \

• m* ' • ' • . _ • Umetm II (90SB28)

100
£Q •
1 *
\

USA I Finsch Mine (F-7S6)

" Group II •s* . * lamproites ' • •'
Kimberlites " 'D Q 10 - - West Kimberley (WA
(Finsch Mine) A1/1)
50 J
/ Leucite Hills (LH-8/3)

— — i — ! ' i ' Uganda (4342)

10 12 16

La/Sm
Ba Rb Th K Nb Ta La Ce Sr Nd P Sm Zr Hf Ti Tb Y Yb Lu
Fig. 10. Variation in La/Sm vs La/Yb ratios for kamafugitic intru-
sive ( • ) and extrusive rocks (A), kimberlite (x), madupitic Fig. 11. Comparison of normalized multi-element patterns of a
olivine lamproites (Q) and phlogopite picrite dykes associated representative hypabyssal mafic alkaline intrusion (Limeira II)
with plutonic complexes (O)- (Note extreme LREE enrichment from the Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province with rocks from simi-
of the Tres Ranchos kimberlite.) Other well-known mafic ultra- lar world-wide provinces. Data sources are Thompson et al.
potassic—alkaline provinces are shown for comparison. Data are (1984), Fraser (1987) and Table 3. Normalization factors are the
from Mitchell & Bell (1976), Fraser (1987) and Table3. same as in Fig. 9.
 GIBSON et al. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL

(Fig. 10). The high La/Sm and La/Yb ratios of the and Bufumbira) and North American lamproites,
Tres Ranchos intrusion are similar to some West but they have ENd values that are intermediate
Kimberley lamproites. between the former and the latter. Although the
mafic magmatic rocks from the APIP exhibit a
Radiogenic isotopes relatively restricted overall range in Sr and Nd iso-
topes, the various rocks types plot in slightly differ-
To gain further insight into the characteristics of the
ent fields. The Tres Ranchos kimberlite has one of
contributing sources to the APIP magmas, we have
the lowest 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios (0-704658) and highest
analysed a relatively large number of samples from
e values (—4-3). The 'olivine lamproites' have £NJ
both intrusive and extrusive rocks for Sr and Nd Nd
values (—4-5 to -7-9) that are generally lower than
isotopes. In comparison with other mafic potassic
the kamafugitic rocks ( - 3 8 to - 4 8 ) and in general
igneous provinces, the APIP displays a relatively
the latter have the highest 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios (0-7047-
restricted range of isotopic ratios; initial Sr/ Sr
0-7058).
ranges from 07047 to 0-7058 and 2Nd values from
- 2 - 8 to - 7 - 6 (Table 3). On a conventional Sr, Nd-
isotope diagram the APIP samples plot in the PETROGENESIS
'enriched' quadrant, and are intermediate between
South African Group I and II kimberlites (Fig. 12). Crystal fractionation and accumulation
In terms of 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios, the APIP is similar to Clearly, it is highly significant in our understanding
the East African kamafugites (Katwe-Kirongongo of the petrogenesis of the APIP to estimate the effects

15
ALTO PARANAIBA

Bulk Earth
10
', MORB
Tres Ranchos
• Trmdade Kimberlite i i~
5 . Kamalugites

/ ~ Group 1 Ptilogopite ^ T C J *
0 1 \ \/ Pcrile dykes ssv
P
Alto ^ Madupitic
adupitic Olivine -°'
E. Africa
Paranaiba Lamproites
-~ - . Italy
.5 •-€. Fmsch
Mine
-10
0.704 0.7045 0.705 0.7055 0,706 0.7065
-a
Z Elkheads- • • /Group II ^
cu -10 1 ^
^Prairie
\ Creek
Leucite Hills West Kimberley
-15 J

-20

Smoky Butte
-25

-30

0.702 0.706 0.710 0.714 0.718 0.722

Fig. 12. Comparison of initial Sr and Nd isotopic ratios of the Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province with other world-wide provinces of mafic ultra-
potassic-alkaline rocks. Ratios for Ilha daTrindade are shown for comparison (Halliday et al., 1992). Groups I and II refer to South African
kimberlites (Smith, 1983). Additional data sources: Hawkesworth & Vollmer (1979), Vollmer et al. (1984), Rogers et al. (1985), Fraser (1987), Ito et al.
(1987), Davies & Lloyd (1989), Thompson et al. (1990) and Table 3. Inset shows detailed variation of Sr and Nd isotopic ratios for the main rock type in
the Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province, x , kimberlite; A , kamafugitic lava; • , kamafugitic intrusion; • , madupitic olivine lamproite; O , dykes
related to carbonatite-bearing plutonic complexes.
 JOURNAL O F PETROLOGY VOLUME 36
of crystal fractionation and accumulation and
thereby establish primary magma compositions. We
have tried to illustrate the effects of fractionation
and accumulation of the essential minerals (olivine,
clinopyroxene and phlogopite) on magma chemistry
by adding vectors relating to these phases to Fig. 6.
The most magnesian olivine phenocrysts that have
been recorded in the APIP intrusions and lavas have
Fo values of 90-92 (Danni et al., 1994; Leonardos et
al., 1991; Meyer et al., 1994), similar to olivine in a
garnet lherzolite from Tres Ranchos (Leonardos et
al., 1993a). These highly magnesian olivines would
have been in equilibrium at their liquidus tempera-
ture with a melt having an mg-number of ~0-67—
0-70 (using a D value for Fe/Mg partitioning
between olivine and melt of 0-3-0-33; Roedder &
Emslie, 1970). This is similar to the highest mg-
number that we have calculated for the lavas (0-74)
but is generally less than the values for the intrusions
(0-70-0-87; Table 3). This seems reasonable, as it is
unlikely, on density grounds, that the products of
sub-surface crystal accumulation would be over-
represented in the erupted lavas. The fractionation
and accumulation of olivine seems to have been a
dominant influence on the whole-rock chemistry of
magmas in the APIP with MgO >10 wt%. Below
this concentration, Fig. 6 shows a marked change in
chemical trends towards lower Fe2C>3*, CaO, TiO 2
and Sc, and higher SiC>2, AI2O3 and K2O contents.
This is best explained by the fractionation of clino-
pyroxene, which is an abundant phenocryst in these
lavas. Phlogopite usually occurs as a groundmass
phase and forms phenocrysts and macrocrysts in only
a few lavas and intrusions of the APIP (see above).
Elements such as K, which have high partition coef-
ficients for phlogopite, therefore behave incompat-
ibly in the majority, but not all, of the APIP
magmas.
In ultrapotassic rocks, the REE (together with
Nb, Ta, Th, Sr and Ti) are primarily hosted by
perovskite and also by apatite. Jones & Wyllie
(1984) have shown that perovskite may contain 2-16
wt % of the total REE oxides that are present in
kimberlites. Perovskite exhibits extreme LREE/
HREE enrichment (La/Yb = 577-3229; Mitchell &
Reed, 1988) and fractionation of this phase will
produce a depletion in La relative to Yb. This may
account for the variation in La/Yb ratios that we
have observed in some of the more evolved lavas.
Apatite is also present as a phenocryst phase in some
of the evolved extrusive rocks and may be respons-
ible for the relative depletion of P on normalized
multi-element plots (Fig. 9).
It is apparent from the above interpretations that
crystal fractionation (e.g. clinopyroxene and per-
NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY I 9 9 5
ovskite) has significantly influenced the major
element contents of rocks with < 10 wt % MgO (Fig.
6). Therefore, in subsequent sections that discuss the
major element compositions of the contributing
mantle sources to the APIP magmas we shall
primarily focus on samples with >10 wt% MgO.
We shall address the effects of olivine accumulation
and fractionation in these rocks by concentrating on
elemental abundances and ratios that are unaffected
by these processes, such as CaO/A^Os and La/Yb.
Entrained xenocrysts and xenoliths
Rounded and strained olivine macrocrysts occur in
both the intrusive and extrusive mafic potassic mag-
matic rocks of the APIP. Phlogopite macrocrysts
and/or glimmerite xenoliths have been observed in
only a few intrusions (Mata do Lencjo and Bocaina
and to some extent Tres Ranchos, Limeira I and
Pantano). Also, xenocrysts of garnet and chrome-
diopside are present in high modal amounts in the
Tres Ranchos intrusion and many of the deeply
weathered pipes, e.g. Santa Clara and Cana Verde.
We suggest that the garnet and chrome-diopside
xenocrysts were derived from disaggregated mantle
peridotite. Xenoliths of garnet lherzolite are rare in
the APIP, but have been discovered in the Tres
Ranchos intrusion (Leonardos et al., 1993a). Most of
the mantle xenoliths that have been discovered in
the APIP appear to have originated from relatively
shallow depths, e.g. spinel lherzolites and dunites.
This apparent lack of high-pressure xenoliths led
Bizzi et al. (1994) and Meyer et al. (1994) to propose
a shallow lithospheric source for some of the APIP
magmas. However, pressure and temperature esti-
mates for a recently discovered fertile garnet lherzo-
lite xenolith in the Tres Ranchos intrusion suggest
that it equilibrated at ~50 kbar and ~1100°C
(Leonardos et al., 1993d). This is well within the
diamond stability field and indicates that at least
some of the magmas in the province were derived
from a very deep source (~ 150 km or deeper).
The presence of abundant crustal xenoliths, espe-
cially in some of the large intrusions, suggests that
the magmas could have interacted with crust.
However, because of the high concentrations of trace
elements in these rocks, we believe that the effect of
crustal contamination on Rb/Sr and Sm/Nd sys-
tematics is negligible and that the chemistry of the
parental magmas is dominated by melts from the
subcontinental lithospheric mantle.
SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS
Any attempt to outline the source characteristics of
 GIBSON etal. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL

the APIP magmas must account for the following magmas in the APIP magmatic rocks, such as relat-
observations: ive depletions in high-field-strength elements (e.g.
(1) The mafic potassic lavas and intrusions are Nb, Ta) on normalized multi-element plots (Fig. 9),
suggests that the mantle enrichment was not asso-
characterized by low contents of S1O2, and exhibit a
ciated with fluids or melts derived from a downgoing
wide range of MgO/CaO and CaO/Al2C>3 ratios,
slab. We therefore propose that the metasomatic
and Sc, Cr and Ni abundances. enrichment of the lithospheric mantle underlying the
(2) All of the mafic magmatic rocks have very APIP was caused by the migration of relatively low-
high concentrations of incompatible trace elements temperature, small fraction melts from the astheno-
and are strongly enriched in LREE relative to sphere. These would advect negligible heat
HREE. (McKenzie, 1989) and leave the thermal structure of
(3) On normalized multi-element plots, most of the overlying lithosphere undisturbed. McKenzie
the rocks (except the Mata do Lengo and Bocaina also suggested that these would freeze in the litho-
intrusions) are depleted in K relative to other sphere at the level where the ambient temperature
incompatible trace elements. All rocks are relatively was less than their solidus and therefore become
depleted in Sr. The high-MgO rocks exhibit slight concentrated in relatively thin zones. However,
relative depletions in Ti, Nb and Ta, and some of because they are non-eutectic melts they would
the low-MgO rocks have relative depletions in P. solidify over a range of depths. The continuation of
(4) The magmas are derived from a source with this process over considerable periods of geological
time-integrated Rb/Sr and Sm/Nd ratios that are time would allow substantial volumes of frozen melt
respectively slightly higher and lower than bulk- to accumulate in the lithosphere, possibly as veins,
Earth. dykes and sills. The large volume of K-rich, mafic
magmatism in the APIP is consistent with a genesis
Partial melting and mantle metasomatism involving large-degree melting of lithospheric mantle
The silica-undersaturated nature, strongly fraction- previously, extensively veined by asthenosphere-
ated REE patterns and high abundances of incom- derived, small-fraction melts.
patible trace elements in the APIP rocks suggest that The compositions of the volatile-rich, small-frac-
either their parental magmas or their precursor tion melts is dependent on the CO2/H2O ratio, but is
melts were the products of relatively small degrees of likely to be similar to those of lamproites, kimberlites
partial melting. The Sr- and Nd-isotopic ratios of the and carbonatitic magmas (McKenzie, 1989).
APIP rocks are outside the range of oceanic magmas Metasomatism of mantle peridotites has typically
(Fig. 12) and therefore we propose that a large con- been associated with silicate melts, involving the
tribution, if not all, of the magmas must have come addition of major elements, such as Si, Fe, Al, Ca
from the subcontinental lithospheric mantle. and Ti together with trace elements (e.g. Irving,
Some of the variations in concentrations of major 1980). Several recent experimental and geochemical
elements that we have observed in the mafic potassic studies have, however, highlighted the likely
rocks of the APIP cannot readily be explained by importance of Ca-Mg carbonatite melts in mantle
crystal fractionation and probably reflect different metasomatism (Wallace & Green, 1988; Dautria et
degrees of partial melting (Fig. 8). Melts with high al., 1992; Dalton & Wood, 1993; Rudnick et al.,
La/Yb ratios (100-200) can be produced by very 1993). This previous work has shown that carbona-
small (<1%) degrees of partial melting of a tite metasomatism is characterized by the addition of
phlogopite-garnet lherzolite source (e.g. Mitchell & Ca, together with high La/Yb and Zr/Hf, and low
Brunfelt, 1975). However, to generate melts with Ti/Eu and Rb/Sr ratios.
high abundances of REE (Table 3), such as those Currently, we have not been able to determine
observed in the APIP mafic magmatic rocks, the conclusively the composition of the metasomatic
mantle source must have been previously enriched agent that was responsible for the enrichment of the
(e.g. Menzies & Wass, 1983; Vollmer & Norry, subcontinental lithospheric mantle sources of the
1983). Mantle metasomatism may be caused by (1) APIP mafic potassic rocks. However, we regard the
melts or fluids derived from a subducting slab following features as being compatible with sig-
(Maury etal., 1992) or (2) volatile-rich, low-viscosity nificant carbonatite metasomatism:
melts that have migrated continuously or semi-con- (1) The mafic potassic rocks and large carbona-
tinuously from the asthenosphere and accumulated tite-bearing complexes in the province are spatially
in the subcontinental lithospheric mantle (Frey & and temporally associated; e.g. phlogopite picrite
Green, 1974; McKenzie, 1989). The lack of charac- dykes at Araxa, Catalao, Salitre and Tapira (Figs 2
teristic geochemical features of subduction-related and 3).

213
 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 36 FEBRUARY 1995

(2) The Sr- and Nd-isotopic ratios of the mafic 1000

potassic rocks and the carbonatite complexes are
similar; e.g. Gatalao (Bizzi et al., 1993).
(3) The Ca/Al ratios of some of the mafic potassic
rocks are high; i.e. kamafugites (Fig. 8). • A

(4) The similar compositions of olivine pheno- A A

crysts in all of the main rock types suggest that Mg/ A

A
°°iA
/ *

100 •
Fe ratios in the parental melt and corresponding A A
. • » A D

mantle source were relatively constant (Table 2).
(5) The strongly silica-undersaturated nature of
the APIP magmas, together with the presence of
kalsilite (Sgarbi & Valenqa, 1993) and perovskite,
are indicative of their genesis by mantle fusion in
CC>2-rich conditions (Eggler, 1976; Wyllie & Huang,
1976).
(6) Melilitites, such as those present as xenoliths
in the Corrego Varjao intrusion, are evidence of high
prevailing CO2/H2O ratios. They have lower Ca/Mg
ratios than their kamafugitic host rocks, and were
probably derived from shallower depths (Brey, 1978)
and a different source (Dawson et al., 1985).
Nevertheless, we regard the melilitites as important
further evidence of CO2-rich conditions in the sub-
continental lithospheric mantle.
Some compositional variations, however, cannot
readily be explained by catbonatite metasomatism of
a single lherzolite source. For example, the Tres
Ranchos kimberlite has the lowest Ti/Eu and highest
La/Yb ratio (Fig. 13) but has the lowest CaO/Al 2 O 3
ratio (Fig. 8). Also, Zr/Hf ratios are relatively con-
stant and show no correlation with either CaO/
AI2O3 or La/Yb ratios. This contracts with previous
studies (Wallace & Green, 1988; Dupuy et al., 1992;
Rudnick et al., 1993), where carbonatite metasomat-
ism has been postulated to result in concomitant
increases in La/Yb, Zr/Hf and CaO/A^Os and
decreases in Ti/Eu ratios. The variations that we
have described above are, however, for the APIP as
a whole and may reflect the heterogeneous nature of
the contributing mantle sources to the different rock
types (see below). It may well be the case that both
silicate and carbonatite melts were important in the
metasomatic enrichments. This type of multi-stage
metasomatism of the lithospheric mantle has been
proposed by Dautria et al. (1992), based on their
study of mantle xenoliths from the Sahara Basin.
Further insight into the composition of the metaso-
matic melt will perhaps be gained from more
detailed studies of mantle xenoliths from the APIP.
Currently, only a small amount of published
information is available on the xenoliths, but this
indicates the common occurrence of primary meta-
somatic phlogopite and diopside in spinel lherzolite
xenoliths (Meyer et al., 1994). We regard this as
A * ° a
Carbonatite
Metasomatism
A
Kamafugite
10
D
Olivine Lamproite
* Kimberlite
° Dykes related to
complexes
1000 10000
Ti/Eu
Fig. 13. Variation of Ti/Eu with La/Yb, including the postulated
effect of carbonatite metasomatism on a harzburgite or lherzolite
source (see text).
further evidence of a Ca- and K-rich precursor
metasomatic melt in the subcontinental lithospheric
mantle beneath the APIP.
The small range of e^j values in the mafic potassic
rocks of the APIP indicates that metasomatism of the
subcontinental lithospheric mantle was relatively
contemporaneous and widespread. Considering the
age of the underlying subcontinental lithospheric
mantle, the Nd/ Nd ratios are relatively high. It
is possible to estimate the age of enrichment of the
'source', i.e. the time when the enriched lithospheric
mantle was isolated from the depleted asthenosphere,
provided that Nd/Sm fractionation has not been
significant during subsequent partial melting.
i « i 4 4
1000 Ma. As the samples have such extreme LREE
enrichment, their mantle Sm/Nd ratios may have
changed during magma genesis, even if this process
involved partial fusion of pre-enriched source
mantle. Perhaps the most positive statement that we
can make about the age of the source enrichment
processes (which later gave rise to the APIP
magmas) is that they do not appear to be very old,
such as Archaean or Early Proterozoic. Although Nd
model ages are only approximate estimates, the
mantle enrichment age may relate to a Late
Proterozoic event.

314
 GIBSON et al. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL
Residual phases during partial melting
A wide variation in K2O content (0-5-5-2 wt%)
occurs in the mafic magmatic rocks of the API P. We
have already discussed the susceptibility of K in these
rocks to hydrothermal alteration and weathering (see
above), and in some cases low K2O contents occur in
samples with high LOI values. Nevertheless, there
appears to be a positive correlation between K. content
and the presence of abundant phlogopite; e.g. Mata do
Lenc,o and Bocaina intrusions have both the highest
K2O and phlogopite contents. The high abundance of
phlogopite (as poikilitic plates or microcrysts) in the
groundmass of these intrusions suggests that the late-
crystallizing melts had relatively high K2O contents.
Overall, these intrusions have lower incompatible
element concentrations than the kamafugites, and
their differences in modal abundance of phlogopite
and K2O content cannot simply be attributed to
crystal fractionation. On a normalized multi-element
diagram (Fig. 9) all of the mafic potassic magmatic
rocks in the APIP display a trough at K, except Mata
do Lenc,o. This trough is present in both ultramafic
and mafic rocks and therefore seems to be independent
of their degree of fractionation.
The presence of a relative K depletion in the
kamafugites, and possibly also in the Tres Ranchos
kimberlite, implies that a mineral with a high parti-
tion coefficient for K was a residual phase during
partial melting of their mantle source. Experimental
studies (e.g. Bravo & O'Hara, 1975; Foley, 1989;
Sudo & Tatsumi, 1990) have shown that, especially
in the presence of fluorine, phlogopite is stable up to
very high pressures (6-7 GPa), where it decomposes
to form numerous phases including potassic amphi-
bole. The lack of any corresponding negative Rb
anomaly in the normalized multi-element patterns of
fresh samples of kamafugitic rocks suggests that the
residual phase was probably phlogopite rather than
amphibole. The stability of phlogopite and low solu-
bility of K in melt are thought to be enhanced by
high CO2/(CO2 + H2O) conditions and also by high
F/H2O (Edgar & Vukadinovic, 1992; Foley, 1989).
The rocks with high MgO and low AI2O3 contents
and high La/Yb ratios (Limeira I, Indaia I and Tres
Ranchos; Fig. 14) are also characterized by relative
depletions in Ti, Nb and Ta on normalized multi-
element diagrams (Fig. 9). The absence of these
depletions in the more evolved rocks suggests that
they are unrelated to crystal fractionation of a
titanate mineral, such as perovskite. Therefore, we
propose that the high-field-strength element deple-
tions are caused by a residual titanate phase in their
mantle sources. These could either be the immediate
sources of the erupted magmas or the sources of the
precursor melts.
Mantle heterogeneity
Unlike many other alkaline provinces, the APIP is
unique in that it contains a relatively wide range of
mafic potassic rocks with affinities to kamafugites,
kimberlites and olivine lamproites. We believe that
the contemporaneous emplacement of these diverse
rock types in the same alkaline province has import-
ant implications for the global genesis of small-
fraction melts, as many of the compositional varia-
tions that we have highlighted above appear to have
been inherited from different mantle source regions.
We shall now discuss these variations and the possi-
ble source compositions of the main rock types.
Kamafugitic rocks
The very high CaO and Sc contents of the kamafu-
gitic lavas and intrusions in the APIP indicate that
they were derived from a clinopyroxene-rich, poss-
ibly wehrlitic mantle source (Fig. 15). The dis-
tinctive high CaO/A^Os and Sc/Al ratios of
kamafugites with high MgO (Limeira I, Indaia I
and Pantano), relative to those with low MgO
(Limeira II and Indaia II; Fig. 8), suggest that they
were derived either from a heterogeneous mantle
source or by different degrees of partial melting of a
homogeneous mantle source. All of the kamafugitic
rocks, however, have similar Sr and Nd isotope
ratios, regardless of their MgO content. We therefore
tentatively propose that the high-MgO kamafugitic
rocks represent larger-degree partial melts of a single
lithospheric mantle source than do their low-MgO
counterparts. One possible way of explaining the
variation in whole-rock compositions of the Indaia
and Limeira intrusions involves melting of litho-
sphere that consists of clinopyroxene-bearing veins in
a peridotite host. Foley (19924) has suggested that
progressive melting of such a mantle would result in
hybridization of the melts and dilution of the
initially strongly alkaline melt by the peridotitic
component. The intrusions at Limeira I and Indaia
I may represent the products of more extensive
melting of a metasomatically veined mantle source
than Limeira II and Indaia II. If this model is
appropriate, then the high MgO rocks may be melts
of vein material together with a larger percentage of
clinopyroxene-rich (wehrlitic?) wall rock than the
low-MgO rocks.
A superficially similar clinopyroxene-rich mantle
source has also been proposed for East African
kamafugites (Lloyd et al., 1985). Experimental
studies have been undertaken on a wide range of
African kamafugites (olivine ugandites, mafurites
and katungites) in the presence of H2O and CO2 by
Edgar et al. (1976, 1980), Edgar & Condcliffe
 J O U R N A L OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 36 NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY 1995

10 T
* Kamalugite
a)
° Olivine Lamproite
8
• Kimberlite
0
Dykes related to complexes
6 -

o
£ 4 + Tres
Ranchos"
Pantano • Indaia I A
2 A Limeira I

50 100 150 200 250

La/Yb

b)
40 Tres Ranchos

Limeira I A
30 - Indaia I

Pantano

| 20 +
' A A A A

A
Crystal
Fractionation
10 - A * * A I
•

50 100 150 200 250

La/Yb

Fig. 14. (a) Variation of La/Yb with A12O3 and (b) variation of La/Yb with MgO, to illustrate the extreme LREE/HREE enrichment in the
ultramafic rocks (Limeira 1, Indaia 1 and Tres Ranchos). The arrow shows that crystal fractionation of the observed phenocryst minerals is not
responsible for variations in La/Yb ratio.

(1978), Ryabchikov & Green (1978) and Arima &
Edgar (1983). These studies suggest that kamafugites
may be derived by the partial melting of carbonated
phlogopite clinopyroxenite or lherzolitic mantle, in
an environment of high CO2/H2O ratios (Edgar,
1987). An experimental study by Lloyd et al. (1985)
showed that the African kamafugites may be the
result of high degrees of partial melting of an alkali
clinopyroxenite source at 100 km depth. However,
the melts produced from this source have m^-num-
bers that are much lower (60) than are normally
associated with primitive melt compositions. One of
the most obvious differences between the APIP and
the African kamafugites is their olivine content.
Olivine-rich rocks do occur in the latter (average
MgO = 13-91 ± 3-55), e.g. olivine ugandites with
35% normative olivine, but they do not appear to be
as widespread and abundant as in the APIP.
Experimental studies on olivine ugandite composi-
tions have shown that at mantle pressures the
stability of olivine is greatly reduced in the presence
of CO2 (Edgar et al., 1980). Under these conditions,
olivine is replaced by orthopyroxene and garnet. The
lack of orthopyroxene xenocrysts and relatively high

216
 GIBSONS a/. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL

PARANA BASIN BRASILIA BELT SAO FRANCISCO

C RATON

KIM KAM KAM KIM

MgO/CaO = 0.5 • 2.4

La/Yb = 6 5 - 180
n
Sr/""Sr = 0.7050 to 0.7058
MECHANICAL
£Nd = -3.8 to -4.8 BOUNDARY
LAYER (MBL)
MgO/CaO- 1.8-3.2
La/Yb = 7 0 - 100
MgO/CaO = 8.4 •'Sr/"*Sr = 0.7047 to 0.7055
La/Yb = 230
"Sr / "Sr = 07047 ENd = -4.5 to -7.9
ENd = -4.3 Metasomalized
harzburgite

KIM = Kimberlite
KAM = Kamafugite
MOL = Madupitic olivine lamproite

ASTHENOSPHERE

Tp = 1480cC

Fig. 15. Schematic diagram to illustrate variations in composition and depth of the mantle source regions of kamafugitic rocks, madupitic olivine
lamproites and kimberlite in the APIP. Pressure estimates from a garnet lherzolite xenolith (Leonardos etal., 1993a ) and analogies with experi-
mental studies (Eggler & Wendlandt, 1979) suggest that theTres Ranchos kimberlite originated from a depth of > 150 km. Low CaO/Al 2 O 3 and
high La/Yb ratios suggest that the kimberlite was derived from a metasomatized harzburgite source. Kamafugitic lavas and intrusions have high
CaO/AJ 2 O 3 and appear to have been derived from a relatively clinopyroxene-rich (wehrlitic?) source. The madupitic olivine lamproites have
intermediate CaO/Al 2 O 3 ratios and may have been derived from a more clinopyroxene-rich source than the kimberlite. Their high K 2 O contents
suggest that phlogopite was an important contribution in their melting regime. This is distinct from the kamafugitic magmas and the kimberlites,
where phlogopite seems to have been residual in their mantle sources. Similar Nd-isotope ratios indicate that approximately contemporaneous and
widespread LREE enrichment occurred in the subcontinental lithospheric mantle.

CaO/(CaO + MgO) ratio in the APIP magmas are CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 + 4MgSiO 3

two observations that do not favour abundant modal dolomite orthopyroxene
orthopyroxene contributing to their melts.
= CaMgSi 2 O 6 • 2MgSiO 4 2CO 2 .
Experimental studies (Brey & Green, 1975, 1977;
dinopyroxene olivine fluid
Dalton & Wood, 1993) have highlighted the low-
pressure ( < 25-kbar) reaction The transformation of harzburgite or lherzolite to

217
 JOURNAL O F PETROLOGY VOLUME 36 NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY I 9 9 5

wehrlite by carbonate melts may have been an 1988). Neither apatite nor perovskite is abundant in
important reaction in the source region of the the Tres Ranchos intrusion, relative to the other
kamafugites. We have already suggested that the mafic magmatic rocks in the APIP, and it seems
high La/Yb ratio of these rocks is evidence of unlikely that the extremely high REE content of the
residual garnet in their mantle source, but this Tres Ranchos intrusion is caused by perovskite.
conflicts with the low-pressure reaction. However, it (2) Different degrees of partial melting of a single
may be that the high La/Yb ratio of these magmas homogeneous source or heterogeneity in the mantle
was inherited from the precursor, asthenosphere- source. The slightly lower initial 8 Sr/ Sr ratio but
derived metasomatic melts. similar EN<J value of the Tres Ranchos intrusion,
relative to other mafic magmatic rocks in the APIP,
The Ires Ranchos kimberlite suggest that all the magmas were derived from a
mantle source that had undergone variable, but
Our sample from the Tres Ranchos intrusion is the approximately contemporaneous, LREE meta-
only rock that we have collected from the APIP somatism. We have already proposed that the Tres
which closely resembles a kimberlite. It may be that Ranchos parental magma was derived from a differ-
there are other localities in the province that have ent, relatively clinopyroxene-depleted mantle source,
compositional affinities to kimberlites, but these and it seems most likely that the anomalously high
occur as either deeply weathered pipes or are as yet La/Yb ratio is further evidence of heterogeneity in
undiscovered. Although some of the major (MgO) the mantle sources of the APIP magmas. The non-
and trace element (Cr and Ni) concentrations in this eutectic nature of the precursor metasomatic melts
rock may be explained by the high abundance of (as outlined above) may be responsible for slight
entrained olivine macrocrysts, variations in other compositional variations of veins at different depths
elements cannot simply be attributed to crystal in the lithosphere. The high MgO/CaO ratio (7) of
fractionation and entrainment processes. The sig- the Tres Ranchos intrusion, relative to other rocks in
nificantly lower CaO (4-4 wt%), A12O3 (25 wt%) the APIP (<4), suggests that it was derived from a
and Sc (14 p.p.m.) contents of the Tres Ranchos greater depth (Brey, 1978) and/or a different source
kimberlite suggest that it was derived from a mantle (Hirose & Kushiro, 1993). Experimental studies
source that was relatively depleted in clinopyroxene, have shown that partial melts of CO2-rich peridotite
compared with the kamafugitic source (Fig. 15). trend towards increasing alkalinity and silica-under-
Significantly, although this rock has the highest saturation with increasing pressure, especially at
mg-number (0-87), it also has the highest LREE, Th pressures at which dolomite or magnesite become
and U, and lowest Zr and HREE abundances of all solidus minerals. Eggler & Wendlandt (1979)
of the samples that we have analysed in the APIP. demonstrated that, with increasing pressure, partial
The relatively low Rb and K concentrations of the melts of carbonated peridotite change from melilitic
intrusion may, at least in part, be due to hydro- to carbonatitic at ~30 kbar and to kimberlitic at
thermal alteration, as this sample has a high LOI. 50-65 kbar. Furthermore, Eggler (1989) proposed
Despite the differences in concentrations of some that suprasolidus temperatures of melt separation or
incompatible elements, overall the normalized pat- generation could be as high as the liquidi for kim-
tern for Tres Ranchos is similar to the lavas and berlites, which are at least at 1500°C at 60 kbar.
associated intrusions (Fig. 9). Importantly, the Tres
Ranchos intrusion has a relatively low initial
87
Sr/86Sr. ratio (0-704658) and the highest La/Sm Madupitic olivine lamproites
(12) and La/Yb (230) ratios with respect to other
mafic magmatic rocks in the APIP. These variations As we have discussed above, the Mata do Lenc,o oli-
in REE ratios may be due to the following: vine lamproite and the Bocaina, Morro Alto and
Corrego do Couro intrusions have intermediate con-
(1) Fractionation or accumulation of minerals tents of CaO and A12O3) and low LREE abundances
with high partition coefficients for LREE, such as and La/Yb ratios, relative to the kamafugitic rocks
perovskite and, to a lesser extent, apatite (e.g. Jones and the Tres Ranchos kimberlite. As these variations
& Wyllie, 1984). In this case, REE abundances of a cannot readily be explained by crystal fractionation
rock should be directly proportional to the REE or accumulation (Figs. 8, 13 and 14), they must
content and modal abundance of perovskite (and to reflect variations in their mantle source composi-
a lesser extent apatite). REE ratios are highly vari- tions. The intermediate contents of CaO and Sc and
able in perovskites, e.g. La/Yb = 500 and 4000 and low LREE abundances of the olivine lamproites
La/Sm = 3 and 22 in perovskites from kimberlites suggest that their parental magmas were derived
and lamproites, respectively (Mitchell & Reed, from a mantle source that was depleted in clinopyr-

218
 GIBSON et al. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL

oxene, relative to the kamafugitic rocks. The olivine as their whole-rock compositions and isotopic ratios
lamproites, like the Tres Ranchos kimberlite, are are dominated by contributions from the lithospheric
therefore further evidence of heterogeneity in the mantle. Therefore, it is not possible to demonstrate
mantle source of the APIP magmas (Fig. 15). conclusively the cause of lithospheric melting solely
Olivine lamproites are widely believed to represent on the basis of geochemical arguments. Instead, it is
melts derived from a metasomatized mica harzburg- necessary to combine our interpretations with infor-
ite but such a source is incompatible with the rela- mation on the Late Cretaceous tectonic setting of the
tively high GaO content of the APIP madupitic APIP.
olivine lamproites (Foley, 1989). The relatively low
SiO2 and high CaO contents of these rocks suggests
that they formed under slightly COj-rich conditions, Previous modelsfor Brazilian Cretaceous alkaline
unlike typical olivine lamproites which are thought
to be derived from a CO2-poor, reduced environ- magmatism
ment (Foley, 1992a). We propose that the high K2O Many of the Brazilian Cretaceous alkaline provinces,
content, together with the relatively high Ti/Eu including the APIP, are situated close to lithospheric
ratios (Fig. 13), of the madupitic olivine lamproites arches and 'mega-lineaments', which have been
is due to melting of a K- and Ti-rich phase in the considered as major tectonic controls on Cretaceous
mantle, i.e. phlogopite. This would be favoured by a magmatism (e.g. Neill, 1973; Almeida, 1983, 1986;
less oxidized environment than that in which the Almeida & Svisero, 1991; Tompkins, 1991a; Meyer
kamafugitic and kimberlite melts were generated et al., 1994). An extension-related origin for the
(Edgar & Vukadinovic, 1992; Foley, 1989a). Our alkaline magmatism in the Goias—Minas belt of
proposal of local variations in redox conditions Brazil was first suggested by Neill (1973). He noted
within the subcontinental lithospheric mantle is in that on maps of plate tectonic reconstructions a geo-
accordance with the relatively restricted geographic metrical relationship existed between the distribu-
distribution of the madupitic olivine lamproites in tion of Cretaceous alkaline rocks in the Lucapa
the NW of the province (Fig. 2). graben of Angola and those of Brazil. He proposed
that this magmatism was the late expression of two
intracontinental rifts that were active during the
initial break-up of Gondwana. In his model, Neill
(1973) suggested that their late development repre-
DISCUSSION OF THE CAUSES sented the rejuvenation of pre-existing fractures that
OF LARGE-VOLUME ULTRA- had been the sites of crustal arching around the
MAFIC ULTRAPOTASSIC Parana Basin. Marsh (1973) suggested that some of
the belts of Brazilian Cretaceous alkaline igneous
MAGMATISM activity were the continental expressions of trans-
Melting of the subcontinental lithospheric form faults that developed during the opening of the
mantle South Atlantic. Later, Ulbrich & Gomes (1981)
We have already proposed that the sources of the linked the location of many of the Cretaceous
mafic potassic magmas of the APIP were pre- igneous provinces to hot spots, except the APIP in
dominantly within the subcontinental lithospheric the 'Goias-Minas belt', which they suggested was
mantle. Melting of this mantle may be caused by: controlled by older strutural features. Also, Almeida
(1) decompression during rifting with lithospheric (1986) proposed that the sites of Cretaceous mag-
extension and asthenospheric upwelling (e.g. Le Bas, matic activity were controlled by reactivated zones
1971; Bailey, 1974, 1977; Phipps, 1988; Scott-Smith of structural weaknesses in the basement and tec-
et al., 1989); (2) heat transferred from below by tonic flexures related to the Mesozoic infill of the
conduction and/or advected in melts from mantle Parana Basin. The most recent studies of mafic
plumes (e.g. Wellman & McDougall, 1974; Crough alkaline rocks around the NE margin of the Parana
Hal., 1980; Jaques et al., 1986; Le Roex, 1986; White Basin have proposed that the APIP is located on a
& McKenzie, 1989; Saunders et al., 1992); or (3) NW-SE trending 'mega-lineament' that extends
both (1) and (2) (e.g. McKenzie, 1989; Thompson et from Bambui, Minas Gerais, to Pimenta Bueno,
al., 1990; Gibson et al., 1992; Larsen & Rex, 1992). Rondonia (Almeida & Svisero, 1991; Tompkins,
Although in some circumstances it is possible to 1991a). Almeida & Svisero (1991) suggested that the
postulate the composition of the asthenospheric kimberlites on this lineament were emplaced by its
source, and to calculate mantle potential tempera- reactivation during the late Cretaceous or via hot
tures, this is rarely the case for mafic potassic rocks, spots. Several problems arise with a model for

219
 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 36
magmatism in the APIP that involves melting by
flexural lithospheric decompression or extension:
(1) A time gap of ~ 5 0 Ma exists between the
eruption of the Serra Geral (Parana) lavas and the
emplacement of the APIP alkaline complexes. If the
density of the Serra Geral lavas caused lithospheric
flexure and extension around the margin of the
Parana Basin, then we would expect this to occur
shortly (geologically instantaneously; Turcotte &
Schubert, 1982) after their eruption.
(2) In accordance with the model of McKenzie &
Bickle (1988) the large volume of mafic potassic
magmatism in the APIP would require a relatively
large amount of lithospheric extension above mantle
of normal potential temperature (128O°C). However,
there is no evidence of widespread Late Cretaceous
faulting in the APIP.
(3) Previous experimental studies have shown that
melts which form rocks with similar whole-rock
compositions to Tres Ranchos, i.e. kimberlites,
require relatively high temperatures and pressures
for their generation (Eggler & Wendlandt, 1979).
These temperatures translate to a dry convecting
mantle adiabat of ~ 1480°C, which is considerably
higher than mantle of normal potential temperature.
(4) Melting of low-temperature, volatile-rich
zones in the lithosphere may take place by heat
conduction and advection from decompression melts
derived from the underlying asthenosphere. If this
convecting mantle was not anomalously volatile rich,
and had a potential temperature of 1280°C, it could
not melt significantly below a lithospheric 'lid' that
was more than ~ 70 km thick (McKenzie & Bickle,
1988). Nevertheless, the depth of melting that we
have estimated for the Tres Ranchos kimberlite is
significantly greater than this ( > 150 km) and
therefore melting by decompression of 'normal' dry
asthenosphere would not occur.
(5) We emphasize that the APIP contains a very
high proportion of olivine-rich magmatic and cumu-
late rocks. McKenzie & Bickle (1988) have shown
that the composition and volume of melts is directly
related to the amount of lithospheric extension and
the potential temperature of the underlying astheno-
sphere. This work was based on anhydrous magmas
and is therefore not directly applicable to hydrous
ultramafic magmas. Nevertheless the results of a
more recent study on the melting behaviour of
hydrous melts (Gallagher & Hawkesworth, 1992) do
not significantly contradict those of McKenzie &
Bickle (1988), in terms of the volume and MgO
content of the final magma. It is significant, there-
fore, that voluminous, high-MgO magmas (such as
those in the APIP) require very large amounts of
NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY 1995
lithospheric extension and/or very high mantle
potential temperatures.
Because of the reasons that we have outlined
above, we believe that the melts that subsequently
formed the mafic potassic magmatic rocks of the
APIP were generated from the subcontinental litho-
spheric mantle by heat from conduction and advec-
tion by melts from asthenosphere of high potential
temperature, i.e. a mantle plume.
The significance of the Trindade mantle plume
The Cretaceous period has been associated with a
major phase of plume activity and one of the major
foci of this upwelling appears to have been along the
future site of the South Atlantic rift (Wilson, 1992).
The impact of the Tristan and St Helena plume
heads beneath Gondwana, during the final phase of
supercontinent break-up, is thought to have been
responsible for the voluminous Early Cretaceous
magmatism of Parana-Etendeka (White &
McKenzie, 1989) and NE Brazil-Central Africa
(Wilson, 1992). Furthermore, recent geoid anomaly
maps of the South Atlantic (e.g. Fleitout &
Moriceau, 1990) show that the Trindade (or Martin
Vaz) plume and other small-scale unnamed mantle
plumes may have been sited beneath southern Brazil
during the Late Cretaceous. Plume-related alkaline
magmatism of this age in Brazil was first suggested
by Herz (1977), who established the significance of
alkaline complexes in the reconstruction of the
movements of the South Atlantic plate during the
break-up of Gondwana. Subsequently, Crough et al.
(1980) proposed that the radiometric U/Pb dates
(Davis, 1977, 1978) of zircons in three kimberlites
correlated with the calculated Trindade hot spot
track and suggested that plume-related magmatism
was detectable as early as 120 Ma on the South
American plate. However, the 120 Ma age
(determined by U/Pb on zircon in a kimberlite from
Paranatinga, Mato Grosso) seems to be anomalously
old, as zircons from kimberlites both west (Pimenta
Bueno, Rondonia) and east (Poqo Verde, Minas
Gerais) of this locality yielded ages of 80—90 Ma.
The most recent activity to be associated with this
plume occurs on the islands of Trindade and Martin
Vaz, where volcanism occurred respectively at 0-7
and 0-2-3 Ma (Herz, 1977; Fig. 16). The islands are
located 1300 km off the present Brazilian coast and
are connected to it by the Trindade-Vitoria sea-
mount chain. This chain is thought to represent the
track of the Trindade mantle plume (Herz, 1977;
Crough et al., 1980; Hartnandy & Le Roex, 1985;
O'Connor & Duncan, 1990). Basaltic magmas of
Eocene age (42—52 Ma; Cordani, 1970) occur on the
 GIBSON etal. TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL

L/^ Plume Head

alkaline magmatism on the NE margin of the Parana
85 M d - ^
Basin, then the width of the hot spot track has nar-
i> Brasuia / rowed considerably with time (Fig. 16). This
( Sao Francisco/
craton \ hypothesis is in agreement with O'Connor &
3M
Duncan (1990), who suggested that additional sea-
i /
\fi
Paranaibal
'"J&J Parana Basin* J 1
•fcH

/
/ Abrolhos
J. Platform
a

"A
^ ' C
Trindade
Martin Vaz
mounts (Hotspur, Rodgers, Minerve and Almirante
Saldanha; Cherkis et al., 1989), located to the north
and south of the Trindade-Vitoria seamount chain,
represent the existence of a wide-diameter hot spot
when the South America continental margin passed
Atlantic Ocean over the plume, ~50 Ma ago.
N Recent fluid dynamical studies (Richards et al.,
A 0 250 500km 1989; Griffiths & Campbell, 1990) have shown that
a new thermal plume, originating from deep within
the mantle, cannot displace the overlying mantle
z7 Plume Tail and ascend rapidly until a large amount of buoyancy
/ has been achieved in a near-spherical 'head'. A
/
/i Brasilia
,
«SP Bel. ' S a o Francisco/ narrow conduit or 'tail' may form behind the path of
•-• * C w 3 k
craton 1 the head, and this allows rapid ascent of hot, low-
\ /NC-> o viscosity material. This plume tail may persist long
*** ( ^^^ ,\ / 1 J_' -• ^ ^Abrolhos after the head has flattened and dissipated within the
T r i n t J
,' / Paranai'bail ™Ma) ^
\ Martin Vaz . uppermost mantle. Different types of plume-related
: /
"J& Parana Basin J A <1Ma igneous provinces are recognizable, depending on
whether the lithosphere passes over a plume head or
\ \ \ \\ tail (e.g. Richards et al., 1989). Plume head pro-
/ 4) N
Atlantic Ocean vinces are usually thought to be equant, 1500—2500
km across and are usually associated with con-
A 0 250 500km tinental flood basalts and oceanic plateaux, whereas
plume tail provinces should be restricted to narrow
Fig. 16. Postulated locations of (a) starting head and (b) tail of (< 300 km wide) linear belts, which form hot spot
the mantle plume, currently situated beneath Martin Vaz. tracks (Morgan, 1981; Richards et al., 1989;
Location of 85-Ma starting head is based on mica K/Ar ages of Campbell & Griffiths, 1990). It may be that the
mafic alkaline rocks in the Alto Paranaiba (Table 1 and Fig. 3)
and Ipora igneous provinces (our unpublished data), together 1000 km wide zone of Late Cretaceous (85 Ma)
with evidence from reconstructions of plate motions (Morgan, mafic potassic magmatism in the APIP is the surface
1983). [See also Fig. 1 for a summary of other dates of Cretaceous expression of the starting-plume head, and the 150
alkaline igneous rocks in Brazil and Paraguay. Note that the 85- km wide Trindade—Vitoria seamount chain is the
Ma age of plume impact beneath southern Brazil is consistent
with a similar phenomenon on a global scale during the Middle- long-lived (post 50 Ma) hot spot track of the plume
Late Cretaceous (e.g. Haggerty, 1994).] A, H, M, R and V refer tail. The potential of the plume as a magma source
to the Almirante Saldanha, Hotspur, Minerve, Rodgers and appears to have been 'switched off' during the Early
Vitoria seamounts, respectively. Dashed line indicates the interna-
tional border between Brazil and Paraguay. Tertiary, when the ancient thick lithosphere of the
Sao Francisco craton passed over it. Subsequently,
the plume appears to have re-emerged from beneath
the westward drifting South American continent and
continental shelf, 200 km north of the Trindade— became the magma source for Atlantic ocean-islands
Vitoria seamount chain, and form the Abrolhos and seamounts.
platform (Fig. 16). The basalts have comparable Pb-
isotope ratios to basalts on the island of Trindade Plume-related volcanism is often associated with
(Fodor et al., 1989) and this magmatism may also be uplift. This is thought to be caused by: (1) positive
related to the plume. buoyancy of the plume (Courtney & White, 1986);
The reconstructions of plate motions by Morgan (2) thermal expansion of the lithosphere; or (3)
(1983) suggest that the present-day centre of the magmatic underplating (Cox, 1989). Long-term
Trindade hot spot would have been located beneath uplift and crustal extension (over tens of millions of
the APIP at ~90 Ma. If we assume that the years) have been cited as evidence for plume
Trindade-Vitoria seamount chain represents the 'incubation' (Kent et al., 1992; Saunders et al., 1992)
Tertiary to Recent surface expression of the same rather than impingement on the base of the litho-
plume that was responsible for the 80-90 Ma sphere by sudden impact (Richards et al., 1989;
 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 36 NUMBER I FEBRUARY I 9 9 5

Griffiths & Campbell, 1990). Plate reconstructions istries of the latter are less dominated by low-tem-
show that the South American plate was moving perature, volatile-rich lithosphere-derived melts and
relatively fast during the break-up of Gondwana contain a greater contribution from the Trindade
(Morgan, 1983), causing obvious correlation prob- plume (our work in progress). We are therefore
lems between long-term uplift and crustal extension currently open-minded about the contribution of
with Late Cretaceous volcanism in the APIP. asthenosphere-derived melts to the mafic potassic
Nevertheless, Hasui et al. (1975) have shown that rocks of the APIP (cf. Ringwood et al., 1992).
magmatism broadly coincided with increased rates In other mafic potassic provinces there appears to
of uplift and the development of the Alto Paranaiba be a relationship between rock type and lithospheric
Arch. The uplift phase appears to postdate the thickness; in Greenland (Larsen & Rex, 1992),
eruption of the Parana flood basalts (137-127 Ma; South Africa, Russia and Australia (Mitchell, 1986;
Turner et al., 1994) and continued into the Late Dawson, 1989), kimberlites commonly occur on or
Cretaceous when thick conglomerate horizons devel- close to cratonic nuclei whereas lamproites and
oped in the Bauru and Mata da Corda Formations alkaline magmas are predominantly located in
(Hasui et al., 1975). The uplift is associated with the surrounding Proterozoic mobile belts. In the APIP
narrow Proterozoic mobile belt that separates the the distribution of kamafugitic and lamproitic rocks
Sao Francisco craton from the Parana Basin, where and kimberlites seems to bear no relationship to the
Late Cretaceous sediments were elevated by at least surface outcrop of the Sao Francisco craton, and the
1100 m, before the beginning of the Tertiary (Hasui magmatism is concentrated in the long narrow
& Haralyi, 1991). Some previous studies have re- Brasilia Belt. It appears that regional variations in
lated this to the flexural response of the crust to the lithospheric thickness were influential in determining
sedimentary and volcanic load of the basin during the site of mantle melting (Fig. 17). Thompson &
the Early Cretaceous (Zalan et al., 1987). However, Gibson (1991) have shown that local tectonic
this uplift continued for over 50 Ma and, as litho- inhomogeneities, such as occur at cratonic margins,
spheric flexure is thought to be a geologically may complicate the magmatic expressions of mantle
instantaneous elastic response, Hasui & Haralyi plumes. This is because decompression melting in the
(1991) proposed that this was instead caused by a plume may be channelled towards regions of
mantle plume. We propose that the temporally and previous lithospheric extension (or 'thinspots'), such
spatially associated uplift and magmatism in the as mobile belts. It seems that in the case of the APIP,
APIP were caused by the Trindade mantle plume. the Proterozoic Brasilia Belt may have acted as a
The uplift that occurs in the APIP both pre- and 'thinspot' and permitted greater asthenospheric
post-magmatism is in agreement with the time con- upwelling and melting than beneath the Sao
straints for plume impact (Hill, 1991). Uplift of Francisco craton.
'cool' lithosphere up to 20 Ma before magmatism
may reflect the ascent of the underlying plume
through the asthenosphere, and ~20 Ma post-mag-
matic uplift probably reflects heating and displace- CONCLUSIONS
ment of the underlying lithosphere. Voluminous mafic potassic magmatism occurred in
the Alto Paranaiba Igneous Province (APIP) on the
The transference of heat by conduction and its margin of the Sao Francisco craton in the Late
advection by asthenospheric-source melts into the Cretaceous. This resulted in the formation of a wide
subcontinental lithosphere may have coincided with variety of rock types (kamafugites, madupitic olivine
the impact of the plume. The plume-derived melts lamproites and kimberlite) that have not previously
would mobilize the low-temperature, volatile-rich been recognized as occurring together in an indi-
horizons in the subcontinental lithosphere. The vidual magmatic province. The APIP also contains
'enriched' nature of the latter would ensure their minor amounts of melilitite and substantial bodies of
dominance in the compositions of the final melts that carbonatites within its central intrusive complexes.
gave rise to the APIP mafic rocks. All of the samples Variations in major element contents (MgO, CaO
that we have analysed from the APIP have and AI2O3) suggest that the primary magmas were
'enriched' isotopic ratios (see above), and it could be derived from a compositionally varied range of
3 144 87 86
argued that they were derived solely from, and mantle sources. Low '* Nd/ Nd and high Sr/ Sr
represent the composition of the Trindade plume. ratios, relative to bulk-Earth, together with high
Nevertheless, Late Cretaceous mafic alkaline rocks concentrations of incompatible trace elements and
that were emplaced to the south of the Sao Francisco La/Yb ratios of all the rock types, indicate that these
craton have less 'enriched' Sr- and Nd-isotope ratios mantle sources were predominantly in the sub-
(our unpublished data). We believe that the chem- continental lithospheric mantle. Differences in K2O
 GIBSON etal
Brasilia Belt
(Pre-existing 'thinspot')
Heal penetrating by conduction and
advecled by asthenosphere-derived
melts (together with uplift-related
adiabatic decompression) causing
melting of readily fusible, K-rich
parts of the lilhospheric mantle and
generation of kimberlites and
kamafugites at 85 Ma in the Alto
Paranaiba Igneous Province
Mantle Plume
Fig. 17. Schematic illustration to show the impact of a mantle plume beneath lithosphere of variable thickness [modified fromThompson & Gibson
content (and modal phlogopite) between igneous
rock types are thought to reflect variable CO2/H2O
ratios in their mantle sources. Melting appears to
have occurred at a wide range of depths in the
lithospheric mantle. The inclusion of deep-seated
(~ 150 km) garnet lherzolite xenoliths in the Tres
Ranchos kimberlite suggests that at least some melt-
ing occurred towards the base of the mechanical
boundary layer. The kamafugitic rocks, however,
may have been derived from a relatively shallow
source that had previously undergone carbonatite
metasomatism. The presence of madupitic olivine
lamproites in the APIP may indicate a complex
metasomatic enrichment event, involving silicate
melts. Furthermore, the restricted range of radio-
genic isotopes and comparable multi-element pat-
terns of all the main rock types indicate that the
subcontinental lithospheric mantle had undergone
approximately contemporaneous widespread meta-
somatism. 7"DM Nd model ages suggest that this
occurred during the Late Proterozoic. It seems that
the lithospheric mantle in this part of Brazil was
surprisingly unaffected by the Early Cretaceous
break-up of the supercontinent and the eruption of
the Serra Geral (Parana) flood basalts. Further
TRINDADE MANTLE PLUME, BRAZIL
Sdo Francisco craton
Lithosphere
'Frozen' zone of small-volume
melts that percolated from the
asthenosphere and accumu-
lated in the lithosphere
(1991)].
detailed studies of the other Cretaceous alkaline
provinces that surround the Parana Basin should
allow us to evaluate the extent of melting of the
lithospheric mantle in the Early Cretaceous (our
work in progress). Any slight perturbation of the
geotherms in the lithospheric mantle would cause
melting of the readily fusible parts of the lithospheric
mantle, which seems to have remained intact
beneath the APIP until ~85Ma.
Analogies with the results of experimental studies
suggest that high mantle potential temperatures
were required for the generation of at least the Tres
Ranchos kimberlite; i.e. a mantle plume. This is in
agreement with reconstructions of plate motions
which show that the APIP lies on the predicted for-
mer path of the present-day Trindade plume. We
propose that the widespread alkaline mafic
magmatism at ~85 Ma in the APIP and the
adjacent Ipora Province represents the impact of the
starting plume head on the base of the sub-
continental lithospheric mantle. Heat transferred by
conduction and advected by upwelling astheno-
spheric melts may have been responsible for melting
volatile-rich, readily fusible parts of the lithosphere.
Our postulated Late Cretaceous age for the impact
223
 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY
of the Trindade mantle plume is consistent with
similar events on a global scale towards the end of
the Mesozoic (Haggerty, 1994).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded by NERC (UK) Research
Grant GR3/8084, NSERC (Canada), CNPq (Brazil)
and the British Council. We would also like to Basu, A. R., Renne, P. R., Mertz, D. & Poreda, R. J., 1993.
acknowledge additional financial and logistical
assistance from the Universities of Brasilia, Durham
and Newcastle upon Tyne. We thank Ron Hardy,
Karen Atkinson and Rob Ridley for their technical Bell, K. & Powell, J. L., 1969. Strontium isotope studies of alkalic
assistance. We also extend our appreciation to Dave
Peate, Affonso Brod and Roberto Pinheiro, from
whom our knowledge of Brazilian geology has
benefited enormously. We are very grateful to
Fernando Tallarico, Marcia Cerqueira, Patricia
Sgarbi, Lucia Moraes and Hildor Seer for their
assistance with sample locations, and to the countless
landowners who gave us access to their properties.
We would like to extend our thanks to Barry Bizzi, L. A., Smith, C. B., Meyer, H. O. A., Armstrong, R. & de
Dawson for his comments on an earlier draft of this
manuscript, and to Rob Ellam and Andy Saunders
for their constructive reviews.
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Vollmer, R. & Norry, M. J., 1983. Possible origin of K-rich vol- APPENDIX: ANALYTICAL
canic rocks from Virunga, East Africa, by metasomatism of
continental crustal material: Pb, Nd and Sr isotope evidence. TECHNIQUES
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 64, 374-386. All of the samples were split and fed through a jaw crusher and
Vollmer, R., Ogden, P. R., Schilling, J . G., Kingsley, R. H. & then powdered in an agate tema mill. All of the analyses, with the
Waggoner, D. G., 1984. Nd and Sr isotopes in ultrapotassic exception of radiogenic isotopes, were made at the University of
volcanic rocks from the Leucite Hills, Wyoming. Contributions to Durham. Major elements were determined by analysing 32 mm
Mineralogy and Petrology 87, 359-368. diameter fused glass discs on a Philips® PW 1400 X R F (X-ray
Wallace, M. E. & Green, D. H., 1988. Mantle metasomatism by fluorescence) spectrometer system incorporating a PW 1500/10
ephemeral carbonatite melts. Nature 336, 459—462. sample charger. An Rh anode tube was used for excitation and the
Wellman, P. & McDougall, I., 1974. Cainozoic igneous activity in Rh Compton-scatter peak was used for absorption corrections.
eastern Australia. Tectonophysics 23, 49—65. Trace elements (Ba, Cr, Nb, Ni, Rb, Sr, V, Y, Zn and Zr) were
White, R. S. & McKenzie, D. P., 1989. Magmatism at rift zones. analysed on pressed powder discs, made with 4% PVA, on the
Journal of Geophysical Research 94, 11933-11944. same machine. The appropriate corrections were made for the
Wilkinson, P., Mitchell, J . G., Cattermole, P. J. & Downie, C., overlaps of Nb K a by Y K p , Zr K a by Sr K^, Y K a by Rb K^, Ba
1986. Volcanic chronology of the Meru—Kilimanjaro region, L a by Ti K a , Ni K a by Co K^, V K, by Ti Kp and Cr K a by V
northern Tanzania. Journal oj the Geological Society, London 143, K^. In cases where BaO and SrO were analysed as major
601-605. elements, mass absorption corrected intensities were used.
Wilson, M., 1992. Magmatism and continental rifting during the Samples were analysed by instrumental neutron activation
opening of the South Atlantic Ocean: a consequence of Lower analysis (INAA) for the REE, Th, U, Hf, Ta, Sc and W. The
Cretaceous super-plume activity? In: Storey, B. C., Alabaster, powdered samples were irradiated for three consecutive days in
T. & Pankhurst, R. J . (eds) Magmatism and the Causes of batches of nine, interspaced with three standards to achieve
satisfactory corrections for variations in neutron flux. These
Continental Breakup. Geological Society, London, Special Publication 68,
241-255. standards were made by drying multi-element chemical solutions
Wyllie, P. J. & Huang, W. L., 1976. High CO 2 solubilities in onto filter papers. For counting, samples were loaded onto a hor-
mantle magmas. Geology 4, 21-24. izontal wheel autochanger with a sample-to-detector distance of
Zalan, P. V., Wolfs, S., Conceic.ao, J. C. d e j . , Astolifi, M. A. M., 15—20 cm. Gamma-ray photons were collected by an EG & G
Vieira, I. S., Appis, V. T. & Zannotto, O. A., 1987. Tectonics Ortec planar high-purity Ge low-energy photon detector (25 mm
and sedimentation in the Parana Basin. In: Anais do 3° Simposio in diameter by 10 mm in thickness). Resolution of this instrument
Sul Brasileiro de Geologia, Curitiba, pp. 30—33. was excellent [nominally 550 eV full width at half maximum
Zartman, R. E., 1964. A geochronological study of the Lone- (FWHM) at 122 keV]. Separate counts were made approximately
Grove Pluton from the Llano Uplift, Texas. Journal of Petrology 8 days and within 3 months after irradiation, both for 5400 s per
5, 359-408. sample. Gamma rays were collected in the range 50-900 keV and
processed as 4096 channel spectra. The detector was calibrated
using 24l Am, 133Ba and l37 Cs gamma reference standards. Spectra
were processed using OMNIGAM-N software.
RECEIVED 7 FEBRUARY 1994 87
Sr/ 86 Sr and 143 Nd/ l44 Nd isotopic ratios were measured on a
REVISED TYPESCRIPT ACCEPTED 5 JULY 1994 VG354 mass spectrometer at McMaster University. All samples
were leached with excess warm 6 M HC1 and then rinsed before
dissolution. The average value of NBS 987 during data acquisition
was 0-710248 ±0000024 (2 SDM) and on 27 analyses
86
Sr/ 88 Sr = 01194. The La Jolla standard gave 0-511850 ±
0000019 (2 SDM) on 40 analyses over the same 18-month period.
Nd isotopic ratios were normalized for within-run fractionation to
l46
Nd/ 144 Nd = 0-7219.

229

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