2)

Cell Theory cell is the basic unit of life and its fundamental role in biology

4 postulates:

All living organisms are composed of one or

more cells

– Cells are the basic units of structure and

function in all organisms

– All cells come from previously existing cells

– The activity of an entire organism depends

on total activity of its independent cells

3)
4)

⚫ Organelles are the organs of a cell. Each has a specific role to play: – Nucleus –

⚫The centre of the cell.

⚫bounded by double-layered porous membrane, the nuclear membrane

⚫contains the cell’s genetic material (DNA – DeoxyriboNucleic Acid)

⚫Nucleolus – organelle in nucleus that makes ribosomes.

⚫ Chromatin – DNA-protein complex; normal state of genetic material, except during cell division

⚫ Cell membrane – (plasma membrane) separates contents of cell from surroundings

⚫ Cytoplasm - jelly-like material enclosed by cell membrane – is the liquid that fills the cell.

⚫ Ribosomes- help in the synthesis of proteins.

⚫ Endoplasmic reticulum – series of canals where materials are transported to other parts of the cell.
Has 2 types:

– Rough – has ribosomes attached

– Smooth – where lipid (fat) synthesis occurs

⚫ Mitochondria transform sugar into energy for cell. The cellular powerhouse.

⚫ Golgi bodies – send proteins where they are needed inside or outside the cell

Vacuoles – fluid-filled storehouses that contain water, food, wastes

⚫ Lysosomes – break down food, digest wastes

⚫ Centrioles – a pair of organelles involved in cell division

⚫ Cytoskeleton – a network of filaments that support the cell

5) Taught spontaneous generation as a method of reproduction. The development of science (and

microscopes) helped dispel this myth

6) You know

7)

A tumor can be cancerous or benign. A cancerous tumor is malignant, meaning it can grow and spread
to other parts of the body. A benign tumor means the tumor can grow but will not spread

8)
cells must enter and progress through the cell cycle, a tightly-regulated process that consists of two
main activities: DNA replication and mitosis.

9)

⚫ Advantages – Rapid reproduction (bacteria)

⚫ Disadvantages – Little variation in population; can be wiped out if environmental conditions change

10)

⚫ Vegetative Reproduction – In plants – A piece of the plant breaks off, forms roots and becomes a new
plant.

⚫ Fragmentation – In animals like worms and starfish – Can form new starfish from a single arm.

⚫ Spores – In fungi, some algae and nonflowering plants like ferns. – Unfertilized cells, but are the
primary method of reproduction

⚫ Binary Fission – Used by single celled organisms (bacteria, amoeba, algae) – One cell becomes 2, 2
become 4, etc. – Bacteria can go through a cell cycle in 20 minutes.

⚫ Parthenogenesis

– Unfertilized eggs become new individuals

– Common in ants and bees.

– Seen in some reptiles

– Very uncommon in higher animals

⚫ Grafting

– One plant is attached to another.

– Plants heal together to form a single plant, but maintain characteristics.

– One tree can produce many different types of apples.

⚫ Tissue Culture

– Plant cells are placed in a petri dish with a cocktail of chemicals.

– Each cell becomes a clone of the original plant

– Similar technology is used to make stem cells and animal clones

11) you know

12)

⚫ Hermaphrodites

– Can produce both male and female gametes (garden worms, for example)
– Usually mate with other members of species.

– In some situations can self-fertilize

– Sequential hermaphrodites are born one sex and become the other sex later.

13)

The male gamete, or sperm, and the female gamete, the egg or ovum, meet in the female's reproductive
system

14)

⚫ Body cells are diploid; they contain two copies of each DNA strand.

⚫ Sex cells (gametes) are haploid; they contain one copy of each DNA strand.

– From female (♀) is called an egg

– From male (♂) is called sperm

⚫ At fertilization the egg and sperm combine to create a diploid organism.

15)

⚫ Advantages – Lots of variation in the population increases chance of species survival.

⚫ Disadvantages :

– Male and female must find each other and mate.

– Embryo must be protected and nurtured; can limit the number of possible offspring.

16)

inherited traits are directly passed down from parents to children, whereas heritable traits are not
necessarily genetic.

17)

– Can be discrete (one or the other):

+ White or red flowers, no pink

+ Attached or free earlobes

– Can be continuous:
+ Human height ranges from 1.2 to 2.1 m

+ Hair colour ranges from black to brown to blond

18) You know

19)

– A low protein diet can lead to shorter populations

– Height in North America has steadily increased in the last century

– Skin color can be affected by sun exposure:

– Higher latitude, less vitamin D, lighter skin

– Lower latitude, more vitamin D, darker skin

20)

DNA is made of chemical building blocks called nucleotides. A gene consists of four different nucleotide
bases, which can be sequenced in different ways

21)

– The four bases are:

– adenine (A) thymine (T)

– cytosine (C) guanine (G)

22)

One copy is inherited from their mother (via the egg) and the other from their father (via the sperm). A
sperm and an egg each contain one set of 23 chromosomes. When the sperm fertilises the egg, two
copies of each chromosome are present (and therefore two copies of each gene), and so an embryo
forms.

23)

You know

24)

– Agriculture has used mutations to make plants and animals better:

– Crop breeding:

– pick the largest grains and plant them the next season.

– Animal husbandry:

– pick the best animals and breed them together.

25)

- Cisgenic organisms contain genes from related species:

+ used where cross-pollination or fertilization is not possible

– Transgenic organisms contain genes from other species:

+ genes can come from anywhere

26)

– When a mutation occurs it can result in proteins:

– that cannot function

– function better

– function the same as before

– There is no way to predict if a random mutation will be beneficial.

– Mutations in gametes are passed on to future generations

– Mutations building up over time is evolution.

27)

How:

– In order for a genetic disease (or any mutation) to persist:

– The person must survive

– A lethal mutation will be removed quickly

– The person must reproduce

– Huntington’s disease appears in a person’s 40’s or 50’s

Why:

– Relatively small gene pool

– Some diseases are specific to certain ethnic or racial groups

– We don’t know – Some mutations are just more common than others

28)

• is called the 'master gland' as the hormones it produces control so many different processes in the
body.

• Hormones are chemical messengers that travel through bloodstream, causing cells to respond in
specific ways

• At puberty it stimulates the development of the reproductive systems of both males and females

• The primary hormone is FSH, or Follicle Stimulating Hormone.

29)

You know

30)
31)

If the egg does not become fertilized as it travels down the fallopian tube on its way to the uterus, the
endometrium (lining of the uterus) is shed and passes through the vagina

32)

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH):

• From the brain

• Causes eggs in follicles to mature

• Many follicles develop; usually only 1 release an egg.

Estrogen:

• Released by developing follicles

• Causes the lining of the uterus (endometrium) to thicken in preparation to receive embryo

• Causes the brain to release luteinizing hormone

Luteinizing hormone (LH):

• Causes mature follicle to release an egg (ovulation)

Progesterone:

• Causes endometrium to thicken even more.

• Causes the brain to stop producing FSH and LH – Prevents release of another egg.

33)

The egg develops into a blastocyst, an embryo, then a fetus.

34)
Toward the end of puberty, girls begin to release eggs as part of a monthly period called the menstrual
cycle

35)

It is acidic. Many sperm die. The sperm that makes it through and are pushed through very quickly,
because it is a "danger zone".

36)

It could be attacked by the women's immune system.

37)

Abstinence:

prevents pregnancy by not giving the opportunity for semen to enter the vagina

Condoms:

Prevent sperm from reaching the egg

Diaphragm:

Prevents sperm from entering the cervix and meeting the egg

Birth Control Pill:

Hormones in birth control pills prevent pregnancy by: Stopping or reducing ovulation

38)

Nonhormonal birth control prevents pregnancy without affecting your hormones. The types of
nonhormonal birth control include copper IUDs, barrier methods, spermicide, and natural family
planning.

39)
Through intrauterine insemination (IUI), sperm is placed directly into the uterus using a speculum.
Through In-vitro fertilization (IVF), eggs are surgically removed using a needle that goes through the
back of the vagina, and those eggs are fertilized outside of the body.

40)

In women, cause of infertility can include endometriosis, uterine fibroids and thyroid disease. Men with
fertility problems may have a low sperm count or low testosterone. The risk of infertility increases as
you age.

41)

A type of pregnancy in which a woman carries and gives birth to a baby for a person who is not able to
have children.