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UNIT 2 & 3-Turbomachines - Pai
UNIT 2 & 3-Turbomachines - Pai
UNIT 2 & 3-Turbomachines - Pai
TURBOMACHINES
B. U. Pai
Formerly Special Officer, VTU, Belgaum, Karnataka
Formerly Principal, SDM College of Engineering & Technology, Dharwad, Karnataka
Formerly Professor and Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
SDM College of Engineering & Technology, Dharwad, Karnataka
TURBOMACHINES
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I have taught, over the last 30–35 years, different subjects like Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, IC Engines,
Turbomachines, etc. From the beginning, I have been thoroughly involved with my subjects. When I taught
Turbomachines, it was a different challenge, something more exciting than Thermodynamics. I could easily
identify the opportunity of presenting to my class the different topics of turbomachines in various ways, going
beyond the available texts, adding something here, something there.
The present book is the result of the compilation of my lecture notes that were prepared when I taught
this subject. Quite a few books were referred to, while preparing them, as also during transforming them into
this book. Such reference books have been mentioned in the bibliography. Syllabi of various universities have
been considered during the compilation and refining of the lecture notes. The contents of this book meet the
requirements of the syllabi of many universities. But more important, the contents of this book have been
presented in such a way that they offer materials for postgraduate studies also; a discerning student can look
at the topics as a source of optimization problems for his or her own work.
I was quite fortunate to have many students who could participate in discussions with me to get more and
more information, sometimes beyond the prescribed syllabus. Quite often, the explanations in the classroom
went beyond the texts; sketches and diagrams were liberally used to supplement the verbal instructions. This
book contains many such illustrations (e.g., Figs. 3.5, 6.14, 6.30, 7.5, etc.), where, the primary motive is the
understanding of the working principles.
There are a few topics with which the students have reasons to be a bit uncomfortable, such as velocity
triangles, impulse and reaction, degree of reaction, dynamic action, and so on. This book is intended to offer
a firm foundation for the understanding of those topics and the basic concepts with absolute clarity. A sound
vocabulary, which is already present in the literature, is rediscovered (not invented). The explanations have
been provided in a simple and clear language.
4. Chapter 4: This chapter takes an insight into some general analysis of the turbomachines. Basically this
analysis has been arranged in two main categories: radial flow machines and axial flow machines. The
analysis of radial flow machines applies to centrifugal pumps and centrifugal compressors. Moreover,
the analysis of axial flow machines applies to the axial flow turbines, compressors, and pumps. Since the
treatments are common to such machines in two parts, these are grouped together in this chapter and
therefore this gives a very good foundation to the various other turbomachines. In fact, in later chapters,
this Chapter 4 is being quoted often.
Once the first four chapters are meticulously gone through sequentially, the remaining chapters on Steam
Turbines (Chapter 5); Hydraulic Turbines (Chapter 6); Centrifugal Pumps (Chapter 7); Fans, Blowers, and
Compressors (Chapter 8); and Power-Transmitting Turbomachines (Chapter 9) can be studied very easily, in
any order. The topics are straight forward, unfolding in a smooth and easy flow.
Plenty of solved examples have been provided at appropriate places in the chapters, and comments have
been added at the end of the solutions. It is felt that these comments go a long way in getting the feel of the
subject. Moreover, multiple-choice questions and review questions have been judiciously selected and added
at the end of each chapter, to enhance the quality of instructions. The Project-Oriented Questions are meant
to initiate the students to explore new dimensions of the subject. When such projects, albeit their sizes, are
undertaken by them, whether in groups or individually, the students are bound to get better insight and better
overall perception of the subject.
Detailed solutions available on http://www.wileyindia.com/turbomachines.html
If there are a hundred tittles in the subject of Thermodynamics, the subject matter cannot be different in
different books. What can be different is the way the subject is presented, the way the examples are stated, the
language used, the graphics, and almost every aspect of the book. A few books (not just one or two) generate
a pleasant feeling, create a genuine interest, some delight, some fascination. For different persons, it could be
different books. I sincerely feel that this book is one among such books on the subject Turbomachines.
B. U. PAI
Acknowledgments
I wish to take this opportunity to acknowledge the strength I have derived from the noble life lead by my
parents, Sri Subraya Pai and Smt. Subhadra S. Pai. The totality of my being has been molded by my sisters
Kasturi, Revathi, Pushpa, Vasanthi, and Jayanthi and by my brothers Namdev, Gopalkrishna, and Seetharam,
with all their affection. Some of them are over there, on the Eastern sky, wishing me well-being and success
every morning and leading me to light. I wish to express my gratitude to all of them.
During the preparation of the background material of this book, I got all the support from the management
of Sri Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad. I wish to acknowl-
edge, with respectful regards and gratitude, the encouragement of Dr. D. Veerendra Heggade, President, SDME
Society, and the support extended by the management, as also all my colleagues at the college. The support of
the authorities and my colleagues at VTU is thankfully acknowledged.
The book would not have seen the light of the day, but for the efforts of my son Madhusudan and daughter
Parineetha and the forbearance of my wife Vasanthi. Words of gratitude are but a small speck in my feelings.
I thank Sri. Janardan Joshi and Smt. Tanuja Heddurshetti, who took lots of pain in typing the manu-
script with meticulous care of details. Special thanks to Mr. Praveen Settigere (Sr. Manager Acquisitions,
Wiley India) for his unstinted coordination during various stages of the book. The editorial support from
Ms. Meenakshi Sehrawat (Executive Editor, Wiley India) and Rupnarayan Das (Associate Editor, Wiley India)
needs special mention for taking lots of care to put the manuscript in a correct form and giving valuable sug-
gestions while preparing this book. I’d also like to thank Mr. Rakesh Poddar (Production Editor) for meticu-
lously managing the production-related jobs.
Finally, the acknowledgements are due to all my teachers and to all my students, especially those students
who reposed unparalleled faith on me, those who engaged me in useful discussions and gave way for the
enjoyment of the subject in all its rich flavor of the variety and contents.
B. U. PAI
Nomenclature
(Symbols are also explained, when they are introduced in the text.)
A Area of flow
A0 Area of flow through guide vanes
A1 Area of flow at the inlet to rotor
A2 Area of flow at the outlet from the rotor
B Breadth or width of the blades
B0 Breadth of guide vanes
B1 Breadth at the inlet of the rotor
B2 Breadth at the outlet from the rotor
C Constant of proportionality
cb Coefficient of frictional losses
cp Specific heat of fluid at constant pressure
cv Coefficient of velocity for nozzles
oC Unit of temperature, degree Celsius (dimension)
D Diameter
D0 Diameter of guide-vane ring
D1 Diameter of rotor at inlet
D2 Diameter of rotor at outlet
(D1, D2, D3 … Reference diameters of rotors of different machines in model studies, Dm and Dp
are also used for model and prototype in model studies)
Dp Diameter of penstock pipes
d Jet diameter in Pelton turbines
d Runner hub diameter in Kaplan turbines
E Energy of fluid
E1 Energy of fluid at inlet
E2 Energy of fluid at outlet
e Specific energy
e1 Specific energy at inlet
e2 Specific energy at outlet
F Force
g Acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
gc Constant, y 1(kg – m)/(N – s2), an identity
H Head
HE Head, as identified by Euler’s equation
Hm Manometric head
x Turbomachines
(H1, H2, H3. Reference heads of different machines in model studies; Hm and Hp are also used for
model and prototype in model studies)
Hn Net head
h Enthalpy of fluids
h0 Stagnation enthalpy
h01 Stagnation enthalpy at inlet
h02 Stagnation enthalpy at outlet
h1 Static enthalpy at inlet
h2 Static enthalpy at outlet
ha Head equivalent to atmospheric pressure
hd Delivery head
hf Friction head (loss)
hfs Friction head on suction side
hfd Friction head on delivery side
hs Suction head
hv Vapor pressure head
J Unit of energy, Joules (equal to m – N) (dimension)
K Unit of absolute temperature, Kelvin (dimension)
kg Unit of mass, kilogram (dimension)
L Length of pipe
L0 Length of guide-vanes
m Unit of length, meter (dimension)
m. Mass flow rate, kg/s
N Unit of force, newton (dimension)
N Revolutions per minute (rpm), speed of rotors
(N1, N2, N3, … rpms of different machines in model studies; Nm and Np are also used for rpm of
model and prototype in model studies)
N1 Unit speed
Ns Specific speed
Nsp Specific speed of pump
Nst Specific speed of turbine
n Revolutions per second (rps)
P Power, (watts or kilowatts)
Pa Available power
Pa Unit of pressure, Pascal (equal to N/m2) (dimension)
Pn Net power
Pr Rotor power; also, overall pressure ratio in multistage units
Ps Shaft power
Pu Useful power
(P1, P2 ... Powers of different machines in model studies; Pm and Pp are also used for powers of
model and prototype in model studies)
p Pressure of fluid
po Stagnation pressure
nomenclature xi
@ Angle of absolute velocity of fluid relative to blade velocity (Also used as a temporary group in
Section 2.9)
@1 Angle of fluid velocity relative to U at inlet
@2 Angle of fluid velocity relative to U at outlet
A Blade angle: Angle of tangent to blade profile with U
A1 Blade angle at inlet
A2 Blade angle at outlet
F Ratio of specific heats of fluid
$ Change in …
Utilization factor of turbines
E Speed ratio, U/V1 (also, F is speed coefficient)
Eo Speed coefficient for guide blades
E1 Speed coefficient for rotor blades at inlet
G Efficiency
Gh Hydraulic efficiency
Gm Mechanical efficiency
Gn Nozzle efficiency
G0 Overall efficiency
Gr Rotor efficiency
Gs Isentropic efficiency
Gv Volumetric efficiency
Gco carryover efficiency
Gdt Draft-tube efficiency
Gpc Polytropic efficiency of compressor
Gpt Polytropic efficiency of turbine
Gst Stage efficiency
Efficiencies are also specified for compressor (suffix c) and turbine (suffix t) with subscripts t for
total and s for static, in as many combinations, and explained in the context.
L Coefficient of slip
O1 Flow coefficient (model studies)
O2 Head coefficient (model studies)
O3 Power coefficient (model studies)
Q Density of fluid, kg/m3
X Coefficient of pressure
Xo Flow coefficient for guide vanes (Francis, Kaplan, Propeller turbines)
X1 Flow coefficient for runner (at inlet) (Francis, Kaplan, Propeller turbines)
S Torque
V Angular velocity
7 Shape number or dimensionless specific speed
7p Shape number of pump, Eq. 1.27
7t Shape number of turbine, Eq. 1.28A Area of flow
A0 Area of flow through guide vanes
A1 Area of flow at the inlet to rotor
nomenclature xiii
G Efficiency
Gh Hydraulic efficiency
Gm Mechanical efficiency
Gn Nozzle efficiency
G0 Overall efficiency
Gr Rotor efficiency
Gs Isentropic efficiency
Gv Volumetric efficiency
Gco carryover efficiency
Gdt Draft-tube efficiency
Gpc Polytropic efficiency of compressor
Gpt Polytropic efficiency of turbine
Gst Stage efficiency
Efficiencies are also specified for compressor (suffix c) and turbine (suffix t) with subscripts t for
total and s for static, in as many combinations, and explained in the context.
L Coefficient of slip
O1 Flow coefficient (model studies)
O2 Head coefficient (model studies)
O3 Power coefficient (model studies)
Q Density of fluid, kg/m3
X Coefficient of pressure
Xo Flow coefficient for guide vanes (Francis, Kaplan, Propeller turbines)
X1 Flow coefficient for runner (at inlet) (Francis, Kaplan, Propeller turbines)
S Torque
V Angular velocity
7 Shape number or dimensionless specific speed
7p Shape number of pump, Eq. (1.27)
7t Shape number of turbine, Eq. (1.28)
Contents
Preface v
Acknowledgments vii
Nomenclature ix
1 Basics of Turbomachines 1
Learning Objectives 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Classification of Fluid Machines 1
1.3 Turbomachines 2
1.4 Turbomachines and Positive Displacement Machines 3
1.5 Classification of Turbomachines 4
1.5.1 Examples 5
1.6 Units and Dimensions 8
1.7 Energy of Fluids 8
1.7.1 Pressure Energy 9
1.7.2 Kinetic Energy 9
1.7.3 Potential Energy 9
1.7.4 Thermal Energy or Enthalpy 9
1.7.5 Head Energy 11
1.8 Application of the First Law of Thermodynamics 12
1.9 Application of the Second Law of Thermodynamics 14
1.9.1 Efficiencies of Turbomachines 15
1.9.2 Power-Flow Diagrams in Head Units 18
1.10 Model Studies 23
1.11 Dimensional Analysis 24
1.12 Unit and Specific Quantities 29
1.13 Non-Dimensional Parameters and Their Significance 32
1.14 Effect of Reynolds Number 33
1.15 Specific Speed 33
Keywords 41
Summary 41
Important Equations 42
Multiple-Choice Questions 43
Review Questions 43
Exercises 44
Project-Oriented Questions 45
Answers 46
xviii Turbomachines
Summary 267
Important Equations 268
Multiple-Choice Questions 268
Review Questions 269
Exercises 270
Project-Oriented Questions 272
Answers 272
Glossary 369
Bibliography 381
Index 383
1 Basics of Turbomachines
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
v Understand and be familiar with the hardware approaches, to arrive at the different forms of
details of turbomachines. efficiencies.
v Understand and be familiar with the terminol- v Explore the principles of model studies and the
ogy used in turbomachine practice. application of the same to design turbomachines.
v Understand and be familiar with the concepts v Arrive at the design parameters of turboma-
of energy flow, including losses, in turboma- chines from the data of practical and field con-
chines, with both qualitative and quantitative ditions.
1.1 Introduction
The energy consumption of mankind has been steadily increasing. Both the production of mechanical
energy from the basic sources of energy and the consumption of that mechanical energy to run the devices
to make life easier require various systems. These systems have different components with varied functions
and complexities. Some of these components are those in which the fluids flow and cause the conversion
of energy. Various types of turbines that produce mechanical form of energy and various types of pumps
and compressors that consume the mechanical energy possess some common features. These components,
termed under a common name – turbomachines, have the same basic principles of working. Whether it is
a tiny fan measuring just 5 cm in diameter to provide the circulation of cooling air to a laptop or a steam
turbine producing hundreds of megawatts of power to run electrical generators, the design principles are
based on the same fundamentals. This book is intended to make an effort to understand such fundamentals
with reference to turbomachines.
Further, in this chapter, the fundamentals of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics which form the basis
of turbomachines are recalled for the purpose of consolidation and ready reference. The units, dimensions,
and model studies are detailed as the first step in the procedure of designing a turbomachine to suit a given
situation of available data and required performance.
Fluid machines
Gear motors
Piston motors
Vane motors
Rotary pumps
Gear pumps
Piston pumps
Vane pumps
Reciprocating pumps
Diaphragm pumps
Piston pumps
Miscellaneous devices
Airbrakes
Brake devices
Hydraulic brakes
Airlift pumps
Hydraulic Ram
1.3 Turbomachines
A turbomachine is a machine in which there is a continuous transfer of energy between a rotor with vanes
and a fluid flowing through the spaces between the vanes of that rotor, due to dynamic action, resulting in
a change in the pressure and/or the momentum of the fluid.
Basics of Turbomachines 3
Some observations may be made with reference to the above definition of a turbomachine; and they are
as follows:
1. It is a machine. It is an equipment whose hardware details can be shown in a sketch. Also, it can be
easily visualized.
2. There is a transfer of energy. The transfer is a process and the process is continuous, not periodic or
stepwise.
3. The energy-transfer process is between two entities. These two entities are a rotor with vanes and
a flowing fluid. The direction of the flow of energy is not specified (as yet). It could be in either
direction: From the rotor to the fluid or from the fluid to the rotor.
4. There is a “dynamic action.” The process of energy flow takes place as the fluid “flows.” (Take a
cardboard and whirl it or “fan” it in front of your face. You feel a “draft” of air. The moving cardboard
has given energy to the air; the air has gained the kinetic energy now. The process is said to be by
“dynamic action.”)
5. The fluid does not get confined in some limited space.
6. The net result of the process is the change in the energy of the fluid, either increase or decrease, in
the form of change in its pressure, momentum, or both.
Certain generalities exist in turbomachines such as
1. They may handle either liquids or gases (hence “fluids”) and
2. They may extract energy from fluids or may impart energy to fluids.
The principles or theories involved are the same for the entire class of turbomachines.
(Continued)
4 Turbomachines
The comparison between the two classes of machines as presented in the table is only qualitative. It need
not be concluded that any one type is superior to the other type. Each type has its own merits and
applications.
with the different parts of turbomachines of different types, as a preliminary step. The classification of
turbomachines based on the various criteria is indicated in Table 1.2.
Some of the turbomachines given as examples in Table 1.2 are schematically shown in the following subsec-
tions. The following features may be used as checkpoints to look into, with respect to each of the turboma-
chine, and the fluid flow path may be clearly identified
1. There is basically a shaft mounted on bearings.
2. The “vaned rotor” is keyed onto the shaft.
3. “Rotor” is a general name:
t Rotor is also known as “runner” in the work-producing turbomachines or turbines.
t Rotor is also known as “impeller” in the work-absorbing turbomachines, pumps, or compressors.
4. Shaft is “coupled” to either a generator (to produce power) or a motor (to draw power, i.e., to utilize
power).
5. A stator encloses the rotor.
6. The stator guides the flow of fluid.
7. The stator houses components such as guide vanes, nozzles, or diffusers.
1.5.1 Examples
In the following subsections, some examples of turbomachines have been provided.
Coupling
Impeller Motor
Shaft
Suction Base
Bearings
Vanes
Shaft Thrust
bearing
Runner
vanes
Draft tube
Water discharge
Tailrace level
Shaft Coupling
Water
supply
To generator
To
Bearings generator
Stator blades
(fixed blades)
Steam discharge
Table 1.2 shows that turbomachines are also classified as “impulse machines” and “reaction machines” depending
on the type of dynamic action. This dynamic action can be elaborated only after the energy interactions in turbo-
machines are understood to some extent.
Also,
1 kg m y 1 N s2
With the units of mass, length, time, and force fixed as above (as in the SI system of units), gc is a constant
with its numerical value of unity having the dimensions of (kg m)/(N s2). Hence, the dimensions of any
physical entity can be multiplied or divided by gc without any loss of character of that physical entity and
without any change in the numerical value of the measure of its quantity. This multiplication or division
by gc is done where the dimensions are required to be homogeneous in equations, in all the quantities.
The different forms of energies can be easily considered, with common dimensions, as illustrated in
Section 1.7.
Again, division by gc is without any alteration in the numerical value. The potential energy of a fluid at a
height of 10 m above a given datum is
10 s g 10 s 9.81 m2/s2 98.1 J/kg
J J
$h c p $T s oC
kgoC kg
The equation $h c p $T above holds good when the specific heat cp remains constant. When the fluid is
air, the specific heat can be taken as constant over the ranges of temperature changes that are usually encoun-
tered in turbomachines. When the fluid is steam, the enthalpies have to be obtained from the steam tables.
A fluid can have different forms of energy as discussed above and its total energy is the sum of the indi-
vidual forms of energy. Essentially, all the forms must be in the same dimensions to make it possible to add
them together. As seen above, whether the dimensions are m2/s2, mN/kg, or J/kg, these are all identically the
same.
EXAMPLE 1.1
Calculate the energy of a stream of water at a pressure of 200 kPa, flowing at 8 m/s at an elevation of 5 m
above a given datum. Take the density of water as 1000 kg/m3.
Solution: We have
Total energy Pressure energy Kinetic energy Potential energy
p V2 zg
Total energy
R 2 gc gc
200 s 103 82 5 s 9.81
1000 2 s gc gc
N m3 m 2 1 m 1
2
s 2
s ms s
m kg s (kg m) /(N s2) s 2 (kg m)/(N s2 )
200 32 49.05 281.05 J/ kg
EXAMPLE 1.2
The pressure and temperature of combustion gases are 6 atm and 560oC, respectively, at the inlet of a gas
turbine. The pressure drops to 1 atm while the gases flow through the turbine. Assuming that the expan-
sion is isentropic, determine the enthalpy drop of the gases in the turbine. cp for gases 1.006 kJ/kg K,
F 1.4.
The thermal energy or enthalpy is not converted into “meters of liquid” because enthalpy, in this context, is
referred to only gaseous fluids.
The energy unit of “meters of liquid” is of a higher magnitude. Thus, 1 m of water is equal to 9.81 J/kg
of water.
EXAMPLE 1.3
In a hydropower development project, water is available at a height of 450 m above the datum level. What
is the pressure of water at the datum? If the entire energy of water were to be converted into kinetic energy
without any loss, what would be the velocity of water at the datum level?
12 Turbomachines
Solution: The energy of available water is 450 m of water. The specific weight of water is 9810 N/m3.
So
p
450
w
Therefore
p 450 s w
N
450 s 9810 m s
m3
4414500 N / m 2
4414.5 kPa
The total energy of water, 450 m of water, is converted to kinetic energy with a velocity V, without any
loss. Then, we have
V2
450
2g
V 2 g s 450
V 2 (93.963)2
4414.5 J/kg
2 2
Comment: In this case, the same energy of water is expressed in different units: 450 m of water or 93.963
m/s or 4414.5 J/kg. All these quantities are equivalent and represent the very same amount of energy in
different units.
The fluid stream interacting with the rotor of a turbomachine can have different forms of energy. While ana-
lyzing the process of interaction, it is required to add all the forms of energy together, at any given point. It
is necessary and common practice to consider the pressure component of energy for liquid streams, whereas
for gaseous streams, the enthalpy component of energy is considered, while adding the different forms of
energy.
Work
¥ J´ ¥ J´ ¥ kg ´
P ¦ µ W ¦ µ s m ¦ µ
§ s¶ § kg ¶ § s ¶
where P is in watts. W and P are positive when the fluid has higher energy at the inlet than at the outlet.
These are “power machines” producing motive power to run other machines. Mathematically, the equations
hold good for work-absorbing machines, such as pumps, fans, compressors, etc. The fluid energy at the
outlet of these machines is more than the energy at the inlet and the specific work becomes negative in the
equation. This signifies that power is the input to such turbomachines.
When the fluid is incompressible (namely, liquids), the enthalpy terms are replaced by more appropriate
terms of pressure energy. In such cases, the density Q is employed instead of specific volume. The density Q is
invariable (Q1 Q2) over a large range of pressures. The expression for specific work in such cases becomes
¥p V12 g´ ¥ p2 V22 g´
W ¦ 1 z1 z2 (1.4)
§R 2 gc g c µ¶ ¦ R
§ 2 gc g c µ¶
All the units are J/kg. Also
p1 p2 V12 V22 ( z1 z2 ) g
W (1.5)
R 2 gc gc
14 Turbomachines
1¥ RV12 ´ 1¥ RV22 ´ g
W p p ( z1 z2 )
R ¦§ 1 2 g c µ¶ R ¦§ 2 2 g c µ¶ gc
So
1 g
W ( p0 p0 ) ( z1 z2 ) (1.6)
R 1 2
gc
and P W s m
Now, since the fluid is incompressible, the head energy terms can also be used. However, it is suggested that
one has to be more cautious in using the expression “head-generated” in place of “power-generated” or power
output. The terms are somewhat opposite to each other in their signs. If the “head” is the output, obviously
the power or work is the input. This corresponds to the turbomachine as a power-consuming machine, using
mechanical power and “lifting” or pumping the liquid through a height or the “head” of that liquid. If the
“head” is the input, then power or work is the output. This corresponds to a turbine, worked by the liquid
head and giving out mechanical power as output. Using H (for head) in place of W, the signs of the quantities
are changed, and Eq. (1.5) becomes
p2 p1 V22 V12
H ( z2 z1 ) (1.7)
w 2g
All units are meters of liquid. In continuation,
P wQH
N m3 mN J
s sm W (1.8)
m 3 s s s
where Q is the volume rate of flow of the liquid (m3/s) through the turbomachine.
In Eqs. (1.2) to (1.7), subscripts 1 and 2 represent the inlet and outlet points of the turbomachine. Thus,
z1 and z2 represent the heights of the inlet and outlet, respectively, above a common datum. Equations
(1.2)–(1.7) represent the general form. There are a few instances where z1 and z2 are really different, but in
a large number of cases, z1 and z2 are equal.
Pa P Pn Pr
V22 V22 V22
− losses W − losses
Ps
W+ W+ W+
2gc 2gc 2gc m − Δm
m m − Δm m − Δm
For a turbine, the input power Pa is the power available in the fluid at the inlet. This available power is the
product of two factors:
1. The mass flow rate in kg/s.
2. The “inlet specific work” (J/kg) that again has two components:
t The specific work as evaluated between the inlet and outlet of rotor, W [Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2)].
t The exit kinetic energy, V 22 / 2g c .
In the schematic diagram shown in Fig. 1.7, the energy or power is represented as a width of a strip and the
available power Pa is at the left side. The flow of power is from left to right. The output power is at the right. The
diversions downward are the losses. Both specific work and mass flow rates keep reducing due to the losses.
The losses, as shown, are only indicative. They occur neither in steps nor one after another. The losses are
continuous and simultaneous.
16 Turbomachines
To understand the Fig.1.7, the quantities mentioned in the figure are explained as follows:
m Mass flow rate of fluid at the inlet, kg/s,
W Specific work, as defined by Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2).
Wa Available energy of the fluid at the inlet, J/kg,
V22
W
2 gc
Pa Power available in the fluid at the inlet, Watts,
¥ V22 ´
¦W m
§ 2 g c µ¶
P Power that can be extracted from the fluid, after the leakage. Generally, leakages are referred to as
volumetric losses.
Pn Net power extracted after the losses due to viscous friction and skin friction. So
Pn P – Friction losses.
Pr Power at the rotor or runner of the turbine. So
Pr Pn – Exit losses.
Ps Power at the output of the machine at its shaft that is equal to the runner power minus bearing
losses or mechanical losses at the bearings. So
Ps Pr – Bearing losses.
The following efficiencies are defined: The utilization factor is
Pr W
E
Pn V 22
W (1.9)
2 gc
The hydraulic or adiabatic efficiency is
Pr Pr Pn
Hh or Ha s (1.10)
P Pn P
The volumetric efficiency is
¥ m $m ´ ¥ Q $Q ´ P
Hv ¦ (1.11)
§ m µ¶ ¦§ Q µ¶ Pa
The mechanical efficiency is
Ps
Hm (1.12)
Pr
The overall efficiency is given by
Ps Ps Pr P
Ho s s Hm s Hh s Hv (1.13)
Pa Pr P Pa
Basics of Turbomachines 17
It may be noted that hydraulic efficiency is inclusive of the utilization factor and the irreversible effects of
viscous and skin frictions, eddies, turbulence, and other losses.
Pr Pn P Pu
V22
Ps Wn Wn W W
2gc
m m m m m
The purpose of the two power-flow diagrams, Figs. 1.7 and 1.8, is to visualize the flow of energy supplied either
in the fluid at the inlet or in the shaft at the coupling. The diagrams when related to the relevant schematic
sketches of the equipment (shown in Figs. 1.2–1.6) give a fairly good idea of the conversion of energy from the
inlet point to the final useful point along with different loss components. The situation is similar to drawing up
a “heat balance” or “enthalpy balance” in Internal Combustion engines. Some more explanations will be added,
as and when required. Frequent reference to these diagrams may be necessary from time to time.
Pa P Pn Pr
w w w w
Shaft
Q Q Q Q Q Q Ps Power
Q
V22 V22
V22 H H losses H losses
H 2g 2g
2g
Figure 1.9 Power flow from the fluid to the shaft: The fluid is liquid or water.
Basics of Turbomachines 19
Pr Pn P Pu Useful
fluid
Ps w w w w power
Shaft
Q Q Q
power Q Q
V22
H H
Hn Hn 2g
The endeavors of the mechanical engineers have been to increase the efficiencies of their devices by reducing
the losses. Some of the losses in turbomachines, like the ones discussed in Section 1.9.1, are very easy to
understand. Bearing friction is one such item. Leakage losses can also be considered easier to understand.
What about hydraulic losses, or the losses occurring during expansion or compression processes? What
about “exit losses?” (It has to be noted here that the exit velocity is shown as a loss in Section 1.9.1. But
it need not be a loss all the time, if the exit velocity is useful, in a succeeding process of compression or
expansion, as in multistage systems.) It is required, therefore, to find the nature of the losses and means of
assessing and reducing them.
EXAMPLE 1.4
A flow rate of 3 m3/s of water is available at a height of 110 m at a project site. Due to losses in the sup-
ply line, the head available at the inlet to powerhouse is estimated to be only 101 m of water. The leakage
losses in the powerhouse are negligible. Mechanical losses account for 150 kW. Frictional losses in the
rotor blades may be taken as 250 kW. The exit velocity of water from the turbines is 4.5 m/s. Calculate
the hydraulic, mechanical, and overall efficiencies of the plant. The specific weight of water may be taken
as 9810 N/m3.
Solution: We have Q 3 m3/s, H 101 m, mechanical losses 150 kW, hydraulic losses 250 kW
and w 9810 N/m3.
Available power is
101
Pa wQH 9810 s 3 s 2972.43 kW
1000
Net power after the losses, Pn 2972.43 – 250 2722.43 kW.
Rotor power is
Pr Net power Exit losses
Pn wQ (V 22 / 2g c )
20 Turbomachines
( 4.5)2
2722.43 9810 s 3 s
2 s 9.81
2692.055 kW
Shaft power is
Ps Rotor power – Mechanical losses
2692.055 – 150
2542.055 kW
Now
Rotor power 26992.055
Hydraulic efficiency (no leakage ) 90.57%
Available power 2972.43
Shaft power 2542.055
Mechanical efficiency 94.43%
Rotor poower 2692.055
Shaft power 2542.055
Overall efficiency 85.52%
Available power 2972.43
EXAMPLE 1.5
A gas turbine works with a pressure ratio of 6:1. The temperature and velocity of gases at the inlet to the
turbine are 900 K and 350 m/s, respectively. The isentropic expansion efficiency is said to be 85%. The
velocity of gases at the outlet is 50 m/s. The specific heat of gases, cp, over the working range may be taken
as 1.004 kJ/kg K and F 1.4. Determine the power output of the turbine for the unit mass flow rate of
gases.
Solution: We have pressure ratio 6:1, T1 900 K, V1 350 m/s, V2 50 m/s, cp 1.004 kJ/kgK,
F 1.4.
For gas turbines, it may be assumed that z1 z2. For the isentropic expansion process, 1 2 a,
(G 1)/G
T1 ¥p ´
¦ 1µ
T2a § p2 ¶
Therefore
900 0.4 /1.4
6 1.6685
T2a
Also
900
T2a 539.4 K
1.6685
Isentropic temperature drop 900 – 539.4 360.6.
Therefore, the actual temperature drop (360.6) s 0.85 306.5.
Basics of Turbomachines 21
The power output for the unit mass flow rate W s m 367.726 kW.
Comment: Although the power output is as above, part of this power is required to drive a compressor,
which is part of the gas turbine power plant.
EXAMPLE 1.6
An axial flow air compressor has a pressure ratio of 1:6. The compressor draws air from atmosphere at
a temperature of 300 K. The inlet velocity may be considered negligible. The isentropic compression
efficiency of the compressor is 0.88. The velocity of air at the outlet is 40 m/s. The specific heat of air
over the working range is 1.004 kJ/kg, F 1.4. Find the power required to drive the compressor to
compress air at a nominal rate of 1 kg/s.
Solution: We have pressure ratio 1:6, T1 300 K, V2 40 m/s, cp 1.004 kJ/kgK, F 1.4
Assume that z1 z2 for the compressor. For the isentropic compression process, 1 2 a,
(G 1)/G
T2a¥p ´
¦ 2µ
T1 § p1 ¶
The power required to drive the compressor for a flow rate of 1 kg/s is
W s m· 229.6 kW
Comment: This compressor is required to be matched with the turbine of the previous example. Consider
the steps required to match.
EXAMPLE 1.7
Water is required to be pumped to the overhead tank of a building of 20 storeys through a vertical height
of 75 m from the sump level. The total equivalent length of the delivery pipe, including the effects of
pipe fittings, is 80 m. The pipe diameter is 50 mm; its friction factor is 0.006. Determine the power of
the required motor to pump the water at a rate of 10 lps. The mechanical losses of the pump are equal to
0.2 kW. The hydraulic efficiency of the pump is 93.6%. Assume leakage and return flow losses as 0.2 lps.
Also find the mechanical, volumetric, and overall efficiencies of the pump.
Solution: We have vertical height 75 m, equivalent length of pipe 80 m, f 0.006, Q 0.01 m3/s,
delivery pipe diameter 50 mm, $Q 0.0002 m3/s, Gh 0.936, mechanical losses 0.2 kW. Now, the
velocity of water in the pipe is
Q 0.01
V 2
5.093 m/s
Pd ¥ 0.052 ´
4 ¦§ P s 4 µ¶
Again,
Flow across the pump Pump delivery required Leakage losses
Therefore,
Flow across the pump 0.01 0.0002 0.0102 m3/s
We have power output of the pump,
P wQH
9810 s 0.0102 s 135.8
Power of the pump 13.59 kW
1000
Referring to Fig.1.10, we have
Power of the motor Power of the pump Mechanical losses in the pump
Power of the motor 13.59 0.2 13.79 kW
Power output of the pump
Mechanical efficiency
Power input to the pump (from motor)
13.59
98.55%
13.79
Actual flow rate
Volumetric efficiency
(Flow rate Return flow losses)
Q
(Q $Q )
10
98%
10.2
From Eq. (1.17), overall efficiency Hh s Hv s Hm
0.9855 s 0.98 s 0.936 90.4%
as a valid performance of the prototype machine. If this performance is not satisfactory, design modifications
can be made and the steps can be repeated. Costly errors, therefore, can be avoided by the model studies.
The methods of extrapolation of the performance are subject to certain rules that are formulated by the
dimensional analysis.
H
P2
N 2D2
H1 H2 H3
… (1.19)
N12 D12 N 22 D22 N 32 D32
The subscripts on the right-hand sides, namely, 1, 2, 3, …, signify different similar machines.
3. The power of a turbomachine is wQH as has already been seen. Expressing Q and H as above, it is
now possible to write
P t QH (when the fluid density is the same)
P t (ND3) (N2D2)
P t N3D5
P
P3 3 5
N D
where O3 is the constant of proportionality, inclusive of other constants, scale factors, etc. This O3 is
known as the power coefficient. Power coefficients have to be of the same value for all geometrically
similar machines with kinematic and dynamic similarities at corresponding operating points. Thus
P
P3
N 3 D5
P P P
31 5 32 5 33 5 … (1.20)
N1 D1 N 2 D2 N 3 D3
The subscripts on the right-hand sides, namely, 1, 2, 3, …, signify different similar machines.
The above three coefficients (namely, O1, O2, and O3) are the constants of proportionality. An example is given
below to illustrate how to use these coefficients to extrapolate the performance of one machine to that of another.
P
Np y
Pp
P
Nm
Pm x
Qm QP Q
Suppose that one of the performance characteristics is a plot of power P as a function of the flow rate
Q, as obtained by experiment on a model at a speed Nm, curve M in Fig. 1.11. It is required to project the
value of power Pp of prototype, at a delivery Qp of prototype at a speed Np of the prototype. Starting from
the values of model at point x, the following can be written:
26 Turbomachines
Qm Qp
P1
N m Dm3 N p Dp3
Therefore
3
N p ¥ Dp ´
Q p Qm s
N m ¦§ Dm µ¶
Thus, the value of Pp is also established, when scale factor is known. The characteristic of the prototype machine
has a point y (Qp, Pp) on it, as shown. Picking a series of points on curve M, a whole set of points on curve P
can be obtained, resulting in the characteristic of the prototype. It is easy to get a family of curves, taking the
speed Np as a variable parameter, Np1, Np2, Np3, …, for the prototype machine.
The flow rate Q, the head H, the operating speed N, and the power input or output P are the important
parameters to be considered in the design of the prototype machine as well as the model. During the experi-
ments on the model, the same parameters are to be studied. Another important parameter is the efficiency
of the machines. The objective of a design engineer is to maximize the efficiency. Hence, the efficiency of
the model is also studied along with the above parameters (Q, H, N, P) and the efficiency of the prototype
machine is extrapolated.
A correlation suggested by Moody et al. to connect the efficiencies of the model and prototype machine
is as follows:
1/5
1 Hp¥D ´
¦ mµ (1.21)
1 Hm § Dp ¶
While conducting the experiments on the model, the values of efficiencies of the model, (Gm) can also be
evaluated along with Q, H, N, P at different points of operation. Using the above correlation, the values of
the efficiencies of the prototype machine (Gp) can also be calculated as part of extrapolation.
It is suggested that some caution has to be exercised in the procedure because of some of the
uncertainties:
1. The ratio of surface roughness to any macrodimension may not be the same between the model and
prototype. As a result, the flow characteristics may be different.
2. Even between two macrodimensions, the proportions may vary, such as the ratios of clearances to
diameters.
3. If the fluid being handled is totally different (with widely varying viscosities) between the model and
the prototype, it is possible that the projection may be wrong. Yet, the extrapolation or prediction
may be taken as a fair estimate of the performance of the prototype.
Basics of Turbomachines 27
EXAMPLE 1.8
A centrifugal pump is designed for a town water supply project. Before undertaking the manufacture of
the pump, a one-eighth size model of the pump is built and trials are run on the model. The observations
are shown in Table 1.3. It is required to extrapolate the performance of the prototype pump at a speed
of 600 rpm.
Particulars of the model:
Impeller outlet diameter, Dm: 0.1 m
Speed, Nm: 1500 rpm
Particulars of the prototype machine:
Impeller outlet diameter, Dp: 0.8 m
Speed, Np: 600 rpm
Solution: Consider the trial with Hm 4.1 m, Qm 0.019 m3/s, and Pm 0.99 kW. The head of
prototype machine is
2 2
¥ Np ´ ¥ Dp ´
Hp Hm s ¦ µ s¦ µ
§ Nm ¶ § Dm ¶
2 2
¥ 600 ´ ¥ 0.8 ´
4.1 s ¦ s¦ µ
§ 1500 µ¶ § 0.1¶
41.984 m of water
Flow rate of prototype is
3
¥ N p ´ ¥ Dp ´
Q p Qm s ¦ µ s¦ µ
§ N m ¶ § Dm ¶
3
¥ 600 ´ ¥ 0.8 ´
0.019 s ¦ s
§ 1500 µ¶ ¦§ 0.1µ¶
3.89 m3 / s
As per the data in Table 1.3, input power for the model, Pim 0.99 kW.
Efficiency of the model is
0.7642
Hm 0.772
0.99
Therefore, the efficiency of prototype is
0.2
¥D ´
Hp 1 (1 Hm ) ¦ m µ 0.8496
§ Dp ¶
Output power of the prototype machine is
9810 s 3.89 s 41.984
1602.15 kW
1000
Therefore, the input power required is
Output 1602.15
1885.76 kW
Efficiency 0.8496
It is suggested that the other trials may be worked out as exercise. The results are shown in the tabular
form for all the trials in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4
Thus, the performance of the prototype machine can be mapped, even before the machine is manufac-
tured, by conducting tests on a similar, small model machine and extrapolating the performance.
As seen above O1, O2, and O3 are the constants of proportionality. Although they are dimensional con-
stants (because they include factors such as O/60, etc.), their usage is limited to the extrapolation of perfor-
mance, that is, to write
Q1 Q2 H1 H2
or …
N1D13 N 2 D23 N1D12 N 2 D22
Basics of Turbomachines 29
Hence, their numerical values do not directly characterize a turbomachine. Even if it is possible to non-
dimensionalize the coefficients, their usage still remains restricted. However, to truly characterize a turboma-
chine, some non-dimensional groups of variables must be identified. A formal method adopted for such iden-
tification of non-dimensional parameters is the dimensional analysis using the Buckingham O-theorem.
Q t Vf t 2 gH
Hence
Q t H or Q C 2 H
Now Q Q1 when H 1. So
C2 Q1
Therefore
Q
Q1 (1.23)
H
3. The unit power, P1, of a given turbomachine is the power of the same machine when the head of the
machine is 1 m of water. It is known that
P t QH t H H t H3/2
Hence
P C3· H3/2
Now P P1, when H 1. Therefore
C3 P1
P
P1 (1.24)
H 3/ 2
The unit quantities make it possible to compare the different machines working with different heads.
In addition to the unit quantities, another set of quantities are the “specific quantities”. In this
case, along with the head of a machine, the size of the machine can also be reduced to the unit size
for the sake of comparison. The quantities so obtained are known as specific quantities. Thus, the
following specific quantities are defined.
4. The specific flow, Q11, of a given turbomachine is the flow corresponding to a similar machine of
some unit dimension and working with unit head. The unit dimension is 1 m diameter of the rotor,
or in the case of Pelton turbine, it is the unit diameter of the jet. It can be seen that
Q t D2 H or Q C4 D2 H or C4 Q11
Therefore
Q
Q11 (1.25)
(D 2 H)
5. The specific power, P11, of a given turbomachine is the power of a similar machine, with some unit
dimension and working with unit head. It can be seen that
P t QH
P t (D2 H )(H)
Basics of Turbomachines 31
P C5 D2 H3/2
Now P P11, when D 1, H 1. Hence
C5 P11
Therefore
P
P11 (1.26)
( D 2 H 3/ 2 )
But in continuation, the specific speed is an exception to the above definition, and the specific speed has
been elaborated in Section 1.15.
EXAMPLE 1.9
A water turbine of runner diameter 1.12 m works with a head of 101 m of water, 3 m3/s of flow and
produces a power of 2542 kW at a speed of 375 rpm. Determine the (a) unit speed, (b) unit flow, (c) unit
power, (d) specific flow, and (e) specific power of the turbine.
EXAMPLE 1.10
A one-fourth size model of the turbine in Example 1.9 is required to be tested in a laboratory. The maxi-
mum head available in the lab is 10 m of water. Find the flow rate required to be planned, the speed at
which the model is to be tested, and the output of the model.
32 Turbomachines
N m N p 42 s (10 / 101)
N m 472 rpm
Also
3 5
Pm ¥N ´ ¥D ´
¦ mµ ¦ mµ
Pp § N p ¶ § Dp ¶
Pm 4.95 kW
Again
3
Qm N ¥D ´ 472 ¥ 1 ´
3
m ¦ m µ s¦ µ
Qp N p § Dp ¶ 375 § 4 ¶
Qm 0.059 m3 /s
The non-dimensional form of O1 ( Q/nD3) when expressed as (Q/D2)/(nD) Q/D2 H becomes the
specific flow. Thus, the flow coefficient O1 signifies the specific flow and represents a similar machine with
some unit dimension and unit head [see Eq. (1.25)]. In addition, when expressed as (Q/D2)/(nD), this signi-
fies (the inverse of ) the speed ratio (1/E ). This speed ratio is one very important design parameter that will
be discussed later in Section 3.6.
Similarly, O2 ( H/n2D2) represents the ratio of (fluid velocity)2 to (blade velocity)2. This is also a
square of inverse of the speed ratio (1/E 2). One more significance of O2 can be identified when the head
H is expressed as proportional to ($p/Q), or O2 $p/QU2. This expression means that the generation of
pressure ($p) is proportional to the density of fluid (Q) and the square of the machine speed.
The third coefficient O3 in its non-dimensional form can also be identified as
O3 t P/[D2(nD)3] t P/D2H3/2
This signifies the specific power, as seen in Eq. (1.26).
Both the expressions for the specific speeds, as given by the Eqs. (1.27) and (1.28) do not have in them any
physical dimension of the machine (such as the diameter). Hence, the specific speeds characterize the “shape” of
the rotors and not the size of the rotors. These specific speeds, therefore, are also termed “shape numbers.” The fol-
lowing discussions are presented to illustrate the use of the specific speed, in the characterization of the machines.
A graph of overall efficiency versus delivery (m3/s) or power (kW) is drawn for a turbomachine as shown
in Fig. 1.12. (The generality of the nature of this curve has been discussed in Chapter 4.
h
C
B
D
Q or P
Figure 1.12 Determination of specific speed at A, that is, at the point of maximum efficiency.
The point of maximum efficiency, such as point A, is where the losses are minimum. The specific speed of a
machine is required to be determined at this point of maximum efficiency. It is quite possible to calculate the
specific speed of the same machine at various other points on the curve, such as B, C, D, etc., resulting in a
large number of values of the specific speeds for the same machine. But all those values, at off-peak points,
do not “designate” the machine.
Now, such graphs are drawn for different machines having different types of rotors. Figure 1.13 shows
the resulting diagram. It is clear from the diagram that different shapes of the impeller or runner give rise
to their own specific speeds at their respective maximum efficiencies. For any given shape of the impeller or
runner, if the point of operation shifts from its designated specific speed (higher or lower side of its specific
speed), the efficiency falls below its maximum value. Hence, the designated specific speed, which gives the
maximum efficiency, characterizes the impeller or runner.
h
A
C
D
Q or P
Specific speed is an important parameter to characterize the impeller or runner. Another non-dimensional
parameter, to accompany the specific speed, is the ratio of the two diameters of the rotor, do/di, where do is
the outer diameter and di is the inner diameter.
The ratio do/di is a convenient tool to indicate the shape of the impeller or runner. When do/di is 1 (do
di), the impeller or runner is purely axial flow type. As the ratio increases, the shapes change over to mixed
flow and then to radial flow types. Figure 1.14 is an improved version of Fig. 1.13, with the x-axis (Q or P)
getting a scale of the specific speed also and having representative values of do/di, along with shapes of impel-
lers or runners. The curves represent the performance of such impeller or runner inclusive of the performance
at off-peak points. For example, curve x represents the performance of one of the impellers or runners, not
only at its peak efficiency but also at other off-peak points over the stretch of curve x. The figure shows the
performance of a finite number of impellers or runners. Connecting the points of maximum efficiency of all
such impellers or runners, another enveloping curve can be drawn, like the broken line in the figure. Making
a choice of a point on this envelope curve and choosing do/di corresponding to such a point give rise to a shape
of impeller or runner that must have the maximum efficiency. What Fig. 1.14 shows is also stated in a tabular
form, in Table 1.6.
Q
P
do /di
2.2 1.8 1.0
do di do di di do
The information of Fig. 1.14 and Table 1.6 is the result of the experimental work conducted on various
types of impellers or runners. The specific speeds, the corresponding ratios do/di, and the types of “suitable”
impellers or runners are all given only in terms of “ranges” of the values. Hence, the line of demarcation of
limits between the types is rather thin. It is because of this that any design requires a model-testing process
for the validation of the design.
36 Turbomachines
The design of a pump or a turbine starts with their respective basic specifications such as flow rate–head
(Q–H) or power–head (P–H) values. With a selected value of the rpm (N), the basic data can be converted
into a specific speed. This gives rise to the shape of the impeller or runner in terms of its do/di ratio.
It is necessary to mention here that the specific speed has long been in use, but not as a dimensionless
number. Earlier, the defining equations were
N Q
N sp for pumps (1.29)
H 3/ 4
N P
N st for turbine (1.30)
H 5/ 4
Because Eqs. (1.29) and (1.30) were not dimensionless, the same basic data (flow rate and head) gave rise
to different numerical values of specific speed in a different system of units such as FPS (British) or MKS
(Metric). Further, in the FPS system, the flow rate was considered in two different units: cubic feet per
second (cfs) or gallons per minute (gpm). Likewise in the MKS system, the power was considered in either
kilowatts or metric horse power (MHP). Again, even in SI units, the speed of the rotor can be either “revolu-
tions per second” or “radians per second” (1 rps 2O rad/s or 6.28 rad/s). Because of the above reasons, any
reference to the values of the specific speed in the literature has to be made along with the units of the flow
rate, head, power, and speed.
Basics of Turbomachines 37
In Table 1.7, the different units are listed. For the purpose of illustration, the same data are considered
(H 100 m of water 328 ft of water; Q 1.2 m3/s 42.376 cfs) to evaluate the specific speed. For the
pump, the flow rate and head are the outputs, whereas the same flow rate and head are considered as input
to the turbine, and a value of efficiency of energy conversion is assumed as 0.92 to get the output power.
The main purpose of Table 1.7 is to illustrate the use of the different systems of units. A relation can also
be formed between the different numerical values of the specific speeds, as obtained. For example,
(MKS) Nsp 52.9 7p (n: rad/s) (1.31)
Nst 193.5 7t (n: rad/s) (1.32)
Also
Nsp (FPS) 2.44 Nsp (MKS) (1.33)
Nst (FPS) 0.225 Nst (MKS) (1.34)
38 Turbomachines
The specific speed, as seen above, is a parameter based on the value of which the shape of the rotor can be
selected for the maximum possible efficiency. Suppose the field conditions give rise to a “medium” value of
specific speed (say Nst 120, 7 0.36). In such a case, a mixed flow type rotor gives the best efficiency. For
the same data, an axial flow type rotor, if selected, gives only lesser efficiency.
The above steps are only the preliminary steps in a design process. A design process is complete only when
more details are worked out, such as the diameters at the inlet and outlet of the rotor, other physical dimen-
sions, angles and profiles of vanes, the number of vanes, guide vanes, etc. One more important consideration
is whether to have multiple units with the available total flow rate shared between the units. These details
have been provided in chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8.
EXAMPLE 1.11
Trials on the model pump of Example 1.8 and the extrapolated values for the prototype pump are tabu-
lated as the solutions of Example 1.8. Calculate the specific speeds for all the trials. Determine the specific
speed that designates these pumps (model and prototype).
Solution: The values of Hm, Qm, Hp, and Qp are available in Table 1.4. Further, Nm 1500 rpm; Np
600 rpm. The specific speeds are calculated and stated in Table 1.8, using Eq. (1.29).
Table 1.8
Trial No. 1 2 3 4 5
(Ns)m 42.09 54.49 71.76 93 138
(Ns)p 42.07 54.49 71.75 93 138.6
The specific speed of the pumps is 54.49 or 54.5. This value is chosen because the pumps have the
maximum efficiency at the second trial values. A slightly better way of finding the designating specific
speed is to plot the efficiencies with flow rate on the x-axis and draw a smooth curve through the points.
It may be possible to locate the point of maximum efficiency at a value other than the tabulated values
on the curve. If such a point is located, then the specific speed has to be calculated at those values.
However, for the trials as detailed, the value obtained is 54.49 or 54.5. These values are in the MKS
system of units.
EXAMPLE 1.12
A small turbine runs at 600 rpm using water at 50 lps at a head of 12 m with an overall efficiency of 0.87.
This turbine is accepted as a model for developing a prototype turbine to be used in a powerhouse with an
available head of 60 m and a flow rate of 6.6 m3/s. The speed selected for the prototype is 300 rpm. Find
the scale-up factor and the number of turbines required for the powerhouse. Assume the same efficiency
for the prototype.
Solution: We have
Model: Nm 600; Qm 50 lps 0.05 m3/s; Hm 12 m; G 0.87.
Prototype: Np 300; Hp 60 m; total flow available 6.6 m3/s.
Basics of Turbomachines 39
Therefore,
2
¥ Dp ´
¦ D µ 20
§ m¶
EXAMPLE 1.13
Derive an expression for the specific speed of a turbine in the form
N Pt
N st
H 5/4
EXAMPLE 1.14
Derive an expression for the specific speed of a pump in the form
N Q
N sp
H 3/4
Also
Q t D2 H
H
Q t 2 s H
N
H 3/2
Q t 2
N
H 3/4
N t
Q
Therefore
H 5/4
N Constant N sp s
Q
Hence
N Q
N sp
H 3/4
K eywords
Rotor vanes or rotor blades Nozzles
Fluid Diffusers
Dynamic action Pressure energy
Positive displacement machines (PDMs) Kinetic energy
Mechanical efficiency Potential energy
Volumetric efficiency Enthalpy
Hydraulic or adiabatic efficiency Head
Radial flow Power flow
Axial flow Model studies
Mixed flow Flow coefficient
Tangential flow Head coefficient
Impeller Power coefficient
Runner Unit and specific quantities
Stator Specific speed
Guide vanes
S ummary
1. A basic definition of a turbomachine is spelt 2. Turbomachines are compared with PDMs
out with some comments. observations of (energy-transfer mechanism, construction,
different features (energy-transfer, rotor-fluid, operation, efficiencies, application).
dynamic action, change of pressure/momentum 3. A classification of turbomachines is consid-
of fluid). ered in order to identify the different types
42 Turbomachines
(with respect to energy-flow, fluid-flow, type- an over view of the energy flow, including the
of-fluid, dynamic action). losses, in these machines. Some important effi-
4. Some turbomachines are illustrated, with a ciencies are stated with reference to the power-
purpose of getting familiar with the terminol- flow diagrams
ogy of the hardware details. (Figs. 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10).
5. Units and dimensions are recalled from the 8. Unit and specific quantities are studied, with
earlier courses such as mechanics, thermody- reference to turbomachines (unit quantities: H
namics, and fluid mechanics not only as a revi- 1; Specific quantities: H 1 and D 1).
sion but also as applied to turbomachines. 9. The “model studies” is discussed, but in a cur-
6. In continuation of the SFEE from thermo- sory way (geometric, kinematic and dynamic
dynamics, an expression for “specific work” is similarities; O1, O2, O3, extrapolation of
identified (change of total energy of fluid). performance).
7. The “power flow” is schematically presented 10. Specific speed, one of the most important
with respect to the power-generating as well parameters, is studied in some detail.
as power-absorbing turbomachines to show
I mportant E quations
There are quite a few equations, but the equations Pr W
stated are more like “defining equations.” The mate- Utilization factor E V22
Pn W
rial presented is only to facilitate the understanding 2 gc
of the later chapters. Hydraulic or adiabatic efficiency
1. Work output of a turbomachine: P P P
Gh or Ga r r s n
P Pn P
¥ V12 g´ ¥ V22 g´
W ¦ h1 z1 ¦ h2 z2
§ 2 gc g c µ¶ § 2 gc g c µ¶ Volumetric efficiency
R eview Q uestions
1. Define a turbomachine. Explain the salient fea- 2. Compare a turbomachine with a positive-dis-
tures of a turbomachine. (Refer Section 1.2) placement machine. (Refer Table 1.1)
44 Turbomachines
3. Classify turbomachines and give examples. 8. Explain the significance and use of the flow
(Refer Table 1.2) coefficient, head coefficient, and power
4. List the different losses taking place in a pow- coefficient.
er-generating turbomachine. State the corre- (Refer Section 1.11)
sponding efficiencies. 9. Define and derive the expressions for unit flow,
(Refer Section 1.9.1.1 and Fig. 1.7) unit speed, unit power, specific power, and spe-
5. List the different losses that take place in a cific flow. (Refer Section 1.12)
power-absorbing turbomachine. State the cor- 10. Explain the specific speed of (a) a turbine and (b)
responding efficiencies. a pump. Also explain how it is determined.
(Refer Section 1.9.1.2 and Fig. 1.8) (Refer Section 1.15 and Fig. 1.12)
6. State the objective of the model studies. Write 11. Explain how the characteristics of one machine
a note on the model studies. can be extrapolated to get the characteristics of
(Refer Section 1.10) another similar machine.
7. What are the limitations of the model studies? (Refer Section 1.11and Fig. 1.11)
(Refer Section 1.11)
E xercises
1. The state of air at the inlet to a compressor is as the runner amount to 33 kW. The leakage or
follows: Pressure 60 kPa, temperature –35oC return flow losses are negligible. Determine the
and velocity 120 m/s. The outlet pressure and hydraulic efficiency, power lost in the bearings,
velocity are 350 kPa and 280 m/s, respectively. power lost in the exhaust, and overall efficiency.
If the isentropic compression efficiency is 85%, Take cp 1.004 kJ/kg K, F 1.4.
calculate the outlet temperature and the power 5. The ratings of an available pump are as fol-
input to the compressor for the flow rate of 5 lows: Q 50 lps, H 20 m of water, N 1440
kg/s, cp 1.004 kJ/kg K, F 1.4. rpm. Calculate the capacity and head of the
2. Air enters a turbine at 350 kPa, 780oC, and pump if it were to be run at 1200 rpm. Also
at a velocity of 280 m/s. The outlet pressure calculate the power output at rated conditions
is 60 kPa at a velocity of 180 m/s. The isen- and at 1200 rpm. State your comments on the
tropic expansion efficiency is 88%. Calculate efficiency of the machine.
the power output of the turbine for the flow 6. The design flow rate of water of an axial flow
rate of 5 kg/s, cp 1.004 kJ/kg K, F 1.4. pump is 2.1 m3/s at a speed of 960 rpm. The
3. The mass flow rate in a turbine is 10 kg/s and runner diameter is calculated as 60 cm. The head
the output is 4000 kW. The velocity of gases to be generated is 15 m of water. The pump is
at the outlet is 150 m/s. The mechanical and expected to have an overall efficiency of 82%. A
adiabatic efficiencies are 0.93 and 0.84, respec- one-fourth size model of this pump is required
tively. Calculate the rotor power, power lost in to be tested. If the speed of the model is fixed
the exit, power lost in the runner, and the utili- to 1440 rpm, determine the head and the
zation factor. Take cp 1.004 kJ/kg K, F 1.4. capacity of the model to be expected while test-
4. The output of a motor, driving an air compres- ing. Assume that the efficiency of the model is
sor, is 320 kW. The mass flow rate through the same as that of the prototype. Calculate the
the compressor is 1.5 kg/s. The velocity of air powers required to drive the model and the pro-
at the outlet is 180 m/s. The mechanical effi- totype. Also determine the specific speed of the
ciency of the compressor is 94%. The losses in model or prototype.
Basics of Turbomachines 45
7. In a test rig in a laboratory, a pump is used to (a) The flow rate required in the lab for the
supply water at a rate of 15 lps, at a head of test.
60 m of water, to run a Pelton turbine. The (b) The speed at which the model should be
pump is driven by a motor that has an output tested.
of 10 kW at a particular trial. The mechani- 10. To deliver 0.3 m3/s of water through a total
cal efficiency of the pump is 95%. The Pelton head of 300 m, it is intended to use several
turbine has a hydraulic efficiency of 93% and pumps in series, with the flow at the outlet
runs a dynamometer that absorbs 7.35 kW of of one pump going to the inlet of the next
power. Determine the hydraulic efficiency of pump and so on, and the heads are additive.
the pump and the mechanical efficiency of the A small pump of diameter 10 cm, having an
turbine. The losses in the transmission pipe efficiency of 88%, is considered as a model.
(from the pump to the turbine) are estimated This model gives a flow rate of 0.02 m3/s
to be 0.5 kW at the given flow rate. Draw up against a head of 10 m while running at 980
an energy balance of the entire setup. The volu- rpm. Determine the diameter of a similar
metric losses of the pump and the turbine are prototype pump, running at 1440 rpm, and
negligible. the number of such pumps to meet the above
8. The speed of the motor in the above test rig duty.
is recorded as 2880 rpm and the speed of the 11. A pump is designed for a flow rate of 200 lps
turbine as 600 rpm. Calculate the specific at a head of 150 m of water while running at
speeds and shape numbers of the pump and 1440 rpm. A model of this pump delivers 15
the turbine. lps with a power input of 0.5 kW. Calculate
9. A turbine is designed to run at a speed of 600 the scale ratio of the model and the speed of
rpm for a site where the head available is 80 m the model.
of water and the flow rate available is 1.8 m3/s. 12. A turbine of speed 375 rpm is designed for a
It is required to test a one-fourth size model of project site where the available head and flow
the turbine. The head available in the labora- rate are 35 m of water and 15 m3/s. The model
tory is only 8 m of water. Assume an overall of this turbine runs at 250 rpm under a head
efficiency of 82% for both model and proto- of 2 m. Calculate the specific speed, scale ratio,
types. Calculate flow rate, and power of the model.
A nswers
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. (c) 6. (b)
2. (d) 7. (b)
3. (c) 8. (c)
4. (a) 9. (c)
5. (c) 10. (c)
Exercises
1. 421.53 K, 1081.32 kW 6. 2.11 m, 49.22 lps, 1.24245 kW, 363.55 kW,
2. 1950 kW 182.52
3. 4301 kW, 112.5 kW, 840.7 kW, 0.9726 7. 92.94%, 94.9%
4. 89.03%, 19.2 kW, 24.3 kW, 83.7% 8. 16.36, 0.0492, 9.74, 0.00935
5. 41.67 lps, 13.89 m, rated power 9.81 kW, 9. (a) 35.55 lps and more, (b) 759 rpm
power at 1200, rpm 5.678 kW. At any speed 10. 21.7 cm, 3
other than design speed, the efficiency gets 11. 0.706, 307 rpm
reduced. 12. 316, 0.35857, 0.461 m3/s, 9.045 kW
2 Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
v Understand the basic compression process in v Study the various forms of efficiencies in the
its theoretical and actual form and the devia- above processes and the applicability of such
tions with both qualitative and quantitative processes.
approaches. v Study the effect of stage-wise processes com-
v Understand the basic expansion process in pared to single-stage processes with respect to
its theoretical and actual form and the devia- both compression and expansion.
tions with both qualitative and quantitative v Study the effect of compression and expan-
approaches. sion as the basic processes, independent of the
parameters such as pressure ratios.
2.1 Introduction
The fluids involved in the energy-transfer processes with the rotor blades of turbomachines are either incom-
pressible or compressible. The incompressible fluids are liquids. Turbomachines that handle liquids are the
hydraulic turbines working with water and the pumps working with water or various liquid chemicals in the
process industries. Different fractions of petroleum crude in refineries, milk in dairy industries, liquid dyes
in textile industries, naptha and urea in fertilizer industries, paints in paint industries, liquid pulp in paper
industries are only some examples of incompressible fluids. The list of such fluids and the variety of pumps
handling them are almost endless. The compressible fluids undergo a wide variation in their densities during
their transit in turbomachines. The examples of compressible fluids are as follows:
1. Air in compressors.
2. Combustion gases in gas turbines.
3. Steam in steam turbines, etc.
The behavior of compressible fluids during the processes in turbomachines can be approximated to that of
the perfect gases. It is assumed that the laws of perfect gases hold good for these fluids in the range of their
properties under consideration. This chapter is intended for the study of compression and expansion of
compressible fluids in turbomachines.
other hand, if the fluid is moving at a velocity, then its properties can be identified in two different
types:
(a) In one type, the effect of the velocity is neglected (as if the fluid is not having any velocity, as if it is
at rest stored in a container);
(b) In the second type the effect of velocity is considered. In this type, the properties are in the form of
the “stagnation properties.” The recognition of the existence of velocity is best illustrated by the very
definition of the “stagnation state.”
The stagnation state of a moving fluid stream is the state attained by the fluid when it is suddenly or abruptly
(or isentropically) brought to rest without any heat transfer or work done. In the process, the kinetic energy
associated with the velocity is converted into the internal energy of the fluid, with consequent increase in
the values of its properties such as pressure, temperature, enthalpy, etc.
Properties of the fluid at the stagnation state are the stagnation properties, “dynamic properties,” or
“total properties.” The symbols of stagnation properties are the same as those of static properties, but
with a subscript “0” signifying that the velocity has been brought to zero. Thus, when the fluid moves at a
velocity V with its static temperature T, static enthalpy h, static pressure p and density (P), its stagnation
temperature To, stagnation enthalpy ho and stagnation pressure po are respectively given by the following
expressions:
V2
T0 T (2.1)
2c p g c
V2
h0 h (2.2)
2 gc
RV 2
p0 p (2.3)
2 gc
The stagnation properties can be shown on the property diagrams, such as the enthalpy–entropy diagram,
temperature–entropy diagram, etc., just as the static properties. In the context of the processes taking place
in turbomachines, it is most appropriate to use stagnation states because the velocity of the fluid is an inte-
gral part of the energy-transfer process. However, there are some situations where it is sufficient to consider
only static states.
EXAMPLE 2.1
A stream of combustion gases at the point of entry to a turbine has a static temperature of 1050 K, static
pressure of 600 kPa, and a velocity of 150 m/s. For the gases, cp 1.004 kJ/kg K and F 1.41. Find the
total temperature and total pressure of the gases. Also find the difference between their static and total
enthalpies.
(150)2
1050
2 s 1004
1061.2 K
We know that
G 1 0.41
R s cp s 1004 291.9 J/ kg K
G 1.41
Also,
p
R
RT
1000
600 s
(291.9 s 1050)
1.96 kg /m3
EXAMPLE 2.2
Water at a static temperature of 300 K and static pressure of 200 kPa flows in a conduit at a velocity of 10
m/s. Calculate its total temperature and total pressure. cp for water is 4.18 kJ/kg K.
1000 s (10)2
200
2 s 1000
250 kPa
processes are AB and AC, respectively. Process AC indicates the increased entropy due to the irreversibility
during the actual process.
h
p2
C
B
p1
The isentropic efficiency, as specified in Section 2.3, in terms of the enthalpies is given by
Isentropic enthalpy change
His
Actual enthalpy change
hB hA
His (2.4)
hC hA
Equation (2.4) is more like a defining equation, without specifically mentioning whether the enthalpies
are static or stagnation values. Figure 2.2 shows the more detailed compression processes, taking into
account the velocities or the kinetic energies. The “actual” compression process has to be between the
stagnation states: from the initial stagnation state 01 to the final stagnation state 02. In Eq. (2.4), there-
fore, the denominator of the expression becomes h02 – h01.
h
02 P02
02 P2
2
P01
P1
01
Figure 2.2 Compression processes between both static and stagnation states.
52 Turbomachines
The numerator of Eq. (2.4) now depends on how the efficiency is defined. Four different forms of isen-
tropic efficiencies can be identified, with the numerator suitably defined:
1. Total-to-total efficiency, with numerator from state 01 to state 02^: This is applicable when the
kinetic energies at the inlet and outlet are significant. At the inlet, the kinetic energy is available and
at the outlet, the kinetic energy is useful, such as in an intermediate stage of compression.
2. Total-to-static efficiency, with numerator from state 01 to state 2^: This is applicable when some
kinetic energy is available at the inlet and the kinetic energy at the outlet is not useful; that is, when
the fluid maybe stored in a tank without any effect of the magnitude of its kinetic energy (e.g.,
compressed air in an air tank). This situation may correspond to the last stage in a series of stages.
3. Static-to-total efficiency, with numerator from state 1 to state 02^: This is applicable when there
is no kinetic energy at the inlet, that is, the suction is from a stagnant reservoir (e.g., air from
atmosphere), and the kinetic energy at the outlet is useful (in the next stage). This situation may be
the first stage in a series of stages of compression.
4. Static-to-static efficiency, with numerator from state 1 to state 2^: This is applicable when the
kinetic energies at both the inlet and the outlet are insignificant or the energies are not available at
the inlet or not useful at the outlet.
The above situations can be concisely expressed in the following forms:
h02a h01
(Hc )t-t (2.5)
h02 h01
h2a h01
(Hc )t-s (2.6)
h02 h01
h02a h1
(Hc )s-t (2.7)
h02 h01
h2a h1
(Hc )s-s (2.8)
h02 h01
In the subscripts, the subscript c inside the brackets indicates that the process is compression and in t-t, t-s,
s-t, and s-s, t is for total and s is for static. Wherever these suffixes are not mentioned (as in almost all cases),
the efficiencies may be taken as total to total.
Because the denominators in Eqs. (2.5)–(2.8) are the same, it is very easy to find which efficiency is
maximum or which is minimum. In Eqs. (2.5) and (2.7), where the outlet kinetic energy is considered
useful, the so-called exit losses are no more losses; this situation modifies the energy flow diagram (Fig. 1.7)
in such cases.
In all the expressions for the efficiencies [Eqs. (2.5)to–(2.8)], the specific enthalpies can be replaced by
the corresponding temperatures, with the assumption that the specific heat cp remains constant over the
ranges of pressures or temperatures under consideration. However, steam is not considered in compression
processes, and when it is considered, the enthalpies in the expressions cannot be reduced in terms of tem-
peratures. The enthalpies are to be read from steam tables.
Further, the isentropic relationship between the temperature ratio and pressure ratio can always be used,
as follows (e.g., between states a and b):
Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow 53
(G 1)/G
Ta ¥p ´
¦ aµ (2.9)
Tb § pb ¶
To illustrate this, Eq. (2.5) can be written as
T02a T01
(Hc )t-t
T02 T01
Therefore,
1
T02 T01 (T T01 )
(Hc )t-t 02a
T01 ¥ T02a ´
1µ
(Hc )t-t ¦§ T01 ¶
(G 1)/G
T01 ¥ ¥ p02a ´ ´
¦¦ 1µ (2.10)
(Hc )t-t ¦§ § p01 µ¶ µ¶
EXAMPLE 2.3
Air at 100 kPa and 300 K (static) is compressed in a stage of a compressor through a static pressure ratio
of 1.9. The velocities at the inlet and outlet are 15 and 120 m/s, respectively. If the total-to-total efficiency
is 89%, calculate the total-to-static, static-to-total, and static-to-static efficiencies. For air, take F 1.4
and cp 1.004 kJ/kg K.
54 Turbomachines
Therefore,
T2a T1 s 1.2 300 s 1.2 360 K
Now, T1 300 K, T2a 360 K. So
(15)2
T01 300 300.112 K
2 s 1004
(120)2
T02 a 360 367.171 K
2 s 1004
We have
h02a – h01 cp(T02a – T01)
1.004 (367.171 – 300.112)
67.33 kJ/kg K
Hence,
h02 – h01 67.33 / 0.89 75.65 kJ/kg
h2a – h01 67.33 – 7.171 60.159 kJ/kg
h2a – h1 67.33 – 7.171 0.112 60.271 kJ/kg
h02a – h1 67.33 0.112 67.442 kJ/kg
Therefore,
h2a h01 60.159
Ht-s 79.52%
h02 h01 75.65
h02a h1 67.442
Hs-t 89.15%
h02 h01 75.65
h2a h1 60.271
Hs-s 79.67%
h02 h01 75.65
EXAMPLE 2.4
From an initial total pressure of 100 kPa and a total temperature of 300 K, two fluids are to be compressed
to a final total pressure of 600 kPa. Calculate the work required if the process is isentropic. One fluid is
water with the density of 1000 kg/m3 and the other is a perfect gas with cp 1.004 kJ/kg K, F 1.4.
Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow 55
¥p ´
RT1 ln ¦ 2 µ (2.15)
§ p1 ¶
Also,
Wactual c p (T02 T01 ) Q (2.16)
where Q is the heat extracted to cool the fluid during the process. Hence, the isothermal compression
efficiency can be written as
¥p ´
RT1 ln ¦ 2 µ
§ p1 ¶
(Hc )isth (2.17)
c p (T02 T01 ) Q
1 ¥p ´
Wactual RT1 ln ¦ 2 µ (2.18)
(Hc )isth § p1 ¶
56 Turbomachines
p01
01 p1
02 p02
02 p2
2
A turbine cannot work with a fluid from a tank or reservoir because the source should not get depleted.
There must necessarily be a continuous stream of fluid entering the turbine. Therefore, the kinetic energy at
the inlet (V12 / 2 g c ) is a necessary component of the total energy to be considered, making it essential to use
the stagnation state at the inlet. The actual shaft work Ws is up to the outlet state 02, so that
WS h01 – h02
But at the outlet, whether the state to be considered is static or stagnation on the ideal isentropic process
depends on the following situations.
1. Case 1: The expansion process is one of a sequence of processes, such as the one in any intermediate
stage (neither the first, nor the last stage) of a multi-stage turbine. The kinetic energy at the outlet of
the present process is a part of the inlet energy of the next-stage process. Therefore, it is not a loss. As
a consequence, the “accounting” of V22 / 2 g c can be (and has to be) transferred to the next stage. The
exit state for the present process can be taken as its stagnation state, 02. The corresponding isentropic
process (for comparison) in this case becomes 01–02a. The isentropic efficiency is given by
Output shaft work
(Ht )t-t
Ideal enthalpy drop
h01 h02
(2.19)
h01 h02a
Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow 57
In the subscript part, the prefix t is for the expansion process or the turbine process. Because the
ideal expansion is from the total state 01 to the total state 02a, this efficiency is known as the total-
to-total efficiency.
This expression is not applicable to the last stage of a turbine because the exit kinetic energy
of the last stage is to be taken as a loss. But one exception here is a turbojet engine. In a turbojet
engine, the turbine produces just enough shaft work to run the compressor and accessories. The
enormous amount of energy at the exit of the last stage of the turbine (pressure and kinetic energy
together) is meant for the expansion in the exit nozzles, to create the velocity and the thrust for
the propulsion of the aircraft. The total-to-total efficiency [Eq. (2.19)] is applicable to the above
process.
2. Case 2: The expansion process occurs in the last stage of a series of stages, or in only one stage
(all by itself ). In both the types, the kinetic energy at the outlet has no further use in any form.
In this case, the exit kinetic energy has to be taken as a loss. This loss could have been used or
at least reduced by the expansion process extending further. But the expansion process does not
use this kinetic energy and hence it is lost. Thus, the ideal expansion process to be considered
for comparison is from the stagnation state 01 at the inlet to the static state 2a at the outlet. The
isentropic efficiency is given by
Output shaft work
(Ht )t-s
Ideal enthalpy drop
h01 h02
(2.20)
h01 h2a
Because the ideal expansion is from the total state 01 to the static state 2a, this efficiency is known
as the total-to-static efficiency.
3. Case 3: In this situation, the useful output comprises both the shaft work and the kinetic energy
at the outlet. But the outlet kinetic energy does not run the next stage. Instead, it is useful in some
other way, like in the case of steam turbines, the exhaust steam is utilized as process steam in process
industries (e.g., controlled heating, constant temperature baths, etc.). Although it is not directly the
kinetic energy, the utility of process steam is one of the important factors.
In this context, the ideal expansion is considered from the stagnation state 01 to the static state 2a. The
output can now be considered as the shaft work and exit kinetic energy put together. Consequently, the
efficiency is given by
h01 h2
(Ht )t-s (2.21)
h01 h2a
Equations (2.19)–(2.21) give the expressions for the efficiencies in terms of the different enthalpies. The
numerators of all the three expressions signify the intended output in the three cases.
In the case of steam turbines, the values of enthalpies in the expressions for the efficiencies are to be
taken from the steam tables. But in the case of gas turbines, the enthalpies are the functions of temperatures.
Hence, it is quite possible to reduce the three expressions in terms of the corresponding temperatures, and
then in terms of the initial temperature and the possible pressure ratios, using the usual isentropic relation-
ships. For example, Eq. (2.19) can be written as
58 Turbomachines
c p (T01 T02 )
(Ht )t-t
c p (T01 T02a )
c p (T01 T02 )
¨ ¥ p ´ (G 1)/G ·
c pT01 ©1 ¦ 02a µ ¸
© § p01 ¶ ¸
ª ¹
WS
¨ ¥ p ´ (G 1)/G ·
c pT01 ©1 ¦ 02a µ ¸
© § p01 ¶ ¸
ª ¹
The actual shaft work becomes
¨ ¥ p ´ (G 1)/G ·
Ws c p (T01 T02 ) (Ht )t-t c pT01 ©1 ¦ 02a µ ¸ (2.22)
© § p01 ¶ ¸
ª ¹
The second case of the efficiency (Eq. 2.20) is reduced as
c p (T01 T02 )
(Ht )t-s
c p (T01 T2a )
WS
¥ T ´
c pT01 ¦1 2a µ
§ T01 ¶
WS
¨ ¥ p ´ (G 1)/G ·
c pT01 ©1 ¦ 2a µ ¸
© § p01 ¶ ¸
ª ¹
The actual shaft work is
¨ ¥ p ´ (G 1)/G ·
Ws (Ht )t-s c pT01 ©1 ¦ 2a µ ¸ (2.23)
© § p01 ¶ ¸
ª ¹
EXAMPLE 2.5
Combustion gases flow into a gas turbine stage at a rate of 1.4 kg/s. At the inlet, the static pressure and
temperature are 550 kPa and 950 K, respectively, and the velocity is 180 m/s. At the outlet of the stage,
the static pressure is 250 kPa and the velocity is 75 m/s. If the power output of the stage is 250 kW, find
the efficiency of the stage when
(a) the stage is the first one.
(b) the stage is one of the middle stages.
(c) the stage is the last one.
Take cp 1.004 kJ/kg K, F 1.41.
250
Efficiency
c p (T01 T2a )
250
1.004(966.14 758.385)
250
292
85.62%
Comment: In an expansion process or a turbine process, a “static” state at the inlet to the first stage
cannot be generally considered because the turbine cannot have a steady work output with the inlet
from a stagnant source (atmosphere or a storage tank). Hence, for the expansion process, “static-to-
static” or “static-to-total” efficiency need not be considered, unless it is some sort of “instantaneous”
efficiency.
p2
D
C
p1
B
A
A perfect gas is compressed isentropically from A to C and then again from B to D, with both C and D being
on the constant pressure line p2. By the isentropic relations, the following can be written:
(G 1)/G
TC ¥p ´ ¥T ´
¦ 2µ K (say ) TC TA TA ¦ C 1µ TA ( K 1)
TA § p1 ¶ § TA ¶
(G 1)/G
TD ¥p ´ ¥T ´
¦ 2µ K (say) TD TB TB ¦ D 1µ TB ( K 1)
TB § p1 ¶ § TB ¶
Therefore,
TD TB TB ( K 1) TB
1
TC TA TA ( K 1) TA
Therefore,
(TD TB) (TC TA)
This proves that the constant pressure lines are divergent. Now, consider a multi-stage compressor with a
compressible fluid flow. The design process starts with any specified constant pressure ratio and a constant
isentropic efficiency for each stage. As the fluid moves from stage to stage, the density of the fluid keeps
increasing and the specific volume of the fluid keeps decreasing. Because the mass flow rate is constant
throughout the successive stages, the volume flow rate keeps decreasing. A good design must conform to
these changes in the volume flow rate, keeping the area of flow and the velocity of flow suitably adjusted
[volume flow rate (m3/s) area of flow (m2) s velocity (m/s)]. Thus, when correct areas of flow are provided
at each stage (neither more nor less), the design pressure ratios can also be maintained the same across each
stage in a compressor. In a multi-stage turbine, the fluid keeps expanding; the density decreases stage by
stage; volume flow rate keeps increasing; and the areas have to be adjusted with the flow velocities of the
successive stages.
62 Turbomachines
With this background, the analyses of the multi-stage compressor and multi-stage turbine can now be
considered in detail.
5 5 p4
5
4 p3
4 4
p2
3
3 3
p1
2
2
In Fig. 2.5, process 1–2–3–4–5 is the actual process of compression, through the four stages, from the ini-
tial pressure p1 to the final pressure p5. The total actual work of compression is h5 – h1, through the stages.
Because of the staging, the isentropic processes are made up in the stages, such as
Wst1 h2a h1 , Wst 2 h3a h2 , Wst 3 h4a h3 , and Wst4 h5a h4
The sum of these isentropic works of the stages is given by
This total work ¤Wsi is more than the isentropic work without staging, that is, the single-stage work
Wss h5aa h1 . This is due to (a) the divergent constant pressure lines and (b) the increased temperature at
the outlet of a stage, that is, the inlet of the next stage because of the internal fluid friction, eddies, diffu-
sion, etc. It is as if the inefficiency of the previous stage penalizes the next stage by the increase of the inlet
temperature of the next stage. The whole effect, ¤ Wsti Wss , is known as the “pre-heat effect” in the multi-
stage compression.
The actual total work is given by
¤ Wai Wa1 Wa2 Wa3 Wa4
h2a h1 h3a h2 h4a h3 h5a h4
Hst Hst Hst Hst
Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow 63
¤Wsti
(2.25)
Hst
because all efficiencies in the denominators are the same. The actual total work can also be determined by
taking the overall isentropic compression efficiency Gc as
h5aa h1 Wss
¤ Wai (2.26)
Hc Hc
Hence, from Eqs. (2.25) and (2.26), we have
¤ Wsti Wss
Hst Hc
Therefore,
Hst ¤Wsti
(2.27)
Hc Wss
Now, since ¤Wsti is more than Wss, Gst must be more than Gc. In other words, the overall isentropic compres-
sion efficiency is less than the stage efficiency, Gc Gst.
p2
1
p3
2 2
3 p4
3
3 4 p5
4 5
4
5
5
In Fig. 2.6, process 1–2–3–4–5 is the actual process of expansion, through the four stages, from the initial
pressure p1 to the final pressure p5. The total actual work of expansion is h1 – h5, through the stages. Because
of the staging, the isentropic expansion processes are made up in the stages, such as
Wst1 h1 h2a , Wst2 h2 h3a , Wst3 h3 h4a , and Wst4 h4 h5a
64 Turbomachines
This total work ¤Wsti is more than the isentropic work without staging, that is, the single-stage work
Wss h1 h5aa . This is due to the following:
1. The divergent constant pressure lines.
2. The increased temperature at the outlet of a stage because of the internal fluid friction, eddies, diffu-
sion, etc.
It is as if the inefficiency of the previous stage benefits the next stage. The whole effect, ¤ Wsti Wss , is
known as the “reheat effect” in the multi-stage expansion.
The actual total work is given by
Ht
¤Wsti
or i (2.30)
Hst Wss
Now, since ¤Wsti is more than Wss, Gt must be more than Gst. In a multi-stage expansion process, there-
i
fore, the overall isentropic expansion efficiency Gt is more than the stage efficiency Gst: Gt Gst.
EXAMPLE 2.6
In a four-stage air compressor, the pressure ratio is 1.3 in each of the stages. The isentropic efficiency of
each stage is 0.9. Calculate the final exit pressure and the overall isentropic efficiency. The initial pressure
and temperature at the inlet are 100 kPa and 300 K, respectively. For air, cp 1.004 kJ/kg K and F 1.4.
What is the pre-heat effect in the compressor?
Now
(T2a T1 )
T2 T1
Hs
(323.352 300)
300
0.9
325.947 K
Proceeding in the same way at p3, p4, p5 levels, we get
T3a 351.32 K, T3 354.14 K
T4a 381.7 K, T4 384.765 K
T5a 414.71 K, T5 418.04 K
In a single-stage compression from 100 to 285.61 kPa (without multi-staging),
T5aa
(2.8561)0.4/1.4 1.3496
T1
T5q 300 s 1.3496 404.889 K
The overall isentropic efficiency is
T5aa T1 404.889 300
T5 T1 418.04 300
Hc 88.86%
Equation (2.45) (to be obtained shortly) may also be used to obtain the overall isentropic efficiency and
the result is the same: Gc 88.86%.
The pre-heat effect:
The total of stage-wise works is given by
Also, the single-stage work (between the same initial and final pressures) is given by
Wss cp (T5q – T1)
1.004 (404.889 – 300)
105.31 kJ/kg
So ¤Wsti 106.655 is more than Wss 105.31 by 1.345 kJ/kg, and this is the pre-heat effect.
i
Comment: In this solution, it is possible to find the temperatures at all salient points (such as points 1, 2,
2a, 3, 3a, etc., in reference Fig. 2.5) by the application of isentropic relation at the commencement of com-
pression in each stage. Because the number of stages is only 4, it is not difficult. If the number of stages
were 8, 9, etc., the procedure would be more time consuming. Equation (2.45) (to be obtained shortly)
can be easily applied when there are more stages. However, the stage-wise summation of isentropic works
cannot be done, unless all temperatures are found out.
T p2
pdp
T dT p
T dT
dT dT
T
p1
The finite pressure limits are p1 and p2. Now, for the small isentropic and actual processes,
dT a
Hp
dT
Hence,
dT a Hp s dT
For a small isentropic process, we have
(G 1)/G
T dT a ¥ p dp ´
¦
T § p µ¶
(G 1)/G
dT a ¥ dp ´
1 ¦1
T § p µ¶
¦T µ ¦ p µ (2.34)
§ 1¶ § 1¶
Again,
¨¥ T ´ ·
T2 T1 T1 ©¦ 2 µ 1¸
©ª§ T1 ¶ ¸¹
¥ ¥ p ´ [(G 1)/G ](1/H )
p ´
T1 ¦ ¦ 2 µ 1µ (2.35)
¦§ § p1 ¶ µ¶
68 Turbomachines
For the polytropic process (where T2 and T1 are connected by the equation pvn constant), we have
¨¥ p ´ (n 1)/n
·
T2 T1 T1 ©¦ 2 µ 1¸ (2.36)
©§ p1 ¶ ¸
ª ¹
Comparing Eqs. (2.35) and (2.36), we get
n 1 1 G 1
s
n Hp G
n G 1
Hp s (2.37)
n 1 G
This equation for the polytropic efficiency gives the expression without the ratio of pressures or the ratio of
temperatures and therefore reflects the process efficiency. The process considered is the compression process
and therefore a subscript “c” is added to write the expression as
n G 1
Hpc s (2.38)
n 1 G
In a very similar procedure as above, the small-stage efficiency or polytropic efficiency for the expansion
process or turbine process, Hpt , can be obtained as
n 1 G
Hpt s (2.39)
n G 1
At this juncture, expressions for stage efficiencies in terms of polytropic efficiencies can be derived for the pro-
cesses of both compression and expansion. Consider a compression process in a stage as shown in Fig. 2.8.
T
p2
2
2
Stage efficiency is
c p (T2a T1 )
Hst, c
c p (T2 T1 )
Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow 69
¨¥ T ´ ·
T1 ©¦ 2a µ 1¸
©§ T1 ¶ ¸¹
ª
¨¥ T ´ ·
T1 ©¦ 2 µ 1¸
©ª§ T1 ¶ ¸¹
p(G 1)/G 1
rs(n 1)/n
prs 1
prs(G 1)/G 1
Hst, c (2.40)
¥ 1 ´ ¥ G 1´
¦ µ s¦
H § G ¶µ
prs§ pc ¶ 1
p1
1
1 2: Isentropic process
1 2: Polytropic process
p2
2
2
Stage efficiency is
c p (T1 T2 )
Hst t
c p (T1 T2a )
¨ T2 ·
©1 ¸
T1 ¹
ª
¨ T2a ·
©1 ¸
ª T1 ¹
1 prs(n 1)/n
1 prs(G 1)/G
70 Turbomachines
¥ ´
¦ ¤ Wsti µ
§ ¶
RF i (2.42)
Wss
The reheat factor is always greater than 1. The reasons are as follows:
1. The preceding stages give the output at a higher temperature than the isentropic outlet temperature,
so that the succeeding stages have a higher temperature at the inlet, and therefore, the inlet state
at higher availability. This is as if “the inefficiency of the preceding stage benefits the succeeding
stage.”
2. The constant pressure lines are divergent. The expansion process continuously shifts to the regions
of higher enthalpy drops.
The reheat factor has the values of the order of 1.04 and 1.05, for the normal designs like 12–15 stages of
expansion. This signifies 4%–5% increase in the output. Although staging is essential in connection with
compounding (to reduce the speed of rotor), this reheat (and the additional output) is an additional advan-
tage of staging.
EXAMPLE 2.7
The pressure, temperature and velocity of air at the inlet to a single-stage compressor are respectively
100 kPa, 295 K, and 10 m/s. At the exit, the respective values are 210 kPa, 370 K, and 85 m/s. The
exit is 1 m above the inlet. Calculate the (a) actual work, (b) isentropic work, and (c) efficiency of the
compressor. For air, take cp 1.004 kJ/kg K, F 1.4.
Solution: We have
P1 100 kPa, T1 295 K, V1 10 m/s,
P2 210 kPa, T2 370 K, V2 85 m/s, z2 – z1 1 m
Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow 71
So
V2 2 V12 ( z2 z1 ) g
T02 T01 (T2 T1 )
2 g ccp g ccp
(85)2 (10)2 1 s 9.81
(370 295)
2 s 1004 1004
78.56 K
(a) Therefore, the Actual work cp (T02 – T01) 1.004 (78.56) 78.874 kJ/kg
Also,
(G 1)/G 0.2857
T02a ¥p ´ ¥ 210 ´
¦ 2µ ¦ 1.236
T01 § p1 ¶ § 100 µ¶
EXAMPLE 2.8
Combustion products enter a gas turbine at p01 600 kPa and T01 1000 K. The turbine has four stages
of equal stage efficiency and equal pressure ratio. The stage efficiency is 0.86. The exit pressure is 100 kPa.
Calculate the (a) isentropic works of all stages, (b) reheat factor, (c) total actual work, and (d) the overall
isentropic efficiency of the turbine. Take, for gases, cp 1.005 kJ/kg K and F 1.4.
Solution: We have p01 600 kPa, T01 1000 K, m 4, Gst 0.86, p05 100 kPa, cp 1.005 kJ/kg K,
F 1.4. Figure 2.6 may be referred to for nomenclature.
Stage pressure ratio is given by
1/m 1/ 4
¥p ´ ¥ 1´
prs ¦ 05 µ ¦ µ 0.63894
§ p01 ¶ § 6¶
p01 600(data)
p02 p01 s 0.63894 383.366 kPa, p03 p02 s 0.63894 244.95 kPa
p04 p03 s 0.63894 156.5 kPa
p05 100 (exit pressure, data)
72 Turbomachines
Now
(G 1)/G
¥ 1´
T05aa T01 s ¦ µ 599.35
§ 6¶
Hence,
Single-stage work cp (T01 – T05q)
1.004 (1000 – 599.35)
402.25 kJ/kg
(b) Reheat factor is given by:
¤Wsti
i
Reheat factor
Wss
412.689
1.026
402.25
(c) total actual work is given by:
Total actual work cp (T01 – T05)
1.004 (1000 – 646.5)
354.9 kJ/kg
Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow 73
For getting the overall isentropic efficiency, Eq. (2.49) can also be used (to be derived in Section 2.10). The
result obtained has to be the same.
@ (T1 @T1)
@T1(1 @)
Third stage:
($T)3 @T3
@ [T2 ($T)2 ]
@ [T1 ($T)1 ($T)2 ]
@ [T1 @T1 @T1 (1 @)]
@ T1 (1 @)2
Fourth stage:
($T)4 @ T1 (1 @)3
mth stage:
($T)m @ T1 (1 @)m 1
T1[(1 A )m 1]
¨¥ ( p )(G 1)/G m ·
rs 1´
T1 ©¦1 µ 1¸ (2.43)
©§ Hs ¶ ¸
ª ¹
The temperature rise in the case of one-stretch compression from T1 to T(m 1)q (Fig. 2.10) is given as
¨¥ T
( m 1)q
´ ·
T
( m 1)q
T1 T1 ©¦ µ 1¸
©ª§ T1 ¶ ¸¹
T1( P (G 1)/G 1)
(m 1)
h
(m 1) pm 1
pm
(m 1) m
m
m p4
4 p3
4
4 p2
3
3
3
p1
2 2
1
s
( $T )1 T1 T2
(T1 T2 a ) Hs
¥ T ´
T1Hs ¦1 2a µ
§ T1 ¶
76 Turbomachines
¨ ¥ p ´ (G 1)/G ·
T1Hs ©1 ¦ 2a µ ¸
© § p1 ¶ ¸
ª ¹
T1B
where
¨ ¥ p ´ (G 1)/G ·
B Hs ©1 ¦ 2a µ ¸
© § p1 ¶ ¸
ª ¹
Second stage:
($T)2 T2A
[T1 – ($T)1]A
T1A (1 – A )
Third stage:
($T)3 T3A
[T1 – ($T )1 ($T )2]A
[T1 – T1A T1A (1 A )]A
T1A (1 – A )2
Fourth stage:
($T)4 T1A (1 – A )3
mth stage:
($T)m T1A (1 – A )m 1
h
p1
p2
1
p3
2
2
3
3
3
pm
m
m pm 1
m m1
(m 1)
(m 1)
s
¤ ( $T )i ( $T )1 ( $T )2 ! ( $T )m
i
T1B T1B(1 B ) T1B(1 B )2 ! T1B(1 B )m 1
T1B [1 (1 B ) (1 B )2 ! (1 B )m 1 ]
T1B [1 (1 B )m ]
1 (1 B )
T1[1 (1 B )m ] (2.46)
Therefore,
T1 – Tm 1 T1(1 – (1 A )m)
Also considering the overall isentropic process T1 to T(m 1)q in one stretch, we get
T1 – Tm 1 (T1 – T(m 1)q)Gt
Also,
(T1 – T(m 1)q)Gt T1[1 – (1 A )m]
Hence,
T1[1 (1 B )m ]
Ht
¥ T ´
T1 ¦1 ( m 1)aa µ
§ T1 ¶
1 [1 Hst (1 prs(G 1)/G )] m
Ht (2.47)
1 P (G 1)/G
In the denominator, P is the overall pressure ratio for all the stages together:
P (prs) s m
P(F 1)/F (prs)m(F 1)/F
Equation (2.46) gives an expression for the total actual temperature drop, ¤ ( $T )i . Therefore, the actual
work output is i
c p ¤ ( $T )i c pT1[1 (1 B )m ]
i
The total of all stage-wise isentropic heat drops is c p ¤( $T ) Hst in the m stages, ¤Wsti . Therefore, the
reheat factor is i
78 Turbomachines
c pT1[1 (1 B )m ]
¤ Wsti Hst
RF
Wss c pT1[1 ( prs )m(G 1)/G ]
[1 (1 B )m ]
Hst [1 ( prs ) m(G 1)/G ]
m
1 [1 Hst (1 prs(G 1)/G )]
(2.49)
H st ª̈1 prsm(G 1)/G ·¹
While deriving the above relations, the enthalpy values were expressed in terms of temperatures and the
process-equations for isentropic processes were used. Because of this, the reheat factor, as obtained here,
may be applied only to gas turbines. For steam turbines, proper enthalpy values have to be used to obtain
the reheat factors.
K eywords
Compressible fluids Stage efficiency
Compression, expansion Overall isentropic compression efficiency
Static state Overall isentropic expansion efficiency
Stagnation state Preheat in multistage compression processes
Isentropic compression process Reheat in multistage expansion processes
Actual compression process Infinitesimal compression process
Isothermal compression process Infinitesimal expansion process
Isentropic expansion process Reheat factor
Actual expansion process
S ummary
In this chapter, it is assumed that the laws of perfect t In multi-stage units, the overall isentropic
gases hold good for compressible fluids when they efficiencies are compared with the stage effi-
undergo compression or expansion processes in tur- ciencies in both compression and expansion
bomachines, without large changes in pressures. processes (In compression, Gc Gst; in expan-
sion, Gt Gst).
t First, the static and stagnation states are identi-
t The effect of pre-heat in compressors and the
fied (properties at stagnation state properties
effect of reheat in turbines are studied (Pre-
at static state effect of velocity V 2/ 2 in suitable
heat effect: more work is required, compared
units).
to sum of isentropic works in compression
t Different processes such as adiabatic compres-
process; Reheat effect: more work is available,
sion, isothermal compression, and isentropic
compared to sum of isentropic works in expan-
expansion are studied (Actual processes are com-
sion process).
pared with these ideal processes).
Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow 79
I mportant E quations
1. Stagnation properties: 5. Ideal isothermal compression work:
2
V2 ¥p ´
T0 T Wideal ° pdv RT1 ln ¦ 2 µ
2c p g c 1 § p1 ¶
11. Actual total work for a multistage compression: 17. Reheat factor
¤ Wai Wa1 Wa2 Wa3 Wa4 ¥ ´
¤ Wsti ¦ ¤ Wsti µ
§ ¶
Hst RF i
Wss
Hst ¤Wsti 18. The overall isentropic compression efficiency
12.
Hc Wss
[( prs )m(G 1)/G 1]
13. Actual work for multistage expansion: Hc m
¨¥ ( p )(G 1)/G 1´ ·
¤Wai Wss Ht ©¦1 rs
Hst µ 1¸
i ©§ ¶ ¸
ª ¹
Ht
¤Wsti 19. The overall isentropic expansion efficiency
14. i
Hst Wss 1 [1 Hst (1 prs(G 1)/G ]m
Ht
15. Polytropic compression efficiency: 1 ( prs )m(G 1)/G
R eview Q uestions
1. Distinguish between static and stagnation isentropic compression efficiency in the case of
properties. (Section 2.2) multi-stage compression. (Section 2.7.1)
2. Why are stagnation properties preferred to 8. What is a reheat effect in multi-stage expan-
static properties for use in the analysis of tur- sion? (Section 2.7.1)
bomachine processes? (Section 2.2) 9. Prove that the overall isentropic expansion
3. Even if isothermal processes require least work efficiency in the multistage expansion is more
for compression, these processes are not used than the individual stage isentropic expansion
as ideal or standard processes for comparison efficiency. (Section 2.7.1)
with actual processes. Why? (Section 2.3) 10. Explain the polytropic efficiency in the case of
4. State the four different forms of isentropic compression process. Derive an expression for
compression efficiencies. Distinguish between the polytropic efficiency. (Section 2.8)
them. State the applicability of each efficiency. 11. Explain the polytropic efficiency in the case of
(Section 2.4) expansion process. Derive an expression for the
5. State the different viewpoints by which the dif- same. (Section 2.8)
ferent forms of isentropic expansion efficien- 12. Derive an expression for the overall compres-
cies can be explained. (Section 2.6) sion efficiency in terms of stage pressure ratio.
6. What is a pre-heat effect in a multi-stage com- (Section 2.9)
pression? (Section 2.7.1) 13. Derive an expression for the overall expan-
7. Prove that the overall isentropic compres- sion efficiency in terms of stage pressure ratio.
sion efficiency is less than the individual stage (Section 2.10.2)
82 Turbomachines
14. Derive an expression for the reheat factor in 15. Write a note on the pre-heat effect.
terms of stage pressure ratio and stage efficiency. 16. Write a note on the reheat effect and/or reheat
(Section 2.10.2) factor.
E xercises
1. At a particular section in a multi-stage air 6. At the inlet of a gas turbine, the gases are at a
compressor, the air is at a total temperature of total pressure of 700 kPa and total temperature
330 K and a total pressure of 200 kPa. At the of 1100 K. The gases expand in three stages,
end of three stages after this section, the total down to a total pressure of 175 kPa. In each of
pressure is 600 kPa. The pressure ratio across the three stages, the pressure ratio is the same,
each stage is the same. The total-to-total stage and the stage efficiency is 0.85. For the three
efficiency is 0.8 in each stage. For the three stages, calculate the overall expansion efficiency
stages, determine the overall compression effi- and the reheat factor.
ciency and the pre-heat effect. 7. Repeat Problem 6 with the stage efficiency
2. Repeat Problem 1 when the stage efficiency is equal to 0.8 (instead of 0.85).
0.86. 8. Let there be four stages instead of three, with
3. Suppose that there are four stages instead of the initial temperature 1100 K and pressure
three stages between the same pressure limits limits 700–175 kPa in Problem 7. Calculate
(200 and 600 kPa) as in Problem 1. Also the the overall expansion efficiency if the stage effi-
temperature at the beginning is 330 K, as men- ciency is 0.85, and the reheat factor.
tioned. For the four stages, determine the over- 9. Problem 8 is modified with Gst 0.8. Calculate
all compression efficiency and pre-heat effect if the overall efficiency and reheat factor.
the stage efficiency is 0.8. 10. From the results of Problems 6–9, state your
4. Let the stage efficiency be 0.86 instead of 0.8 comments on the effect of variation of Gst and
in each of the four stages between 200 and 600 the number of stages of expansion.
kPa of Problem 3. The initial temperature is 11. Air expands in a single-stage turbine from
330 K. Calculate the overall compression effi- 280 kPa, 300oC to 60 kPa, 220oC. Calculate
ciency and the pre-heat effect. the index of expansion and the polytropic
5. From the results of the above four problems efficiency.
(1–4), state your comments on the effect 12. Air is compressed in a single-stage compres-
of variation of (a) the number of stages and sor from 120 kPa, 60oC to 200 kPa, 140oC.
(b) stage efficiency. Determine the index of compression and the
polytropic efficiency of the process.
1. In the Exercise Problem 5, you have already variation of such parameters with more num-
stated your comments on the effects of (a) vari- ber of stages and more number of values of
ation of number of stages and (b) variation of the parameters to reinforce and fine-tune your
stage efficiency on the performance of a mul- comments.
tistage compression process, depending on the 2. In the Exercise Problem 10, you have already
results of the Problems 1 to 4. Now, include the stated your comments on the effects of (a) vari-
solved examples of this chapter, with repeated ation of number of stages and (b) variation of
Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow 83
stage efficiency on the performance of a mul- variation of such parameters with more num-
tistage expansion process, depending on the ber of stages and more number of values of
results of the Problems 6 to 9. Now, include the the parameters to reinforce and fine-tune your
solved examples of this chapter, with repeated comments.
A nswers
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. (c) 5. (b)
2. (b) 6. (b)
3. (a) 7. (a)
4. (d) 8. (d)
Exercises
1. 77.91%, 3.267 kJ/kg extra work 7. 82.06%, 1.0258
2. 84.7%, 1.8735 kJ/kg extra work 8. 86.85%, 1.0216
3. 77.65%, 3.692 kJ/kg extra work 9. 82.33%, 1.0289
4. 84.35%, 2.389 kJ/kg extra work 11. 1.36755, 94.07%
6. 86.634%, 1.02 12. 1.7286, 67.79%
3 Energy Exchange in
Turbomachines
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
v Understand and master the concept of velocity v Understand the mechanism of energy transfer
triangles as a powerful tool in the practice of tur- process and the fundamentals of the impulse
bomachines of all varieties (power-consuming, and reaction in turbomachines.
power-absorbing, radial flow, mixed flow, and v Quantify the above reaction in terms of the
axial flow types). “degree of reaction,” and relate this degree of
v Understand the most basic equation of energy reaction as an important parameter to other
transfers in turbomachines, that is, the Euler parameters such as the utilization factor, speed
turbine equation. ratio, etc.
3.1 Introduction
The process of energy transfer, taking place in a turbomachine, has been discussed in chapters 1 and 2,
through the steady-flow energy equation (SFEE) from thermodynamics. By knowing the states of a fluid
at the inlet and outlet, and by accounting for some losses, it is possible to find the power of the machine.
But these details are insufficient to design the hardware details of the machine. The most important details
that are the outcome of the design procedure are the details of the rotor vanes or blades, in the form of their
profiles, with the required angles at the inlet and outlet, as well as the radii at the inlet and outlet.
This chapter aims at understanding the basic details of the mechanism of energy transfer between the
flowing fluid and rotating vanes of a rotor of a turbomachine. One of the most fundamental equations for
energy transfer, that is, the Euler turbine equation is discussed in detail. The two types of the processes,
namely, impulse and reaction, are then studied. Some of the important parameters such as the degree of reac-
tion, utilization factor, and the speed ratio are discussed with respect to the implication of their values and
their mutual relationships or dependencies. The first step in this direction is the understanding of “velocity
triangles” with respect to a turbomachine.
These above velocities are subscripted to indicate their positions with respect to the blades: Subscript “1” is
for the inlet position and subscript “2” is for the outlet position.
The three velocities form a triangle only when they satisfy the condition V U Vr. This means that
the fluid smoothly glides over the blade surface without impact or separation. Therefore, the relative
velocity is tangential to the blade profile at the point considered. The “solution” of such a triangle is
nothing but finding the three sides of the triangle and its three angles, either graphically or by a simple
trigonometric analysis. Such velocity triangles can be drawn for any number of points on the profile of
the blade of a rotor, but in general, solutions at the two points, one at the inlet and the other at the outlet,
are sufficient at present.
The following points serve as the guidelines in understanding the velocity triangles:
1. All the velocities are vector quantities. Each velocity has a magnitude and a direction.
2. The blade velocity U is invariably tangential to the circular path of the blade, with positive direction
in the direction of rotation. The choice of the point of the tangent can be anywhere on the circular
path, but it is taken at the uppermost point to keep U horizontal, as shown in Fig. 3.1.
U2
U1
Stream lines
3. The instantaneous relative velocity of the fluid (Vr) with respect to the blades is always tangential
to the stream line of the flow of the fluid in the passage between the blades of the rotor. One
important assumption here is that the stream line is identical in shape with the vanes. This amounts
to saying that the flow is “vane-congruent.” Hence, Vr is tangential to the blade profile also. The
vane-congruent flow is schematically shown in Fig. 3.2, taking the radial flow rotor as an example.
Some blade profiles are shown in Fig. 3.3 along with the direction of relative velocity. The sense of
the direction of Vr (inward or outward) has to be prescribed clearly, depending on the flow of the
fluid.
Vr2
Vr2 Vr2
Vr1
Vr1 Vr1
Figure 3.3 Relative velocities: (a) Blades are bent backwards. (b) Blades are radial at the outlet.
(c) Blades are bent forward.
4. The absolute velocity V of the fluid is the vectorial sum of U and Vr Thus, V U Vr. With this
relationship, it can be understood that any two known quantities are sufficient to know the third
one.
5. The disposition or orientation of the imaginary plane, on which the velocity triangle is visualized,
is described in two separate ways: one for the radial flow rotor and the other for the axial flow
rotor.
6. For the radial flow rotor, the plane of velocity triangles is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the
rotor (Fig. 3.4). The rotor blades look as if they are encased between the two circular arcs.
7. For the axial flow rotor, the velocity triangles are drawn on a plane that is tangential to the rotor. The
blade profiles are also projected on this plane. It is as if the periphery of the rotor drum is slit open
88 Turbomachines
and the surface of the drum is opened up. In other words, this plane is the “developed” surface of
the rotor drum along with the blades. The direction of rotation of the rotor drum is seen as parallel
to the two parallel lines encasing the row of blades. This is shown in Fig. 3.5.
8. The directions of fluid flow are radial, axial, or mixed at the entry or exit. Radial flows are seen on
planes perpendicular to the axis and axial flows on planes tangential to the rotor.
9. The fluid angles (inlet @1, outlet @2) and blade angles (inlet A1 and outlet A2) are specified with
respect to the blade velocity vector U.
10. Finally, perception of the situation is of utmost importance. The situation in radial flow machines
is very easy to perceive. For an axial flow machine, the “physics” of the situation can be further
explained as per the following thoughts:
t “General flow” of fluid is from one parallel line to the other [Fig. 3.6(a)].
t The flow direction is from the “nose” to the “tail” of the air-foil section of the blades [Fig.
3.6(b)].
t If the fluid flow “strikes” on the concave side of the blades, the fluid “drives the blades,” forcing
the movement of the blades in that direction. Hence, this type of blade assembly is meant for
a turbine [Fig. 3.6(c)].
t If the fluid flow “strikes” on the convex side of the blades, this type of blade assembly is meant
for a compressor [Fig. 3.6(d)]. In this case, the blades force the fluid and move to “scoop” the
fluid. (Imagine a shovel scooping sand or a spoon scooping food from a plate. How does the
shovel move? How does the spoon move?) This is illustrated in Fig. 3.6(e).
t General flow is as in Fig. 3.6(a). But the “particular flow direction” (at some angle to the paral-
lel lines) must be decided to conform with the geometry of guide vanes, blade profiles, and the
velocity triangles.
The above steps are once again written down, in concise form, so that the step-wise procedure can be easily
followed and remembered. For the sake of clarity, the procedures for radial flow machines and axial flow
machines are shown in separate boxes.
The blades of the rotor in a turbomachine are of a shape of an ‘airfoil’. Air foil shapes provide a smooth
stream line flow of fluids. In addition, by the suitable design, the passages between the blades can be shaped
for any type of flow: expansion flow for turbines, compression flow for compressors, with sectional area
suitable for the required pressure ratio, and so on. Further, in axial flow machines, the individual blades are
assembled to make up a full rotor. The blades can have very smooth surface finish for the high-performance
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 89
rotors. Therefore, the air foil shapes of the blades make a meaningful design. In radial outward flow pumps,
the entry of fluids is at the inner radius; already the area of flow is restricted. Hence, for cast rotors, the losses
(with non-air foil blades) are tolerated, for the sake of low-cost machines.
(a)
Tail
Nose
Nose Tail
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 3.6 Orientation of rotor blades in axial flow rotor, related with fluid flow: (a) General
flow of fluid; (b) Fluid flow from nose to tail of blades; (c) Turbine blade assembly:
fluid forces the blades; (d) Compressor blade assembly: blades force the fluid; (e)
Examples of shovel and spoon.
In an airfoil shape, the nose and tail ends are easily identified as shown in the Figs. 3.5 and 3.6 above. The
flow of fluid is from nose-end to the tail-end. Once the flow is configured, the mean line of the blade profile
is sufficient for the determination of blade angles.
90 Turbomachines
C D
A B
Figure 3.7 Radial flow rotor with rotation and blade velocities.
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For axial flow machines, the blade velocities at the inlet and outlet, U1 and U2, are equal to each other
because both the tips of the blade are at the same diameter. It is quite usual, therefore, to draw the velocity
triangles on the same base of U U1 U2. The advantage of having a common base will become clear in
the later sections.
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92 Turbomachines
Figure 3.12 Relative velocities are tangential to the blade profiles (at inlet and outlet).
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)LJ
V1 V2 V1 V2
Vr1 Vr2 Vr1 Vr2
a1 a1 = 90°
U U U U
Figure 3.13 Addition of U and Vr to form velocity triangles, corresponding to Fig. 3.12.
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While explaining the addition of blade velocity (U) and relative velocity (Vr) to get the fluid velocity (V), it
is indicated that the rule is V U Vr. But there is absolutely nothing wrong in writing V Vr U, that is,
vector U starts where vector Vr stops. Also anticlockwise rotation is alright for rotor. But such varieties can
be considered only after getting some practice.
As per the descriptions given in the boxes and the steps (1–10) with reference to Figs. 3.1–3.6, velocity
triangles can be sketched if the minimum data are known. Velocity triangles can be graphically drawn to a
convenient scale, or can be analytically solved. In continuation, the absolute velocities of fluid, V1 and V2,
can also be resolved into the components parallel and perpendicular to the direction of the blade velocity
U. The information so obtained becomes the basis of the understanding of the forces exerted, the torques
generated or utilized, the power of the machine, and finally the design and performance of the blades.
Note: The purpose of the following examples is only to practice the drawing of velocity triangles. The utility
of velocity triangles is yet to be discussed. However, it can be said that the study of turbomachines becomes
very simple when velocity triangles are clearly understood.
EXAMPLE 3.1
A rotor is shown in Fig. 3.14. The entry of fluid is radial and the flow is outward. The blades are radial at
the outlet. Draw representative velocity triangles.
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 93
U2 V2
L M Vr1
V1 Vr2
1. Outward flow
L U1 2. Radial entry
N (a1 = 90°) b1 b2
(b2 = 90°) a1 a2
U1 U2
EXAMPLE 3.2
A rotor is shown in Fig. 3.15. The entry of fluid is radial and the flow is outward. The blades are bent
forward at the outlet. Draw representative velocity triangles.
EXAMPLE 3.3
A rotor is shown in Fig. 3.16. The entry of fluid is at an angle and the flow is inward. The blades are radial
at the inner diameter. Draw representative velocity triangles.
U2
N M L Inward flow
V1 Vr1
Vr2
V2
EXAMPLE 3.4
A rotor is shown in Fig. 3.17. The entry of fluid is at an angle and the flow is inward. The blades are such
that at the outer diameter they are at 90o to blade velocity and the flow is radial at the inner diameter.
Draw representative velocity triangles.
EXAMPLE 3.5
A rotor is shown in Fig. 3.18. The entry of fluid is at an angle and the flow is inward. The blades are
inclined at the outer diameter as shown and the flow is radial at the inner diameter. Draw representative
velocity triangles
L U1 U1 U2
L a1
M
U2 1. Inward flow
M 2. Radial exit
N Vr1 V2
(a2 = 90°)
Vr2
V1
EXAMPLE 3.6
An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 3.19. State the direction of the flow, whether this is turbine or com-
pressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the representative velocity triangles.
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 95
Vr2 V1
V2 Vr1
M 1. Flow is upward
2. This is a turbine blade
L
3. The blades move
toward the right
EXAMPLE 3.7
An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 3.20. State the direction of the flow, whether this is turbine or com-
pressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the representative velocity triangles.
Vr1 V2
V1 Vr 2
1. Flow is upward
2. This is a compressor blade
M 3. The blades move
L toward the right
U
L
EXAMPLE 3.8
An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 3.21. State the direction of the flow, whether this is turbine or com-
pressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the representative velocity triangles.
96 Turbomachines
L U
1. Flow is downward
L 2. This is a turbine blade
3. The blades move
V r1 V2
toward the left
M V1 V r2
EXAMPLE 3.9
An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 3.22. State the direction of the flow, whether this is turbine or com-
pressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the representative velocity triangles
M
V1
V2 Vr2
1. Flow is upward Vr1
M 2. This is a turbine blade
L 3. The blades move
toward the right
U
EXAMPLE 3.10
An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 3.23. State the direction of the flow, whether this is turbine or com-
pressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the representative velocity triangles.
Vr2
U
L 1. Flow is toward the V2
right
2. This is a compressor
blade
3. The blades move
upward
Vr1
L
M V1
M
Vax2
Vrad2
V1
V2 Vr2
Vax1
Vrad1 V1 Vu2
Vu2
U2
Vu1 V1 Vr1
Vu1
U1
In Fig. 3.24, a generalized rotor of a turbomachine is shown, with a typical flow of fluid, represented by the
absolute velocities of fluid: V1 at the inlet and V2 at the outlet. Also shown are all the components of the fluid
velocities:Vu1, Vu2, Vax1, Vax2, Vrad1 and Vrad2. Here, Vu is the component of the absolute velocity of fluid,
along U; this is the “whirl” component, contributing to the torque. Vax is the component of the absolute
velocity of fluid, along the axial direction; this causes the axial thrust. Vrad is the radial component of the
absolute velocity of fluid.
For a purely axial flow machine, the radial components Vrad1 and Vrad2 are reduced to zero. The axial com-
ponents Vax1 and Vax2 become the flow components Vf1 and Vf2. Similarly, for a purely radial flow machine,
Vrad1 and Vrad2 become the flow components Vf1 and Vf2. In this case, Vax1 and Vax2 are reduced to zero.
Now, r can be taken as the generalized radius vector and V as the generalized velocity vector, each having
components in axial, radial, and tangential directions. The cross product also gives the three components in
the axial, radial, and tangential directions. However, the torque and power developed in a turbomachine are
due to the tangential components only, while the axial thrust developed is due to the axial components. The
radial components have the effect of producing a couple or moment of forces on the bearings, without any
contribution to the torque. Thus
T m (r s V )
and P TW m W (r s V )
where V is the angular velocity. Considering the net torque from the inlet to the outlet section, the above
equation is written as
P m (W1rV
1 u 1 W 2 r2Vu 2 )
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 99
P
or W U1Vu 1 U 2Vu 21 (3.1)
m
where W is the specific work, and U1 V1r1; U2 V2r2. Equation (3.1) for the specific work is the Euler
turbine equation. From this point onward, the presence or absence of gc should not be a problem anymore
(m2/s2 is the same as J/kg.).
Just as the tangential components of fluid velocities give rise to the tangential force (and then the torque,
as above), the axial components of fluid velocities give rise to the axial thrust to be taken up by the bearings.
Designating the thrust as T, we have
d
T (mVf ) m (Vf1 Vf2 ) (3.2)
dt
kg m
s s N
s
In Eq. (3.1) for W, the specific work W when obtained as a positive value represents the work output of a
turbine. When the value of W obtained is negative, W is the input to the machine. This machine may be a
fan, a blower, a compressor, or a pump. When the thrust T obtained is positive, that thrust on the bearings
is in the direction of the inlet stream (irrespective of whether the machine is a pump or a turbine) and a
negative value of T represents the thrust in the opposite direction of the inlet stream.
As seen above, the complete details of the absolute fluid velocities V1 and V2 along with the fluid angles
@1 and @2 are sufficient to determine the torque of the shaft, the axial thrust, and the specific work. However,
the outlet velocity V2 depends on the inlet velocity V1, the flow characteristics of the fluid from the inlet to
outlet through the passage between the blades, the cross-sectional area of the passage and its variation, the
losses taking place in the passage, etc. One convenient method to find V2 is to calculate the relative velocity
at the inlet, Vr1, and to find its variation (or otherwise) to Vr2 along with the blade angle A2 at the outlet,
and then to solve for V2. As will be seen later, there are different methods to determine V2, but in general, all
the methods have to be toward only one aim, that is, completing the velocity triangles at both the inlet and
outlet, with the available or assumed data. In fact, the flow passage between the blades is to be designed so
as to arrive at the required value of Vr2 and consequent V2.
CM2 AC 2 AM2
Vf 2 V 2 Vu2
CM2 BC 2 BM2
Vf2 Vr2 (U Vu )2 Vr2 U2 Vu2 2UVu
100 Turbomachines
C
V Vr
Vf
a M b
A B
Vu U
From the above two equations, for Vf2 , one can write
The specific work, as given by Eqs. (3.1) and (3.3), is sometimes denoted by WE, subscript E signifying the
name Euler.
Equation (3.3) is the second form of Euler turbine equation. This expression for the specific work, along
with the equation obtained as a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics (and SFEE), gives a lot of
information regarding the design of the blade profiles.
The expressions for the specific work, in the form of Euler turbine equations, have been obtained starting
from the “vane-congruent” flow. The vane-congruent flow is the ideal flow. The actual flow differs from the
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 101
ideal flow due to various factors such as fluid viscosity, skin friction, eddies, turbulence, etc., as studied in
fluid mechanics. All the variables can be accounted for, but this will be done later.
Hence, Vr1 and Vr2 can be designed to be in a definite required proportion by designing the area ratio
accordingly. As a result, the flow can now be like the conduit flow, where Bernoulli’s equation can be
applied (as a first approximation), the flow channel acting as a diffuser or nozzle, with the pressure being
developed or consumed.
102 Turbomachines
However, the development of pressure is not totally due to this variation of Vr1 and Vr2 because the cen-
trifugal component (U 22 U12 ) / 2 also participates in the mechanism by acting like the external force on
the fluid. The effects have to be overlapped, as readily seen in the grouping of this component in the energy
equation.
Fluid Fluid
inlet outlet
Nozzle Rotor
2. In the case of pumps or compressors, the transformation must take place after the transfer process,
as in diffusers, as shown in the schematic view in Fig. 3.27.
Turbomachine
Fluid Fluid
inlet outlet
Rotor Diffuser
In actual practice, any design is one of the following three possible designs. It is possible to design a turbo-
machine in three different categories in such a way that:
1. The two processes, transformation or conversion of energy (of the fluid) and transfer of energy
(between the rotor and the fluid), are really decoupled, that is, they occur separately in different
parts, as depicted in Figs. 3.26 and 3.27.
2. The two processes, the conversion and the transfer, occur together, simultaneously, in the flow
passages between the blades of the rotor.
3. The process of transformation of energy or conversion of energy from one form to another form
takes place “partly separately” and “partly simultaneously” with the transfer of energy, that is, the
process of expansion or compression occurs partly in nozzles or diffusers and partly in the flow
passages of the rotor. The process is shared between the parts.
The above three cases are distinctly different from one another. In the light of the above, the equations for
the specific work W are recalled for further discussion (completely dropping gc):
V12 V22 p1 p2
W ( z1 z2 ) g
2 R
V12 V22
W (h1 h2 ) ( z1 z2 ) g
2
V12 V22 U12 U 22 Vr12 Vr22
W
2 2 2
In all the expressions for W, the first component (V12 V22 ) / 2 is the change in the kinetic energy of the
fluid between the inlet and outlet of the rotor, and this component gets transferred between the fluid and
rotor directly, without requiring the presence of either nozzles or diffusers.
The remaining components
( p1 p2 ) ( z1 z2 )
R g
or (h1 h2 ) ( z1 z2 ) g
(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )
or
2 2
(all are equal to one another) are the components that require the transformation in the rotor itself, simulta-
neously with the process of transfer of energy. These components are termed as “reaction components.”
The ratio of the components of energy transferred, due to the change in the pressure of fluid between the
inlet and outlet of the rotor, to the total energy transferred is known as the degree of reaction, R. Thus
¨ ( p1 p2 ) ·
© R ¸ ( z1 z2 ) g
R ª ¹ [3.4(a)]
W
(h h ) ( z1 z2 ) g
1 2 [3.4(b)]
W
104 Turbomachines
It is possible to visualize the reaction in different ways. Imagine a skating board in which the wheels are
locked, “braked,” or restrained by stoppers. Unless the brakes are released, the skating board cannot move.
Let there be a person on the board. If this person tries to jump from the board, he/she can jump over a long
distance, the board remaining firmly where it is [Fig. 3.28(a)].
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.28 Reaction in linear motion: (a) Board remains firm and (b) board moved backward.
Suppose the brakes on the wheels are released. The board is now free to move. The person on the board
is ready to jump. He/she bends and his/her powerful thigh muscles and calf muscles, having their stored
energy, suddenly unwind, releasing the energy. What happens? The person jumps, but now his/her forward
movement is much less. Instead, the skating board moves backward [Fig. 3.28(b)]. This backward move-
ment is due to the reaction. The stored energy of the person on the board is released and the muscles expand,
but, the effect is to push the board backward in the opposite direction.
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 105
Again, imagine a cylindrical drum, having nozzles in some tangential direction. The drum is supported in
bearings. It is now charged with high-pressure air (Fig. 3.29). If the drum is restrained by brakes and air is
released through the nozzles, the velocity of air can be very high. But if the drum is not restrained (the brakes
are released), for the same velocity of air from the nozzles (with reference to the nozzle), the drum moves
backward. This is by the reaction.
A water sprinkler in a garden is yet another example of the movement by reaction. All the movements,
seen above, can be precisely quantified and related to the energy spent.
W
(3.5)
Wa
Here, W is the ideal specific work, as defined by the Euler turbine equation. The energy available in the fluid
at the inlet, Wa, has two parts: its kinetic energy, V12/2, and the energy that is possible to be obtained due to
the pressure drop (known as the reaction component). Thus
V12 p1 p2
Wa ( with z1 z2 )
2 R
Also
V12 (U12 U 2 2 ) ( Vr12 Vr22 ) V2 2
Wa W
2 2 2 2
Hence
Also
U1Vu1 U 2Vu2
(3.7)
[ V12 (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )]/2
The utilization factor is defined only for turbines, which may be of any type, either axial flow or radial flow
or mixed flow type. The fluids can be either compressible or incompressible. The utilization factor of a tur-
bine is a performance parameter: It indicates how well the turbine performs. This factor can be maximized,
or conditions for the maximum utilization factor can be laid down, while designing the blades. The utiliza-
tion factor is not defined for work-absorbing type of turbomachines.
Now, from Eq. [3.4(d)] we have
So
1 V12 V22
1
R (U1 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )
2
V12 V22 1 1 R
1
(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 ) R R
(V12 V22 )R
(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 ) (3.8)
1 R
Substituting Eq. (3.8) into the expression for the utilization factor [Eq. (3.6)], the utilization factor is
obtained as
V12 V22
(3.9)
V12 RV22
Clearly, the equation does not hold good for the condition R 1, but otherwise, for any value 0 b R 1,
it is applicable for any turbine in general. Thus, the utilization factor can be seen as a function of the fluid
velocities V1, V2 and the degree of reaction R. As mentioned earlier, the degree of reaction can be taken as
a design parameter and therefore can have a prescribed value. The inlet velocity V1 is also a part of the pre-
scribed data. Hence, the utilization factor can be varied by varying the exit velocity V2. By the very definition
of the utilization factor, the least value of V2 gives rise to the maximum possible utilization factor, m. The
minimum value of V2 occurs when the exit angle @2 is 90o, with V2 being perpendicular to U2.
Now, for axial flow machines (U1 U2 U) and for Vf1 Vf2 V2 V1 sin@1, the expression for m
readily reduces to
V12 V22 V12 V12 sin 2 A1 1 sin 2 A1
m
V12 RV22 V12 RV12 sin 2 A1 1 R sin 2 A1
cos2 A1
m (3.10)
1 R sin 2 A1
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 107
¥ V2´
V12 ¦1 22 µ
U 1 § V1 ¶ 1
F 1 s s
V1 V1 2(1 R ) Vu 1
1 sin 2 A1 ¥ Vu1 ´
F ¦ V cos A1 µ
2(1 R )cos A1 § 1 ¶
cos A1
F (3.12)
2(1 R )
cos2 A1
Thus, it is seen that when F cos A1 / 2(1 R ) , we have m as seen by Eq. (3.10). Also, in
1 R sin 2 A1
continuation, the maximum possible W is given by
W Wa s m (3.13)
In Eq. (3.12), the values of E obtained may be taken as if it is a specified condition, and the corresponding
value of m may be taken as the derived result. Table 3.1 gives some representative values of such results.
108 Turbomachines
cos A cos2 A1
General expressions F m W Wa s m
2(1 R ) 1 R sin 2 A1
Impulse turbine U cos A1 m cos2 A1 ¥V 2 ´
R0 F W ¦ 1 µ 4F 2
V1 2 4F 2 § 2 ¶
Reaction turbine U m z cos2 A1
F cos A1 ¥ V2´
R 0.5
V1 W ¦ 2 s 1 µ F2
z F2 § 2 ¶
(for @ b about 25o) U2
The equations for m and E [Eqs. (3.10) and (3.12)] indicate that for a given inlet fluid velocity V1 and inlet
fluid angle @1, the blade speed U for the impulse turbine (R 0) is half that of the 50% reaction turbine (R
0.5). Hence, if both types of the turbines were to run under the same values of V1 and @1, at the same speed,
the diameter of the impulse-type machine would be half that of the 50% reaction-type machine. Alternately,
if the diameters were to be the same, the speed (rpm) of the impulse-type machine would be half that of the
50% reaction-type machine.
To understand the further significance of the above results, first, a representative value of the fluid inlet
velocity, V1, is assumed to be 100 m/s. This is taken as the field data. Two cases of the degree of reaction (R
0 and R 0.5) are worked out for various values of the fluid inlet angle (@1 10 − 30o). The results are
shown in Tables 3.2 and 3.3.
@ E U m Wm
10o 0.492 49.2 0.97 4850
15o 0.483 48.3 0.933 4665
20o 0.47 47.0 0.883 4415
25o 0.453 45.3 0.821 4105
30o 0.433 43.3 0.75 3750
@ E U m Wm
10o 0.985 98.5 0.98 4900
15o 0.966 96.6 0.965 4825
20o 0.94 94.0 0.938 4690
25o 0.906 90.6 0.902 4510
30o 0.866 86.6 0.857 4285
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 109
The results obtained further indicate that the 50% reaction-type machines give rise to better values of
utilization factors than those given by impulse machines. These results are without taking into account the
losses, friction, etc. If the effects of such losses are also to be considered, the reaction machines score still
better. This is because the fluid velocities in the reaction machines are generally lower than those in the im-
pulse machines. Consequently, the losses in the reaction machines are less.
The results also suggest that the fluid inlet angles @1 are to be as low as possible for better utilization.
EXAMPLE 3.11
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 3.30. State with reasons the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W.
(d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R.
(f ) Axial thrust.
(g) Utilization factor, if applicable.
Vr1 V2 Vr2
V1
=Vf1 = Vf2
Vf1 = Vf2
b1 = 70°
90° 90°
U1 = 4 m/s U2 = 8 m/s
Solution:
(a) Because U2 U1, this is a radial outward flow machine.
(b) Because V2 V1, this is a work-absorbing-type machine, pump or compressor.
(c) We know that
V1
tan B1 tan70o
U1
Hence
V1 U1tan B1 4tan70o 11 m /s Vf1 Vf2 Vr2
Now
V2 U 22 Vr22 82 112 13.6 m/s and Vu2 U 2 8 m / s
So
W U1Vu1 U 2Vu2 0 8 s 8 64 J/ kg
This is the work input.
110 Turbomachines
EXAMPLE 3.12
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 3.31. State with reasons the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W.
(d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R.
(f ) Utilization factor, if applicable.
V2 Vr2 V1
Vr1
= Vf1 = Vf2
b2 = 50°
a1 = 30° b1 = 90°
U1 = U2 = 15 m/s
Solution:
(a) Because U1 U2, this is an axial flow machine.
(b) Because V2 V1, this is a work-producing machine, that is, turbine.
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 111
V f2
b2 = 50°
V u2 x
U2 = 15
Comment: Problems 3.11 and 3.12 have been worked out using basic trigonometric relations. Graphically,
by using triangles drawn accurately to scale, various velocities or components can also be measured on the
diagrams. By practice, however, the analytical procedures like the above may look easier.
EXAMPLE 3.13
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 3.33. State with reasons the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W.
(d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R.
(f ) Axial thrust.
(g) Utilization factor, if applicable.
V1 = 210 m/s
Vr2
V2
Vr1
90°
22°
U1 = U2 = 100 m/s
Vf1 = Vf2
Solution:
(a) Because U1 U2, this is an axial flow machine.
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 113
W 19470
0.863
V22 78.67 2
W 19470
2 2
Comment: The reaction is only 2.67% or 0.0267. This is almost like zero. The machine may be termed
an impulse machine.
EXAMPLE 3.14
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 3.34. State with reasons the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W.
(d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R.
(f ) Axial thrust.
(g) Utilization factor, if applicable.
114 Turbomachines
Vr2 V1
V2 Vr1
Vf2 Vf1
30° 35°
20°
U1 = U2 = 85 m/s
Figure 3.34 Velocity triangles for Example 3.14 (Vr2 = 0.98 Vr1)
Solution:
(a) Because U1 U2, this is an axial flow machine.
(b) Because V2 V1, this is a work-producing machine (i.e., turbine).
(c) From the inlet velocity triangle,
Vf1
tan 35o
x
Therefore
x tan 35o Vf1
That is,
(V1cos20o 85) tan 35o V1sin20o
(0.9397V1 85) 0.7 V1 s 0.342
Hence
V1 188.4 m /s
Therefore
Vu1 V1cos20o 177 m /s
Vf1 V1sin20o 64.44 m /s
Now
Vr1 [(Vu1 U )2 Vf12 ]0.5
[(177 85)2 64.442 ]0.5 112.32 m/s
Vr2 0.98 s Vr1 110 m / s
So
Vu2 U Vr2 cos30o 85 110 cos30o 10.26 m /s
Therefore
Vu1 Vu2 177 ( 10.26) 187.26 m/s
So specific work is
W U (Vu1 Vu2 ) 85 s 187.26 15917 J/kg
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 115
EXAMPLE 3.15
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 3.35. State with reasons the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W.
(d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R.
(f ) Utilization factor, if applicable.
116 Turbomachines
U1 = U2 = 30 m/s
a1 = 60°
V1 = 40 m/s
a1 = 60° V2 at 90° to U
Vf1 = Vf1 = V2
Vr1 V1 Vr2 V2
Solution:
(a) Since U1 U2 U, this is an axial flow machine.
(b) Since V2 V1, this is a turbine.
(c) We have
Vu2 0; Vu1 40 cos60o 20 m /s
So specific work is
W UVu1 30 s 20 600 J/kg
(d) Power P W m 600 W per unit flow rate.
(e) We have
V2 Vf2 Vf1 40 sin60o 34.64 m /s
The kinetic component of W is
V12 V22 402 34.642
200 J/kg
2 2
Therefore
Reaction component W Kinetic component
600 200 400 J/kg
Therefore, the degree of reaction is
400
R 0.67
600
(f ) Utilization factor is
W 600
2
0.5
¥ V2 ´ 600 600
W ¦
§ 2 µ¶
Comment: This problem is yet another one for practice. However, the utilization factor is too low and
is to be improved. How can it be improved?
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 117
Suppose it is not possible to change the magnitude and direction of the inlet fluid velocity V1. The other
option is to increase the velocity of blades U, that is, to increase the speed of the machine. The increased
values of U can be tried, and it is easy to trace the steps in calculations (Table 3.4). (The kinetic component
200 J/kg is not altered.)
It may be observed that such variations can improve the utilization factor. Further, it follows that Vr1 and Vr2
also change their angles (A1 and A2). The blades of the rotor have to be at different angles. Hence, the blade
shape and orientation have to be different.
K eywords
Absolute fluid velocity Linear momentum equation
Alternate form of Euler turbine equation Radial flow machines
Angular momentum equation Reaction machines
Axial flow machines Relative velocity
Blade velocity Speed ratio
Degree of reaction Utilization factor
Euler turbine equation Vane-congruent flow
Impulse machines Velocity triangles
S ummary
The focus of study in this chapter is on the mechanism work is also derived in terms of the velocity com-
of the transfer of energy and momentum between the ponents of the fluid, that is,
flowing fluid and the blades of the rotor.
W U1Vu1 U 2Vu2
t The velocity triangles are studied in detail, with
t The two different components of the energy
respect to both radial flow machines and axial
transferred are identified: The kinetic compo-
flow machines.
nent and the reaction component. Consequent-
t V U Vr
ly, a distinction is drawn between the two types
t The Euler turbine equation is the most basic
of energy transfer processes: The impulse type
principle of working of any type of turboma-
and the reaction type.
chine. This equation, for specific work, is derived
t Kinetic component (V12 – V22)/2
from Newton’s law of motion and its corollary,
t Reaction component (U12 – U22)/2 (Vr22 –
the impulse momentum equation. The second
Vr12)/2
alternate form of the equation for the specific
118 Turbomachines
t With respect to the machine, the degree of reac- that facilitate the design of the blades as also the
tion R, the utilization factor , and the speed evaluation of the performance of the turboma-
ratio E are identified as important parameters chine.
I mportant E quations
1. Specific work Hence
P (V12 V22 ) (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )
W U1Vu 1 U 2Vu2
m V12 (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )
2. Specific work Also
¥ V 2 V22 ´ ¥ U12 U 22 ´ ¥ Vr12 Vr22 ´ U1Vu1 U 2Vu2
W ¦ 1
§ 2 µ¶ ¦§ 2 µ¶ ¦§ 2 µ¶ [ V12 (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )]
2
3. Degree of reaction
5. Utilization factor
( p1 p2 ) ( z1 z2 )
V12 V22
R g
R V12 RV22
W
(h1 h2 ) ( z1 z2 ) g 6. Maximum utilization factor
W cos2 A1
(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr222 ) m
1 R sin 2 A1
2 2
W 7. Specific work
(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )
¥ V 2 V22 ´ ¥ 1 ´
(V12 V22 ) (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 ) W U1Vu1 U 2Vu 2 ¦ 1 µ¶ ¦§ 1 R µ¶
§ 2
4. Utilization factor
8. Speed ratio
W
cos A1
Wa F
2(1 R )
3. V is the vectorial sum of U and Vr 12. If in an axial flow machine, the absolute fluid
(a) only at the inlet velocities at the inlet and outlet are equal, then
(b) only at the outlet (a) R 0 (b) R 0
(c) only in the turbines (c) R 0 (d) R 1
(d) everywhere Use Fig. 3.36 to answer the next three Multiple-
4. In a radial flow rotor, the velocity triangle is Choice Questions (13–15).
visualized on a plane that is
(a) parallel to the axis
(b) perpendicular to the axis
(c) tangential to the blade profile
(d) none of these
5. In an axial flow rotor, the velocity triangle is
visualized on a plane that is
(a) parallel to the axis
(b) perpendicular to the axis
(c) tangential to the blade profile
(d) none of these
6. Choose the wrong equation in the following:
(a) V U Vr (b) U V Vr
Figure 3.36 Blade assembly for Multiple-Choice
(c) Vr U V (d) V Vr U Questions 13, 14, and 15.
7. Velocity triangles are drawn for
(a) stator vanes (b) rotor vanes 13. In the blade assembly shown, the fluid flow is
(c) guide vanes (d) none of these (a) top to bottom (b) bottom to top
8. For a centrifugal pump, (c) left to right (d) right to left
(a) U1 U 2 (b) U1 2U 2 14. In the blade assembly shown, the rotation is
(c) U1 U 2 (d) U1 U 2 (a) left to right (b) right to left
(c) top to bottom (d) bottom to top
9. For an axial flow turbine, the fluid strikes
15. The assembly shown is of
(a) on the convex side of the blade
(a) a turbine (b) a compressor
(b) on the concave side of the blade
(c) a pump (d) none of these
(c) tangential to the blade.
16. The speed ratio is
(d) perpendicular to the blade
(a) V1 /V2 (b) U1 /U 2
10. For a radial flow machine, the fluid enters at
(a) the outer rim (c) U1 /V1 (d) U 2 /V2
(b) the inner rim 17. The utilization factor is
(c) perpendicular to the rim (a) (W V12 / 2) / W
(d) any of (a), (b), and (c). (b) W / (W V12 / 2)
11. If there is no change in the fluid pressure between (c) W / (W V2 2 / 2)
the inlet and outlet of the rotor of an axial flow
(d) W / (W V2 2 / 2)
machine, then
(a) R x 0 (b) R 0 18. The Euler turbine equation is an expression for
(c) R 0 (d) R 0 (a) power (b) axial thrust
(c) torque (d) specific work
120 Turbomachines
R eview Q uestions
1. What is a vane-congruent flow? By means of 4. Distinguish between impulse and reaction
neat sketches, show the vane-congruent flow for processes in turbomachines. Give examples.
at least two types of radial flow blades and one (Refer Section 3.5)
type of axial flow blades. 5. Explain the term utilization factor.
(Refer Section 3.2.3) (Refer Section 3.6)
2. What is the purpose of air foil shapes for blades? V 2 V22
(Refer Section 3.2) 6. Prove that 12 (Refer Section 3.6)
V1 RV22
3. Derive the Euler turbine equations. Do the
equations hold good for pumps/compressors? cos A1
7. Prove that F (Refer Section 3.7)
(Refer Section 3.3) 2(1 R )
8. Compare the impulse and reaction (R 0.5)
machines. (Refer Section 3.7)
E xercises
(For the sake of practice, nonstandard speeds are also at the inlet is radial, without any whirl com-
used in problems.) ponent. The flow components remain constant
at 10 m/s in the rotor. The speed of the rotor
1. The rotor of a radial flow machine has the
is 800 rpm. Draw the velocity triangles at the
inlet diameter of 40 cm and outlet diameter
inlet and outlet of the rotor. Calculate the
of 90 cm. At the outlet, the blades are radial.
blade angle at the inlet and the specific work.
The speed of the rotor is 8000 rpm. The fluid
Also calculate the specific work when the blade
enters the rotor in a radial direction. Calculate
outlet angle is 80o, instead of 60o.
the inlet blade angle, absolute velocity of fluid
4. In an axial flow machine, the mean diameter of
at the outlet, and the specific work, if the inlet
the rotor is 50 cm and the speed of the rotor is
fluid velocity is 150 m/s. The velocity of flow
10000 rpm. The fluid enters with a velocity of
remains constant in the rotor. Also find the
380 m/s at 25o to the blade velocity. The blade
angle of outlet velocity.
angle at the outlet is 35o. The flow component
2. The blade angles at the entry and exit of an
remains constant in the rotor. Calculate the spe-
axial flow turbine rotor are 25o each. The
cific work and degree of reaction. If the machine
blades have a mean diameter of 60 cm and
is turbine, calculate the utilization factor.
the speed is 3000 rpm. The absolute veloc-
5. The mean diameter of the rotor in an axial flow
ity of fluid at the outlet is axial. Calculate the
machine is 0.6 m and the speed is 10000 rpm.
absolute velocities at the inlet and outlet, angle
The fluid enters the rotor in the axial direction
of inlet velocity, specific work, degree of reac-
at a velocity of 180 m/s. The fluid leaves the
tion, and utilization factor. The velocity of flow
rotor at an angle of 35o with the blade veloc-
remains constant in the rotor.
ity. Calculate the blade angles at the inlet and
3. The rotor of a radial flow machine has its entry
outlet and the specific work. The flow compo-
and exit diameters as 20 cm and 50 cm, respec-
nents do not vary in the rotor.
tively. Its blades are bent backward so that the
6. The fluid enters the rotor at a velocity of 60
blade tangent at the outlet makes an angle of
m/s at a diameter of 90 cm at an angle of 30o
60o with the blade velocity. The fluid velocity
Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 121
with the tangent to the wheel. The wheel speed The blades are radial at the outlet. Calculate
is 1200 rpm. The absolute exit velocity of the the blade inlet angle, speed of the rotor, and
fluid is radial, at a diameter of 30 cm. The the degree of reaction if the specific work of
flow components remain constant in the rotor. the rotor is 30 kJ/kg. The flow component of
Calculate the blade angles at the inlet and velocity remains constant in the rotor. Repeat
outlet, the specific work, the degree of reac- the problem, if the outlet blade angle is 75o
tion, and the utilization factor. instead of 90o.
7. An axial flow turbine has a mean rotor diam- 11. A radial flow pump impeller has diameters of
eter of 70 cm and the rotor speed is 1000 rpm. 3.5 cm and 8 cm at the inlet and the outlet,
The fluid enters with a velocity of 100 m/s at respectively. The blades are inclined backward,
an angle of 28o with the plane of rotor. The at 65o to the blade velocity, at the outlet. Water
blade outlet angle is 28o. Calculate the blade enters the rotor with a velocity of 8 m/s, without
inlet angle, the specific work, the degree of any whirl component. The radial components
reaction, and the utilization factor. of the velocity remain constant in the rotor.
8. The blade velocity in an axial flow turbine Determine the speed of the rotor to generate
is 125 m/s. The blade angles at the inlet and a head of 16 m of water. If the speed is 2880
outlet are 40o and 25o, respectively. The abso- rpm, what is the theoretical head generated?
lute fluid velocity at the inlet is 220 m/s. The 12. Water enters the rotor of an axial flow pump,
relative velocity at the outlet is 50% more than without any whirl component. The diameters
that at the inlet due to expansion. Calculate of the rotor are 45 cm at the blade tip and 10
the angle at which the fluid enters the rotor, cm at the hub. The speed of the rotor is 800
specific work, degree of reaction, utilization rpm. The axial flow component of water veloc-
factor, and axial thrust. ity is 8 m/s, which may be assumed to remain
9. Water enters a radial flow pump without any constant through the entire cross section of
whirl component at a velocity of 12 m/s. The flow. Draw the velocity triangles at the inlet of
entry diameter of the rotor is 10 cm and the the blade, separately at tip end and hub end,
exit diameter is 20 cm. The speed of the rotor and determine the blade angles at the inlet at
is 2000 rpm. Calculate the blade angle at the both the points. The outlet blade angles are
inlet. The relative velocity of water at the outlet 40o at the tip and 90o at the hub. Calculate
gets reduced to 75% of that at the inlet, due to the specific works separately at the tip and hub
an increase of flow areas, and the blade outlet ends of the blade. If the variation of the spe-
angle is 80o. Calculate the specific work and cific work can be taken as linear between the
degree of reaction. hub and tip, determine its value at 0.6 times
10. Air enters a radial flow compressor with a the length of the blade. Taking this value of
velocity of 50 m/s, without any whirl com- specific work as an average, uniform value, cal-
ponent. The diameters of the rotor are 30 cm culate the theoretical power required to drive
and 60 cm at the inlet and outlet, respectively. the rotor.
work, (c) specific speed, (d) power, (e) degree to run at three different speeds (750, 1000
of reaction, (f ) utilization factor, (g) speed and 1500 rpm). Design three blade profiles
ratio etc. Present your findings in the form of for the impellers, with a common inlet angle
a table. What are the different conclusions you of 70° and outlet angles of 55°, 65° and 75°.
can draw from this table? Calculate the theoretical flow rates when each
2. In Problem 11, an impeller of a radial flow impeller is run at the three different speeds.
pump with inlet diameter of 3.5 cm and Plot the results in a suitable set of coordi-
outlet diameter of 8.0 cm has been men- nates. Draw up your conclusions. Frame at
tioned. Imagine that you are actually fabri- least one more such possibility of conduct-
cating an impeller of these diameters and that ing experiment to prove a chosen theoretical
you are equipped with a motor that can be set result.
A nswers
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. (c) 10. (d)
2. (a) 11. (b)
3. (d) 12. (d)
4. (b) 13. (d)
5. (a) 14. (d)
6. (c) 15. (a)
7. (b) 16. (c)
8. (c) 17. (d)
9. (b) 18. (d)
Exercises
1. 41.84o, 405.745 m /s, 142.12 kJ/kg, 21.7o 8. 18.6o, 28.9765 kJ/kg, 0.2566, 0.9159,
2. 193.556 m /s, 43.95 m /s, 13.124o, 1.03 N /( kg /s )
17.766 kJ/kg, 0, 0.948 9. 48.89o, 395 J/kg, 0.556
3. 50o, 317.72 J/kg, 401.7 J/kg 10. 30o, 5513 rpm, 0.5; 29.05o, 5729.6 rpm,
4. 81.67 kJ/kg, 0.28, 0.8588 0.5374
5. 29.81o, 72.4o, 80.76 kJ/kg 11. 3469.5 rpm, 10.2 m of water
6. 81.3o, 57.86o, 2.938 kJ/kg, 0.54, 0.867 12. 23o, 62.3o, 175.6 J/kg, 17.64 J/kg,
7. 42.28o, 5.128 kJ/kg, 0.5, 0.678 112.42 J/kg, 136 kW
4 General Analysis of
Turbomachines
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
v Study the effects of variation of exit blade angle v Study the overall performance of machines as a
on the energy transfer, reaction, and machine relationship between the specific work or head
performance. and the capacity flow rate of the fluid.
v Study the mechanism of slip and its effects on v Study the reaction and to quantify the same in
the performance of the machines. finite terms.
4.1 Introduction
The flow of fluids, both compressible and incompressible, through the blade passages of the rotor was
considered in Chapter 3. The overall nature of the losses during the flow and the consequent efficiencies
were studied in some details in chapter 1. The study, however, was limited to the “fluid front.” The atten-
tion was on the parameters of the fluid, such as the head, pressure, temperature, enthalpy, velocity, flow
rate, and so on.
The purpose of this chapter is to study the topics with respect to the parameters of the machine. One of
the important machine parameters is the shape of the blades of the rotor. The shape of the blade decides not
only the magnitude of the energy transferred, but also the “quality” of the energy, that is, whether it is of
kinetic form or other forms. The characterization of the blade shape is by its angles at the inlet and outlet,
A1 and A2, respectively. Some of the machine parameters are the physical dimensions of the machine such
as the inlet or outlet diameters of the rotor, the speed of the rotor, and whether the machine is a radial flow
type or axial flow type.
The variations of the parameters of the machine affect the performance of the machine in general.
The performance parameters are the specific work, the efficiencies, the reaction or the degree of reaction,
the utilization factor, and so on. In this chapter, we study the effects of the machine parameters on the
performance parameters, first with respect to radial flow machines and then with respect to axial flow
machines.
and compressors are evolved with radially outward flow, with higher energy at the outlet, at the outer radius.
For the same reason, the radial flow turbines are inward flow turbines, with discharge velocities of smaller
magnitudes and therefore with lower values of exit losses.
V2 Vr2
V1 Vr1
= Vf1
Vf2
b2
b1
U1 U2
Vu2 x
By the Euler turbine equation [Eq. (3.1)] and with Vu1 0, the specific work is given as
WE U 2Vu2 (4.1a)
In terms of the head developed by a pump, this equation can be written as
U 2Vu2
HE (4.1b)
g
From Fig. 4.1,
Vu2 U 2 x
U 2 Vf2 cot B2
Substituting this value of Vu2 into Eq. (4.1a) and dropping the negative sign we get
WE U 2 (U 2 Vf2 cot B2 ) (4.2a)
A pump, a blower, or a compressor is usually run by a motor of constant speed N. Hence, U 2 ( P D2 N / 60)
is also a constant. Further Vf2, the flow component, can be written as Q/A2, where A2 is the exit area of the
impeller and Q is the volume flow rate. This results in
WE C1 C 2Q (4.3)
where C1 U 22 and C 2 (U 2 cot B2 ) / A2 .
b2 > 90°
WE
b2 = 90°
b2 < 90°
Vr2 V2 V2
V2 Vr2 Vr2
Vf2 Vf2
b2 b2 b2
Vu2
Vu2 Vu2
Vu2
Vu2 Vu2
+ + +
For a given value of the flow rate, there is one more important effect of variation of the blade outlet angle.
For any outlet velocity triangle, as the height of the triangle, Vf2 , remains constant, Vu2 keeps on increasing
as the blade outlet angle A2 increases. This can easily be seen in Fig. 4.4. This can also be substantiated by
Eq. (4.3a), where the magnitude of WE increases as A2 increases.
V2 V2 V2 V2
Vu2 U2
Vu2
Vu2
Vu2
Vf2 cot B2 U 2
cot B2 U 2 /Vf2
This type of impeller is known as the zero-work impeller. It is like the fluid particle moving in the blade pas-
sage, neither pushing the blade ahead nor getting pushed by the blade from behind. The absolute velocity
of the fluid at the inlet and that at the outlet are equal in magnitude and direction, unaffected by the move-
ment of the blade. This situation of W 0 arises out of a combination of other parameters also, such as (a)
General Analysis of Turbomachines 127
the blade inlet angle A1 and (b) the ratio of diameters D2/D1 of the impeller at the outlet and inlet. This is
illustrated by the following cases, along with Fig. 4.5:
1. B1 45o, D2 /D1 2.0
When A1 45o, U1 Vf1; when D2/D1 2.0, U2 2U1 2Vf1 2Vf2; hence, U2/Vf2 2; therefore
¥U ´
B2 cot 1 ¦ 2 µ cot 1 (2) 26.5o
§ Vf2 ¶
2. A1 45o, D2/D1 2.5, by similar steps as above, U2/Vf2 2.5 and therefore,
¥U ´
B2 cot 1 ¦ 2 µ cot 1 (2.5) 21.8o
§ Vf2 ¶
3. A1 60o, D2/D1 2, by similar steps as above, U2/Vf2 2/ 3 and therefore,
¥U ´ ¥ 2U ´
B2 cot 1 ¦ 2 µ cot 1 ¦ 1
µ 40.89o
V
§ f2 ¶ § 3U 1¶
V1 Vr1 V2
=Vf1 =Vf2
=U1 b1 = 45° =U1 b2
U1 U2 = 2U1
(a)
V1 Vr1 V2
=Vf1 =Vf2
b1 = 45° =U1 b2
U1 U2 = 2.5U1
(b)
V1 Vr1 V2
=Vf1 =Vf2
b1 = 60° b2
U1 U2 = 2U1
(c)
Figure 4.5 Zero-work impellers. (a) Inlet and outlet velocity triangles for A1 = 45o, D2/D1 = 2. (b) Inlet and
outlet velocity triangles for A1 = 45o, D2/D1 = 2.5. (c) Inlet and outlet velocity triangles for A1 =
60o, D2/D1 = 2.
Consider any one of the above cases. When the exit blade angle is less than A2 as calculated above (retaining the
stated parameters as constant), Vu2 becomes negative and therefore specific work W becomes positive, result-
ing in a turbine action of the machine (fluid “pushing the blade”). When the exit blade angle A2 is more than
A2 as obtained above, Vu2 becomes positive and W becomes negative, signifying the pumping action of the
machine with work inflow. When A2 further keeps on increasing, Vu2 also increases; W increases in the nega-
tive direction and the pump capacity also increases. Figure 4.6 shows this variation of W on the base of A2.
128 Turbomachines
b1 = 45°
Turbine D2 /D1 = 2.5
W = 0 at b2 = 21.8°
W=0
Pump
or
compressor
b2
21.8°
EXAMPLE 4.1
In a radial flow pump, the impeller has its smaller diameter of 5 cm and bigger diameter of 12.5 cm. Its
speed is 1500 rpm. The inlet blade angle is 50o. The fluid enters the impeller without any whirl compo-
nent. The flow component remains constant.
(a) Find the specific work and degree of reaction at a blade outlet angle of 70o.
(b) Also find at what outlet angle the impeller becomes a zero-work impeller.
Solution: Given D1 0.05 m, D2 0.125 m, N 1500 rpm, A1 50o, Vu1 0 (@1 90o), A2 70o.
If W 0, A2 ? Now
P D1N
Blade velocity at inlet, U1 3.93 m /s
60
P D2 N
Blade velocity at outlet, U 2 9.82 m /s
60
Velocity triangles at inlet and outlet are as shown in Fig. 4.7.
V1 Vr1 V2
Vr2
=Vf1
=Vf2 Vf2
Figure 4.7 Inlet and outlet velocity triangles for Example 4.1.
Therefore
Vf2 4.68
x 1.7 m/s
tan 70 tan 70
Also, the whirl component at outlet is given by
Vu2 U 2 x 9.82 1.7 8.12 m/s
Now, the specific work is given by
W U 2Vu2 9.82 s 8.12 (Vu1 0)
79.74 J / kg
For zero work, V2 is the same as V1 (magnitude and direction);
Vf2 4.68
tan B2 0.47658
U2 9.82
B2 25.48o
Reaction component
R
Total energy transfer
Total work Kinetic component
Total work
(V22 V12 )
U 2Vu2
2
U 2Vu2
[(Vf22 Vu22 ) Vf12 ]
U 2Vu2
2
U 2Vu2
So
¥V ´
R 1 ¦ u2 µ (4.4)
§ 2U 2 ¶
130 Turbomachines
Also
(2U 2 Vu2 )
R
2U 2
(2U 2 U 2 Vf2 cot B2 )
2U 2
1 ¨ Vf2 ·
©1 cot B2 ¸ (4.5)
2 ª U2 ¹
This result is applicable for A1 45o and @1 90o so that V1 Vf2 Vf2 U1; Vu1 0.
Further substituting D2/D1 2.5 and U2 2.5U1 2.5 Vf2 and therefore Vf2/U2 1/(2.5), in Eq. (4.5),
it follows that
1
R (cot B2 2.5) (4.6)
5
This Eq. (4.6) is applicable for the case illustrated in Fig. 4.5 (b).
When A2, in the above conditions, becomes equal to 158.2o, the degree of reaction reduces to zero, the
machine becomes impulse type, and the centrifugal head balances the relative velocity head. The variation
of degree of reaction is shown in Fig. 4.8.
b1 = 45°
R D2/D1 = 2.5
R = 0 at b2 = 158.4°
R=0
b2 158.4°
If the reference values of A1 and D2/D1 were chosen as in Fig. 4.5(a) (i.e., A1 45o, D2/D1 2), the nature
of variation of R would be the same, but the values would be different (W 0 at A2 26.5o; R (2 cot
A2)/4; R 0 at A2 153.4o).
Equations (4.4), (4.5) and (4.6) are not general results. These results are with some assumptions (@1 90o,
A1 45o). The assumption that @1 90o is generally acceptable, but the other assumption A1 45o puts limita-
tion on the use of the three equations.
EXAMPLE 4.2
In a radially inward flow turbine, the diameter of the runner at the inlet is 50 cm and the diameter at
the outlet is 15 cm. The speed of the machine is 1500 rpm. The fluid at a velocity of 35 m/s enters the
General Analysis of Turbomachines 131
runner at 20o to the tangent and leaves the runner without any whirl component. The flow component
of the fluid velocity remains constant in the runner. Calculate the blade angles at the inlet and outlet, the
specific work, and the reaction.
Solution: We know D1 50 cm, D2 15 cm, N 1500 rpm, V1 35 m/s, @1 20o, Vu2 0,
Vf1 Vf2 constant. To calculate: A1, A2, W, R. Now
P D1N P s 0.5 s 1500
Blade velocity at inlet, U1 is given by: U1 39.27 m /s
60 60
P D2 N P s 0.15 s 1500
Blade velocity at outlet, U2 is given by: U 2 11.78 m /s
60 60
The velocity triangles are shown in Fig. 4.9.
20° b1 b2
U2
V1 = 35
V2
Vr2
Figure 4.9 Blade shapes and velocity triangles for Example 4.2.
Now, the whirl component Vu1, of inlet velocity V1, is given by V u1 V1 cos @1
Hence, Vu1 V1 cos 20 35 cos 20 32.89 m/s
Therefore
Vru1 39.27 32.89 6.38 m/s
The flow component of V1 is given by Vf1 V1 sin 20o 11.97 m/s
From inlet velocity triangle, Fig. 4.9,
¥ 11.97 ´
B1 tan 1 ¦ 61.94o
§ 6.38 µ¶
1
¥ Vf2 ´ 1 ¥ 11.97 ´
B2 tan ¦ U µ tan ¦§ µ 45.46o
§ 2¶ 11.78 ¶
So
W U1Vu1 39.27 s 32.89 1291.6 J / kg
Now V1 35, V2 11.97. Therefore, the kinetic component in specific work is
V12 V22
540.86
2
132 Turbomachines
EXAMPLE 4.3
In a radially outward flow machine, the outer diameter of the rotor is 1.5 times the inner diameter and
the blade angles at the inlet and outlet are equal. The drive for the machine is at 3000 rpm. Determine
the diameters for a specific work of 2400 J/kg. Also find the degree of reaction. Assume no whirl at the
inlet and Vf1 Vf2 .
Solution: Given D2 1.5 D1, A1 A2, N 3000, W 2400 J/kg or m2/s2, Vu1 0, Vf1 Vf2 . To
calculate , D1, D2, R.
C F
V1 Vr1 V2 Vr2
b1 D b2
E
A U1 B G U2 = 1.5 U1
Consider the velocity triangles, Fig. 4.10, with U2 1.5U1 and A1 A2. We have
$ABC $DEF
Because A1 A2, Vf1 Vf2 and CAB FDE , we have
GD 0.5 U1 Vu2
Since Vu1 0, we have
W U 2Vu2 (1.5U1 )(0.5U1 )
2400 0.75U12
2400
U12 3200
0.75
U1 56.57 m / s
We know that
P D1N
U1
60
60U1 60 s 56.57
D1 0.36 m
PN (P s 3000)
General Analysis of Turbomachines 133
EXAMPLE 4.4
The inner and outer diameters of the rotor of a radial flow machine are 10 cm and 20 cm, respectively.
The blade angles at the inlet and outlet are 40o and 70o, respectively. The fluid enters the rotor at 90o
to the blade velocity, and the flow velocity remains constant in the rotor. Determine the speed of the
machine for a specific work of 1000 J/kg.
Solution: Given D1 10 cm, D2 20 cm, A1 40o, A2 70o, @1 90o, Vf1 Vf2 , W 1000 J/kg. To
calculate N. It is possible to draw the shapes of the velocity triangles as shown in Fig. 4.11.
V1 Vr1 V2
Vr2
=Vf1
=Vf2
40° x 70°
U1 U2 = 2U1
Now,
Vf1 U1 tan B1 Vf2
134 Turbomachines
Starting from the speed, N, equal to 2880 rpm, the blade velocity at inlet, U1, is calculated as
P D1N P s 0.1 s 2880
U1 15 m/s
60 60
Then, the flow velocity, Vf1, is given by, (Refer Fig. 4.11),
Vf1 15 tan 40 12.586 Vf2
From the outlet velocity triangle, Fig. 4.11,
Vf2 12.586
x 4.58
tan 70 tan 70
W U 2 (U 2 4.58)
1000 U 22 4.58 U 2
U 22 4.58U 2 1000 0
General Analysis of Turbomachines 135
Solving for U2
(4.58 4.582 4000 )
U2 34 m/s
2
Now
P D2 N
U2
60
60U 2 60 s 34
D2 0.2255
PN P s 2880
D2 22.55 cm
− +
+
− −+ + + −− ++
−−
−+
+
Vane-congruent flow also indicates that the velocity distribution of the fluid in the flow channel is uniform.
But actually, the velocity distribution is altered due to the inertia of the fluid particles. To understand this,
suppose that there is a particle of fluid, frozen with an arrow mark on it, as shown in Fig. 4.13(a). As the
136 Turbomachines
impeller rotates clockwise, this particle, due to its own inertia, tries to maintain its orientation, pointing to
the same absolute direction as it started with.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.13 Fluid deviation due to inertia effects. (a) Retention of particle-orientation due to inertia and
(b)Change of velocity profile due to inertia.
When the impeller rotates through 180o, the particle still points to its original direction, but relative to the
impeller, it now points to the center of the impeller. This relative rotation (anticlockwise with respect to the
impeller) completes 360o when the impeller also completes (clockwise) 360o. The net effect is that there is
a relative rotation of the fluid particle with respect to the impeller. When this relative rotation is superim-
posed on the uniform vane-congruent velocity profile, the resultant velocity profile becomes as shown in Fig.
4.13(b). Again the effect is a slight reduction of the exit angle of fluid.
The third alteration of exit velocity of fluid is due to the finite thickness of blades. At the exit of the
impeller, the blades do not continue to exist, the area available for the flow is increased. Consequently, the
flow velocity is reduced.
All these effects are shown in Fig. 4.14. Because of the combined effects, the whirl component of the exit
velocity V is reduced. As a result, the magnitude of the energy transfer is reduced.
u2
Vr2
V2
Fluid deviations
Vu2 Slip U2
Vu2
Figure 4.14 Reduction of Vu2 due to pressure distribution, inertia of fluid, and finite thickness of blades.
This overall reduction of the specific work, from the specific work as calculated by the Euler turbine equation,
is known as slip. This slip is accounted for by the “slip factor” or “coefficient of slip” L. When the specific work
due to Euler’s equation is WE, and after accounting for slip, it becomes the ideal specific work Wi, then
Wi WE s M (4.7a)
General Analysis of Turbomachines 137
WE
Wi
Both the types of losses are shown in Fig. 4.16. The total of the two losses is also shown.
Losses
Total
losses
Flow losses
Turning losses
Flow rate
EXAMPLE 4.5
A fluid is directed at a velocity of 60 m/s on the concave side of the blades of a radially inward flow turbine
at an angle of 25o with the blade tip velocity. The blade outlet angle is 50o with respect to blade velocities.
The outlet diameter of the runner is half of that at the inlet. The speed of the runner is 1000 rpm. The
flow velocity remains constant. The discharge of fluid is at 90o to the blade velocity. Determine the (a)
blade inlet angle, (b) runner diameter at the inlet, (c) Runner diameter at the outlet, (d) the specific work,
(e) the degree of reaction, and (f ) the utilization factor.
Solution: Given V1 60 m/s, @1 25o, A2 50o, D2 0.5 D1, N 1000 rpm, @2 90o, Vu2 0.
The approximate shape of the blade and the velocity triangles are as shown in Fig. 4.17.
V1 = 60 m/s
U1 A U1 B D E U2 = U1 /2
a1 = 25° b1 50°
U2 F
+ Vr1 V2
V1 Vr2
= 60 C G
Figure 4.17 Shape of blades and velocity triangles for Example 4.5.
Now
At inlet, the whirl velocity is:Vu1 AD V1 cos 25o 60 cos 25o 54.38 m/s
At inlet, the flow velocity is: Vf1 DC V1 sin 25o 60 sin 25o 25.357 m/s Vf2 V2
Therefore
Vf2 25.357
U2 21.277 m/s (tan 50o 1.192)
tan 50o tan 50o
General Analysis of Turbomachines 139
We have D1 2D2.
Therefore U1 2 U2 42.554 m/s.
(a) The blade inlet angle is given by:
¨ 23.357 ·
B1 tan 1 © ¸ 65o
ª (54 .38 42 .554 ) ¹
(b) and (c) The runner diameters are determined as follows:
We know that
P D2 N
U2
60
60U 260 s 21.277
Runner outlet diameter, D2 0.4063 m 40.6 cm
PN P s 1000
Also, runner inlet diameter, D1 2D2 81.2 cm.
(d) Specific work is given by
W U1Vu 42.554 s 54.38 2314 J/kg
1
Wi
W
H
Total losses
Flow rate
The head–capacity curve, as in Fig. 4.18, is generated at a constant speed. The variation of the losses gives
rise to another important characteristic – the efficiency versus flow rate. The efficiency has to be maximum
where the losses are minimum. On either side of the point of maximum efficiency, the curve droops. A plot
of the efficiency is also shown in Fig. 4.19, along with the head generated. When the flow rate reduces to
zero, the efficiency also has to reduce to zero. The point of maximum efficiency is the “design point” or the
“duty point.” The rating of the machine is considered at the point of this maximum efficiency.
Figure 4.19 contains one more line in the form of a plot of the power of the machine on the same base
flow rate. The power P is proportional to the product of the flow rate and the head (P wQH). Some por-
tion of the head–capacity curve (resembling a hyperbolic nature) gives rise to a somewhat “flat” portion of
the power characteristic. On both sides of this flat portion, the power is also reduced. This feature adds to
the stability of the operation of the machine in the region around the design point.
Duty point
W or
W Head
H
h
Efficiency
Power
P
flow rate
The actual H–Q curve, the efficiency–flow rate curve, and the power–flow rate curve are the results obtained
from the ideal characteristic for the case of the backward bent blade with the outlet angle less than 90o. Even
if the angle were 90o or more, the trends of variation of all the characteristic lines would be more or less
the same. However, there are reasons to maintain A2 less than 90o (backward bent blades) and this will be
discussed in connection with the centrifugal pumps.
J
kg
m2
s2 U1Vu1
Flow rate
with U, V2, and Vr2 . As can be seen, vertices C and D are exchanged between the two sets. Figures 4.21 and
4.22 also include the blade shapes that are drawn in conformity with the velocity triangles.
Parallel to Vr2 , BD
C D
V1 Vr1 V2 Vr2
A U B
Parallel to Vr1 , BC
Parallel to Vr2 , BD
D C
V2 Vr2 V1 Vr1
A U B
Parallel to Vr1 , BC
It may be observed that the relative velocities Vr1 at the inlet are tangential to the blade profiles at the inlet
in the two diagrams. Similarly, the relative velocities Vr2 at the outlet are tangential to the blade profiles at
the outlet.
Figure 4.21 represents an increase in the fluid velocity from the inlet to outlet, that is, from V1 to V2, with
an increase in the fluid energy. This is the case of a pump or compressor. The blade shape confirms this situ-
ation. The movement of the blade is to “scoop” the fluid, “lift” it, and impart energy to it. In a similar way,
Fig. 4.22 represents a decrease in the fluid velocity from V1 to V2, a decrease in the fluid energy, and conse-
quently an increase in the shaft energy. This is the case of a turbine. The blade shape confirms this situation.
The fluid striking the concave side of the blade forces the blades to move and gives energy to the blade.
The velocity triangles and blade shapes of Figs. 4.21 and 4.22 are drawn to indicate how the blade shapes
can be derived from the velocity triangles and vice versa.
The analysis of the processes of compression and expansion can be almost the same. The magnitude of
the energy transfer is the same in the configurations of blades of Figs. 4.21 and 4.22, the sign being negative
for the compressor or pump (Fig. 4.21) and positive for the turbine (Fig. 4.22).
In the compressor, there is no pre-whirl. V1 is shown at 90o to the blade velocity U and therefore Vu1 is
zero. In the turbine, the exit velocity V2 is shown at 90o to the blade velocity U, with Vu2 0. But these
General Analysis of Turbomachines 143
need not be compulsorily so. There can be some variation in the blade shapes and velocity triangles. The
fluid velocity at the inlet to the compressor blades (Fig. 4.21) can be at any angle, and so is the fluid velocity
at the outlet of the turbine blades (Fig. 4.22). Since axial flow machines are generally multi-stage machines,
there can be different values of @1 in compressor blades in later stages after the first stage, or different values
of @2 in turbine blades in the stages, except the last stage.
Figures 4.21 and 4.22 exhibit one more feature. The case is particularly illustrated to indicate that the
analysis of compressors and turbines can be very much parallel to each other, or better still, the analysis can
be the same, but with some discretion regarding the signs of the energy flow. This observation is perhaps a
little bit complex, but the complexity is only to a certain extent. It can be imagined that in the turbine (Fig.
4.22), the fluid flow and rotation of the blade can be “reversed” by exchanging the nose and tail of the blade,
but not angles. The reversed situation clearly falls in line with the compressor blade (Fig. 4.21). Once this is
understood in all its details, the generality or universality of the analysis can be appreciated.
As a matter of precaution, however, it is necessary to mention one important feature of compressors. The
pressure at the exit of the compressor is higher than that at the entry. Naturally, the fluid has to flow from a
lower pressure to a higher pressure, as it moves through the rotor, getting the kinetic energy from the blades
of the rotor and transforming it into pressure energy. Hence, the design has to be for the higher rates of dif-
fusion, that is, the flow passages must accommodate the higher rates of conversion of velocity into pressure.
Avoiding the separation of flow at the blade surfaces is an important requirement and, therefore, it becomes
the limiting factor in the design. In this context, the pressure ratio of each stage has to be small, with general
values of the degree of reaction about 65%, even at the cost of efficiencies. Hence, although the analyses
of compressors and turbines are the same, as mentioned above, the range of values has to be restricted with
respect to the design of compressor blades. Clearly, the specific works of the compressor blades are required
to be lower compared to the turbine blades.
W U (Vu1 Vu2 )
Hence
2
(Vru1 Vf12 Vru2
2 Vf22 )
R 2
U (Vu1 Vu2 )
144 Turbomachines
2
(Vru1 2 )
Vru2
2
U (Vu1 Vu2 )
(Vru1 Vru2 )(Vru1 Vru2 )
2
U (Vu1 Vu2 )
CM = MD
D M C
V2 Vr2
V1 Vr1
A NU B
Vru mean
Figure 4.23 shows the velocity triangles, ABC and ABD, where C and D are vertices of the inlet and outlet
velocity triangles, respectively. The mid-point of CD is M. Vru mean is the projection of Vr mean on U, that is,
BN is the projection of BM on AB. Thus, R BN/AB.
It may be noted that the negative sign in the expression for R and the reverse direction of BN (opposite
to AB, i.e., U) cancel each other and the degree of reaction R becomes positive in the case illustrated in Fig.
4.23. If N lies beyond B on extended AB, R becomes negative. Also, if N lies beyond A on extended BA, R
becomes more than 1.
If BN 0, that is, if N coincides with B and M is directly above B, Vru mean is zero and R 0. Also
Vr1 Vr2 and p2 p1. This is shown in Fig. 4.24. This type of machine is an impulse machine. In impulse
machines, therefore, there is no change in the pressure of the fluid between the inlet and outlet of the rotor,
the flow passage between the blades is of constant area of cross-section, and the relative velocity remains
constant in magnitude as the fluid moves through the rotor.
General Analysis of Turbomachines 145
D M C
Vr2 V1
V2
Vr1
A U B
When V1 V2, the absolute velocity of fluid remains constant as the fluid flows through the passages between
adjacent blades. The second component, in the expression for the specific work [Eqs. (1.3), (1.5)] or the first
component in Eq. (3.3) becomes zero. The result is R 1. Because the degree of reaction is 1, all the energy
transfer is simultaneous with transformation or conversion of energy. In order that the energy is “transformed”
or “converted” from the pressure form to kinetic form (or vice versa), the flow passages between adjacent
blades of the rotor (corresponding to this situation) must act like nozzles (or diffusers). As a result, the pres-
sure of the fluid varies as it flows through such passages. The machine is known as a reaction machine. The
corresponding velocity triangles are shown in Fig. 4.25.
D M C
Vr2 V1 Vr1
V2
A, N B
Vru mean U ; R 1
D M C D M C D M C
V2 Vr2 V1 Vr2 V1 Vr2 V1
Vr1 V2 Vr1 Vr1
V2
A NU B A N U B A N U B
BN 0.25AB BN 0.5 AB BN 0.75AB
R 0.25 R 0.5 R 0.75
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.26 Velocity triangles for constant U, V1, and @1; R = 0.25, 0.5, 0.75.
146 Turbomachines
In addition to the above two types (R 0, R 1), the third type is actually a combination of the first two
types. The degree of reaction can vary. The fraction of specific work that gets “converted” and “transferred”
between the fluid and rotor can be anywhere between 0 and 1. Three values of degrees of reaction (R
0.25, R 0.5, and R 0.75) are illustrated in Fig. 4.26 [(a)–(c)]. All such machines are known as reaction
machines, including the type R 1 of Fig. 4.25.
The above discussion indicates that the degree of reaction can be pre-determined. With reference to the
velocity triangles in Fig. 4.23, if R 0.3, point N on AB can be such that BN 0.3 s BA and M can be
located directly above this point. Then C and D can be placed equidistant from M.
Theoretically, the degree of reaction can be less than 0 or even more than 1. But practical realization
of such values is more difficult than their theoretical realization. Consider U1 U2 for an axial flow
machine.
Then
(Vr22 Vr12 )
R (4.10a)
[(V12 V22 ) (Vr22 Vr12 )]
Y
(4.10b)
(X Y)
where X V12 V22 and Y Vr22 Vr12 . If R, the degree of reaction, is to be negative, then Y must be nega-
tive and |X| |Y|. This situation is when V1 V2 and Vr2 Vr1 or p2 p1. In other words, a stream of fluid,
with very high kinetic energy, while passing through the passage between the rotor blades, should not only
transfer part of its kinetic energy to the rotor, but also transform some of the remaining kinetic energy into
pressure energy. This is the case of energy output at the shaft and compression of the fluid, with velocity
triangles as shown in Fig. 4.27.
D M C
V2 V1
Vr2
Vr1
A U B N
BN = 0.25 AB
R = − 0.25
To repeat once again, a negative reaction means that a high-velocity fluid stream enters the flow pas-
sages between the rotor blades, imparts some energy to the shaft, and gets itself compressed to a higher
pressure.
If R, the degree of reaction, is to be more than 1, then in Eq. (4.10), X must be negative and Y must be
positive. This is the situation when V2 V1 and Vr2 Vr1 . The fluid passage between the rotor blades must
be such that it accelerates the flow. The energy input at the shaft contributes to accelerate the flow and not
to increase the pressure. The velocity triangles are as shown in Fig. 4.28.
General Analysis of Turbomachines 147
D M C
Vr2 V1 Vr1
V2
N A U B
BN = −1.3 AB
R = 1.3
To repeat, a degree of reaction being more than 1 means that the fluid, at a higher pressure at the inlet to the
rotor, expands in the blade passage and gets accelerated when the shaft also is driven by external energy and
contributes to accelerate the fluid flow.
In all the discussions so far, it is mentioned, sometimes, that V2 V1, p2 p1, Vr2 Vr1 , etc. These are
only ideal cases with friction being neglected for the purpose of discussions. Slight reductions such as V2
0.98V1 or Vr2 0.98Vr1 (accounting for 2% losses as example) can always occur, without losing the general-
ity of the discussions above.
Further, when the velocity triangles are solved at the inlet and outlet, the degree of reaction can also be
determined. But conversely, given a value of the degree of reaction, the velocity triangles can be solved to
suit the value of R. Hence, the degree of reaction can be a design parameter, implying that its value can be
prescribed or chosen and blade angles can be arrived at.
EXAMPLE 4.6
Vf ¥ tan B1 tan B2 ´
Prove that R .
2U ¦§ tan B1 s tan B2 µ¶
EXAMPLE 4.7
¨ tan B1 tan B2 ·
Show that W UVf © ¸ and state the assumptions.
ª tan B1 s tan B2 ¹
Solution: Assumption: For an axial flow machine, U1 U2 U. Further, Vf1 Vf2 Vf . From the
Euler turbine equation
W U [Vu1 Vu2 ]
where
Vu1 U Vf1 cot B1
Vu2 U Vf2 cot B2
Therefore
W U (U Vf1 cot B1 U Vf2 cot B2 )
UVf (cot B2 cot B1 )
¥ 1 1 ´
UVf ¦
§ tan B2 tan B1 µ¶
¥ tan B1 tan B2 ´
UVf ¦ µ
§ tan B1 s tan B2 ¶
EXAMPLE 4.8
In an axial flow turbine, the blade velocity is 60 m/s. The fluid enters at 30o to the plane of the wheel at
a velocity of 80 m/s. Calculate the blade inlet angle. If the blades are to be designed for (a) R 0.25 and
(b) R 0.5, calculate the blade outlet angle and specific work in each case.
Solution: Given
U1 U 2 U 60 m /s, A1 30o, V1 80 m /s
The inlet velocity triangle is drawn as shown in Fig. 4.29.
C
V r1
V1 = 80
Vf1
30° x
A U = 60 B
Now
Vf1 V1 sinA1 80 sin30o 40
VU1 V1 cos A1 80 cos 30o 69.282
Mark N on BA such that BN 15, as shown in Fig. 4.30. Referring to Section 4.4.1, the vertex D of
outlet velocity triangle ABD must be placed so that the midpoint of CD must be above N. This gives
rise to the projection of Vr2 on U, that is, Vru2 BN (half of CD).
Therefore,
Vru BN (BN x ) 15 15 9.282 39.282
2
D M C
V2 Vr2 V1
Vr1
45.5° 76.9°
A N B
15
60
9.282
ΔVu = 2u
D C
V2 Vr 2 M V1
Vr1
b2 b1 = b2
b1
A U B
Now, considering the limits of the degree of reaction R as 0 and 1, Fig. 4.31 indicates the following:
1. At A1 A2, R 0, ($Vu) 2U, we have Wmax U(2U) 2U2. This is the case of an impulse
turbine.
General Analysis of Turbomachines 151
C D C D
Vr1 V2 Vr1
V1 Vr2 V1 Vr2
V2
b1 b2
A U B A U B
(a) (b)
Figure 4.32 Velocity triangles: Compressor. (a) R = 0 (not desirable) and (b) R 0.5
(generally acceptable).
EXAMPLE 4.9
The impeller diameter of an axial flow pump is 50 cm. The impeller speed is 750 rpm. The fluid enters
the impeller at a velocity of 15 m/s, without any whirl component. (a) Determine the blade inlet angle.
Calculate the specific work and reaction when the outlet blade angle is (b) 65o, (c) 80o, and (d) 110o.
Assume that the flow component remains constant.
Solution: Given D1 0.5 m D2, N 750 rpm, V1 15 m/s, Vu1 0, Vf1 Vf2 V1 . The outlet blade
angle A2 (b) 65o, (c) 80o, (d) 110o
P DN
Blade velocity at inlet and outlet:U1 U 2
60
750
P s 0.5 s 19.635 m / s
60
(a) Blade inlet angle A1 is given by
V1 15
tan A1
U1 19.635
B1 37.38
152 Turbomachines
V1
= 15
= Vf1
= Vf2
x
U1 = U2 = 19.635
In the outlet velocity triangles, the projection of Vr2 on U is designated as x for easy reference.
(b) When A2 65o,
Vf2
tan B2
x
Vf2 15
x 7.00 m/s
tan 65o tan 65o
Therefore, the whirl component of V2 is given by
Vu2 19.635 7.00 12.635
Now, the specific work is given by
W U 2Vu2 19.635 s 12.635 248.1 J/kg
Referring to Section 4.4.1, to calculate degree of reaction R:
We have
(U x ) (19.635 7)
Vru mean 2 13.32
2 2
Therefore using Eq. (4.9), degree of reaction is given by
13.32
R 0.68
19.635
Continuing on the same lines as above we have for the cases of (c) A2 80o, (d) A2 110o, we have:
A2 X Vu2 W R
80 2.645 16.99 333.6 0.567
110 5.46 25.10 492.7 0.361
Comments:
1. As A2 increases, the specific work also increases.
2. As A2 increases, the degree of reaction decreases.
General Analysis of Turbomachines 153
EXAMPLE 4.10
A fluid stream is available at 250 m/s at the outlet of the nozzles that can be placed at 25o to the plane of
the runner wheel in an axial flow turbine. The blade inlet angle is 40o. Calculate the blade outlet angle,
the diameter of the runner, and the specific work if the speed of the runner is 1500 rpm. Take (a) R 0.5
and (b) R 1.0.
Solution: Given V1 250 m/s, @1 25o, A1 40o, N 1500, R 0.5 or 1.00. To calculate A2, D, W.
Since U(U U1 U2) is not known, let it be AB.
C D 453.15 C
V1 = 250
Vr2 V1
Vr1 Vf1 Vr1
V2
25° 40° 125.9
A U B E A U = 100.66 B E
(a) (b)
Figure 4.34 Velocity triangles for Example 4.10. (a) Inlet velocity triangle and (b) Inlet and outlet velocity
triangles, for R = 1.0.
First, to calculate the diameter of rotor and the blade velocity, the inlet velocity triangle, ABC, in Fig.
4.34(a) is solved. Referring to the triangle ABC, AEC,
Vf1 V1 sin25o 250 sin25o 105.655
Vf1
tan 40o
BE
Therefore,
Vf1 105.655
BE 125.9 (tan 40o 0.839)
tan 40o tan 40o
Similarly
AE 250 cos25o 226.577
Also,
AB AE BE 226.577 125.9
AB 100.66 U
P DN
U
60
60U 60 s 100.66
D 1.28 m
PN P s 1500
(a) Consider the case of R 0.5.
When R 0.5, the velocity triangles are symmetrical. So
B2 A1 25o
154 Turbomachines
W U ( $Vu ) U ( AE BE )
100.66 s (226.577 125.9)
35480 J/kg
105.655
tan B2
453.15 125.9
B2 17.89o
4.4.4 Flow Analysis in Runner Blades: Slip and Slip Factor or Coefficient of Slip
As in the case of radial flow machines, axial flow machines (compressors and turbines) have the slip
due to the pressure distribution on the two sides of the blades, finite thickness of blades, and non-
uniform velocity profiles. Figures 4.35 and 4.36 show these effects for the turbines and compressors,
respectively.
The specific work is reduced in both the cases of turbines and compressors. The coefficient of slip
is of the order of 0.98 for smaller machines to 0.99 for larger machines, while operating at rated
conditions.
General Analysis of Turbomachines 155
ΔVu
D1
D C
+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −
A U B
Fluid (a) (b)
Figure 4.35 Slip in turbines. (a) Pressure distribution around turbine blades and (b) Velocity triangles,
with slip (D–D1).
Vu
Slip
C D1 D
V1
Vr1
A U B
Fluid
(a) (b)
Figure 4.36 Slip in compressors. (a) Pressure distribution in compressor blades and (b) Velocity triangles
with slip (D–D1).
The specific work is reduced in both the cases of turbines and compressors. The coefficient of slip is of the
order of 0.98 for smaller machines to 0.99 for larger machines, while operating at rated conditions.
The interdependencies of the parameters in the form of relations between them are known as fan laws.
These laws are stated as follows:
1. First fan law: In an incompressible flow through a rotor of specified diameter, the volume flow rate
of fluid is directly proportional to the speed of the rotor, that is,
Q tN
2. Second fan law: In an incompressible flow through a rotor of specified diameter, the stagnation
pressure rise is directly proportional to the product of the density of the fluid and the square of the
speed, that is,
( $p )o t R N 2
3. Third fan law: In an incompressible flow through a rotor of specified diameter, the power required
to drive the machine is proportional to the product of the density and cube of the speed, that is,
P t RN 3
Fan laws are yet another form of stating the similarity laws and model studies. The variation of diameter is of
constructional nature, the variation of speed is of operational nature, and the variation of density is indica-
tive of handling different fluids. The Fan laws reinforce the ideas of operating a given machine at various
operating parameters and indicating the performance during such variation.
K eywords
Machine parameters Reaction as a function of A2
Blade angles Slip, coefficient of slip
Rotor diameters Pressure distribution on blade surfaces
Radial flow machines Inertia effects
Axial flow machines Blade thickness effects
Performance parameters Slip not a loss
Reaction Friction losses
Utilization factor Turning losses
Specific work–capacity flow rate relationship Reaction in an axial flow machine
Zero-work impellers 0 b R b1
Specific work as a function of A2 Negative R, R 1
S ummary
In this chapter, the analysis of turbomachines is reaction are studied (as A2 increases, the magni-
considered with respect to the machine parameters. tude of W increases and R decreases).
Radial flow machines and axial flow machines are t The case of zero-work impeller is discussed
discussed separately. (Absolute velocity of fluid, V, does not change
In radial flow machines: in the rotor, due to some combinations of pa-
rameters A1, D2/D1 A2).
t The effects of the variation of the blade outlet
t The degree of reaction is detailed [R (W –
angle A2on the specific work and degree of
Kinetic component)/W].
General Analysis of Turbomachines 157
t The slip and the coefficient of slip are discussed t The effects of variation of blade angles on the
in detail, with causes and effects (Wi WE s L, specific work and degree of reaction are studied
Hi HE s L). with respect to both turbines and compressors
t The losses in the rotor are discussed in detail. (As A2 increases, the magnitude of W increases
t The head–capacity relationship is arrived at step and R decreases).
by step, and the performance characteristics are t The slip and the coefficient of slip are studied
studied, finally to locate the duty point (Figs. with respect to turbines and compressors (Wi
4.18, 4.19). WE s L, Hi HE s L).
t The losses in axial flow machines are likened to
In axial flow machines:
those of radial flow machines.
t The degree of reaction is studied in detail, as The general approach to the study of turboma-
a basic parameter of importance, almost as a chines is presented in order that the study can
design parameter (R –Vru mean/U). now be continued with respect to the individual
machines in the later chapters.
I mportant E quations
1. Specific work 5. Ideal head
WE U 2Vu2 Hi HE s M
2. Head developed 6. Degree of reaction
U 2Vu2
HE (Vru1 Vru2 )
g
R 2
3. WE C1 C 2Q U
(a) changes from the positive to the negative 8. The expression R Vru mean / U holds good
value (a) only when U1 U2
(b) changes from the negative to the positive (b) only when Vf1 Vf2
value (c) at all times
(c) remains constant (d) none of these
(d) remains positive 9. The expression R Vru mean / U for an axial
4. Due to slip, in a radial flow impeller, the spe- flow machine holds good
cific work (a) for impulse machines
(a) increases (b) for reaction machines
(b) decreases (c) when the reaction is negative
(c) remains constant (d) all of these
(d) none of these 10. In an axial flow impulse machine,
5. As the flow rate increases in a radial flow machine, (a) Vr1 Vr2 (b) A1 A2
the losses (c) R 0 (d) all of these
(a) increase 11. In an axial flow machine with reaction of
(b) decrease 100%,
(c) first remain constant and then decrease (a) V1 V2 (b) A1 A2
(d) first decrease and then increase (c) Vr1 Vr2 (d) all of these
6. The turning losses in a radial flow machine 12. In a radial flow turbine, the flow is generally
depend on (a) inward (b) outward
(a) the specific work (c) tangential (d) any of these
(b) the degree of reaction 13. In a radial flow machine, when the machine
(c) the flow rate runs without any flow rate of fluid, the head
(d) none of these generated is
7. As the speed of an axial flow rotor increases, (a) U12 /2 g (b) U 22 /2 g
the specific work
(c) (U 22 U12 )/2 g (d) U 22 cot B2 /A
(a) increases
14. In a radial flow machine, it is not possible to
(b) decreases
have
(c) first increases and then decreases
(a) R 0 (b) R 1
(d) does not change
(c) R 1 (d) none of these
R eview Q uestions
1. Explain why, in general, radial flow turbines are 4. What is a zero-work impeller?
inward flow machines and radial flow pumps (Refer Section 4.3.1)
or compressors are outward flow machines. 5. Explain the mechanism of slip, as it occurs
(Refer Section 4.1) in (a) radial flow machines and (b) axial flow
2. Explain the effect of increasing the blade machines. (Refer Sections 4.3.4 and 4.4.4)
outlet angle on the energy transfer in radial 6. Explain the losses taking place in the machines.
flow machines. (Refer Section 4.3) (Refer Section 4.3.5)
3. Explain the effect of increasing the blade 7. Explain the characteristics of a radial flow
outlet angle on the reaction in (a) a radial flow pump and/or compressor. (Refer Section 4.3.6)
machine and (b) an axial flow machine.
(Refer Sections 4.3.2 and 4.4.1)
General Analysis of Turbomachines 159
8. Prove that R Vru mean / U , and explain the 11. Write a note on slip as referred to centrifugal
significance of this equation. Also mention the pumps. (Refer Section 4.3.4)
assumptions. (Refer Section 4.4.1) 12. What are the losses that take place in centrifu-
9. Sketch some general form of velocity triangles gal pumps? What are the causes of such losses,
and derive an expression for the specific work. and what are their effects? (Refer Section 4.3.5)
(Refer Section 4.3, Fig. 4.1, Eq. 4.1(a)) 13. Sketch the general characteristics of centrifugal
10. State the effects of variation of blade angles pumps. (Refer Section 4.3.6)
on head and reaction in the case of centrifugal
pump. (Refer Sections 4.3.1–4.3.3)
E xercises
1. The impeller of a radial flow pump has the the runner are 15%. Find the velocity of water
diameters of 4.5 cm and 10 cm at the inlet at the inlet, the inlet blade angle, the specific
and outlet. The blades are bent backward, at work output, the degree of reaction, and the
65o to the blade velocity at the outlet. Water utilization factor.
enters the impeller radially at a velocity of 10 4. In an axial flow turbine with a speed of 1500
m/s. The flow component of the velocity gets rpm, the fluid velocity at inlet is 180 m/s at
reduced to 60% from the inlet to outlet, in an angle of 30o to the wheel plane. The blade
the rotor due to the variation of the area. The inlet angle is 60o. Find the rotor diameter.
speed of the rotor is 2500 rpm and a slip of Assuming the flow component to remain the
3% may be assumed. Draw the velocity tri- same, calculate the specific work and utiliza-
angles and calculate the specific work. Also tion factor if the degree of reaction is (i) 0.5
determine the power required to drive the and (ii) 0.75.
pump with an overall efficiency of 87.5%, 5. The blade angles at the inlet and outlet are 50o
and the degree of reaction. The flow rate is and 25o, respectively, in an axial flow turbine.
30 kg/s. The inlet fluid velocity is 150 m/s at an angle
2. The inlet and outlet diameters of the impel- of 20o to the wheel plane. The rotor diameter is
ler of a radial flow pump are 6.5 and 15 cm, 0.85 m. Calculate the speed of the rotor. If the
respectively. The speed is 1440 rpm. The blade relative velocity is increased in the rotor by 50%,
angle at the inlet is 70o. The velocity of flow due to expansion, calculate the specific work,
gets reduced to 90% in the impeller due to the degree of reaction, utilization factor, and axial
increase of area. If the outlet blade angle is 85o, thrust.
calculate the specific work with no slip and 6. The diameter of the rotor of an axial flow
with a slip of 5%. Also determine the degree of impulse turbine is 0.85 m and the speed is
reaction in the two cases. 3000 rpm. The fluid velocity at the inlet to the
3. The runner of an inward flow turbine has a rotor is 320 m/s. Calculate the blade angles
diameter of 75 cm at the inlet. The speed of at the inlet and outlet, the nozzle angle, and
the rotor is 500 rpm. Water enters the turbine the specific work for a rotor efficiency of 0.86,
at an angle of 28o. The velocity of flow gets with flow velocity remaining constant in the
reduced to 75% due to the variation of area in rotor and for a utilization factor of 0.7.
the rotor. The water gets discharged without 7. The rotor of an axial flow blower has a tip
any whirl component at a rotor diameter of 30 diameter of 30 cm and hub diameter of 10
cm. The blade outlet angle is 55o. The losses in cm. The speed of the rotor is 2880 rpm. The
160 Turbomachines
blower is designed to draw 1.2 kg/s of air at a (with stronger blades), what would be the
pressure of 100 kPa and temperature of 25oC. power?
The blade outlet angle is more than the inlet 9. An axial flow compressor is required to work with
angle by 20o. Assume that the air enters the a degree of reaction of 0.6. The speed is 6000
rotor without any whirl and that the axial rpm. The mean diameter of the rotor blades is
component of velocity remains constant in 45 cm, and the height of the blades is 6 cm. The
the rotor. Calculate the volume flow rate, the air velocity at the inlet is axial and is equal to 80
blade angles at the inlet and outlet, the specific m/s. Calculate the blade angles at the inlet and
work, the power, and the degree of reaction. outlet, the mass flow rate, and the power required
Base the calculations on the mean diameter of to drive the compressor. Assume that the air is at
the rotor. 100 kPa and 25oC, and that the flow component
8. An exhaust fan has a blade tip diameter of 30 of velocity remains constant in the rotor.
cm and hub diameter of 4 cm. It runs at 600 10. An inward flow water turbine has its rotor
rpm. The blade angles at the tip at the inlet diameters as 75 cm and 40 cm at inlet and
and outlet are 30o and 60o, respectively. Air outlet, respectively. The speed is 375 rpm. The
at 100 kPa and 25oC flows into the rotor with velocity of flow remains constant in the rotor.
no whirl component, and the axial flow com- The water leaves the rotor without any whirl
ponent remains constant. The average specific component. The blade outlet angle is 50o. For a
work over the length of the blade may be degree of reaction equal to 0.8 and a utilization
taken as 75% of that at the tip of the blade. factor of 0.95, calculate the angle of entry of
Calculate the air flow rate, specific work, and water to the rotor, blade inlet angle, and specific
power required to drive the fan at an overall work. If the flow rate is 1.1 m3/s, determine the
efficiency of 60%. If the same design were to theoretical output power of the rotor.
be used for an axial flow pump to pump water
A nswers
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. (c) 8. (d)
2. (a) 9. (d)
3. (a) 10. (d)
4. (b) 11. (a)
5. (d) 12. (a)
6. (c) 13. (c)
7. (a) 14. (c)
Exercises
1. 130.7 J/kg, 4.48 kW , 0.84 6. 49.3o, 49.3o, 36.8o, 44.032 kJ/kg
2. 115.93 J/kg, 110.13 J/kg, 0.695, 0.7256 7. 1.0263 m3 /s, 28.44o, 48.44o, 0.4728 kJ/kg,
3. 31.856 m /s, 60.4o, 469.43 J/kg, 0.053, 0.567 kW , 0.74
0.882 8. 0.44173 kg /s, 44.416 J/kg, 32. 7 W ,
4. 1.323 m, 21.6 kJ/kg, 0.8, 27 kJ/kg, 0.74 27.97 kW
5. 2200 rpm, 13.13 kJ/kg, 0.214, 0.9342, 9. 29.5o, 70.6o, 7.93 kg /s, 126.8 kW
8.85N /( kg /s) 10. 27.157o, 105.2o, 286.46 J/kg, 315 kW
5 Steam Turbines
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
v Get familiar with the different types of steam v Study the reheat factor in multi-stage steam
turbines and the various terms associated with turbines, factors affecting such reheat, and the
such turbines. effects of such reheat.
v Study the basic impulse and reaction turbines, v Understand the need and mechanism of gov-
their operating parameters, and effects of such erning of steam turbines and the implications
parameters on their performance. of different methods.
v Study the necessity of compounding of steam v Study the performance characteristics of steam
turbines and the methods and arrangements of turbines.
compounding.
v Analyze the performance of each type of steam
turbine, with the effects of various parameters
on such performances.
5.1 Introduction
Steam turbines are power-producing turbomachines that use steam as the fluid. The steam absorbs the ther-
mal energy from the combustion zone in boilers or from the coolant circuit of nuclear reactors. The energy
is available in the steam at high pressure and temperature. The steam is then taken to the turbine where it
expands to lower pressures in nozzles or blade passages and the resulting velocity imparts energy to the rotat-
ing shaft of the turbine. The input energy to the turbine is the enthalpy drop of the steam when it expands
from its pressure at the entry to the pressure at the exit.
The enthalpy drop of the steam in the steam turbine can be found by tracing the process of expansion,
knowing the initial state of the steam and the final pressure, and assuming isentropic expansion. Steam pres-
sures at the inlet to the turbines can be very high, such as 35 bar, 40 bar, etc. Exit pressures are of the order
of 0.03–0.04 bar.
When steam goes through such large pressure drops, the velocity generated in the nozzles can be very
high. Such high velocities give rise to large losses in the flow passages. If attempts are made to absorb the
energy in a single stage, the exit losses are also of high magnitudes. Hence, different arrangements are made
to have maximum utilization of the energy. This chapter is an attempt to study the different types of steam
turbines, the variations of pressures and velocities of steam in such turbines, the efficiencies, the methods to
improve such efficiencies, and the different arrangements to accomplish the same. Further, the principles of
thermodynamic flow of steam, with different effects, as studied in chapters 3 and 4, are recalled and applied
to steam turbines.
164 Turbomachines
Vr 2 V1
V2
Vr 1
b2 b1
a1 U
b2
Inlet
pressure
V1 b1
a1
Approach
velocity Exit pressure
Exit velocity
Axial distance
(V12 V 22 )
W U (Vu1 Vu2 ) or W
2
The input energy for the blades is only of the kinetic form and is equal to V 12 / 2
A rotor blade efficiency or vane efficiency is defined as
Output
Hr
Input
(V1 )2 (V2 )2
(V1 )2
(V2 )2
1
(V1 )2
(Vf2 )2 (Vu2 )2
1
(V1 )2
(Vf1 )2 (Vu2 )2
1 (&Vf1 Vf2 )
(V1 ) 2 (V1 ) 2
(Vu2 )2
1 sin 2A1
(V1 ) 2
So
(Vu2 )2
Hr cos2 A1
(V1 )2
The maximum rotor efficiency is obtained when the subtractive term (Vu22 /V 12 ) is reduced to zero that hap-
pens when @2 90o and Vu2 0. Hence
When the relative velocity at the outlet of the blades is considered equal to that at the inlet, there are no
losses in the blade passages. This is only theoretical situation. When the steam flows through the blade pas-
sages, losses take place due to various factors such as friction, turbulence, by-pass at the tip of the blades, and
so on. The relative velocity at the outlet, Vr2 , gets reduced to c b s Vr1 , where cb is known as “coefficient of
blade friction” that has a value less than 1 and is of the order of 0.96, 0.97, etc. If the surface finish of the
blades is not smooth, the value of cb can be still less.
During the design of the blades, the aim of a good design is to maximize the specific work (and effi-
ciency), reduce the axial thrust (to zero), etc. It is possible to choose the blade angles, areas of the flow, the
166 Turbomachines
operating speed, and similar other parameters toward this aim. As seen above, the relative velocities and
blade angles need not essentially be equal at the inlet and outlet. Further, for a specified inlet steam velocity,
the speed and diameter of the rotor can also be a matter of choice. In this context, a general approach to
optimization is now considered.
The general velocity triangles shown in Fig. 5.1 can now be considered in more details. From the Euler
turbine equation, the expression for specific work is stated as follows:
W U (Vu1 Vu2 ) U (| Vru1| | Vru2|)
U (Vr1 cos B1 Vr2 cos B2 )
So ¥ V cos B2 ´
U (Vr1 cos B1 ) ¦1 r2 s µ
§ Vr1 cos B1 ¶
W UVr1 cos B1(1 c bC )
where cb is the coefficient of blade friction, etc., and C is the ratio of cosines of blade angles at the outlet
and inlet. Also
Vr1 cos B1 V1 cos A1 U
Therefore
W U (V1 cos A1 U )(1 c bC )
The blade efficiency or rotor efficiency is
W
Hr
(V1 )2 / 2
U (V1 cos A1 U )(1 cbC )
(V1 )2 / 2
U¥ U´
2s cos A1 (1 c bC )
¦
V1 § V1 µ¶
Hr 2F(cos A1 F )(1 c bC )
Thus, the rotor efficiency or blade efficiency is identified as a function of speed ratio E, nozzle angle @1, coef-
ficient of blade-friction cb, and the ratio of cosines of angles. In other words, the effects of available enthalpy
drop, rotor diameter, rotor speed, nozzle angle, and blade angles are included in the expression for rotor
efficiency.
An optimum value of the speed ratio E can be obtained by equating dGr/dE to zero, with @1, cb, and C
taken as constants. The result is
cos A1
cosA1 2F 0 F
2
Substituting this value of E into the expression for Gr, we get
cos A1 ¥ cos A1 ´
Hr 2 s cos A1 (1 cbC )
2 ¦§ 2 µ¶
cos2 A1(1 cbC )
Hr
2
Steam Turbines 167
When cb 1 and C 1 (no losses and equiangular blades), the efficiency becomes maximum, and the above
expression reduces to
(Hr )max cos2 A1
This equation is the same as Eq. (5.1). In the case of impulse turbine, the utilization factor is the same as the
rotor efficiency. Hence, the maximum utilization factor is given by
max cos2A1 (5.2)
The velocity triangles corresponding to this situation are the particular cases of the general velocity triangles
of Fig. 5.1, and this particular case of @2 equal to 90o is shown in Fig. 5.2.
ΔVu = 2U
D C
Vr 2 V1
V2
Vr 1
b2 b1
A U B
Figure 5.2 Velocity triangles of the De Laval turbine [(Gr)max and max].
The usual values of the nozzle efficiency are of the order of 0.96–0.99. When the nozzles are convergent–
divergent, as they are in the case of De Laval turbine, the losses are more and the efficiencies are in the lower
range of 0.96–0.97. Higher efficiencies are possible when the pressure drops are less (as in compounding
situations to be seen later) and when nozzles are convergent ones.
A stage efficiency Gstage is given by
Wstage
Hstage
( $h )stage
168 Turbomachines
W (V1 )2 / 2
s
(V1 )2 / 2 ( $h )stage
or Hstage Hr s Hn (5.5)
U
a2 a1 b2 b1
U
b2
Inlet
pressure
V1 b1
a1 V1 U
Approach
velocity
Exit pressure
Exit velocity
Axial distance
In the case of one stage of Parsons turbine, when the condition of maximum utilization factor (i.e., @2
90o) is combined with R 0.5, the resulting velocity triangles are as shown in Fig. 5.4.
ΔVu = U
D C
V2 Vr 2 V1
Vr 1
A U B
Figure 5.4 Velocity triangles for the Parsons turbine: max, @2 90°, R 0.5.
When the velocity of steam at the exit of nozzles is very high, or when the pressure energy itself is very high,
the method devised to utilize such energy at a lower speed of the turbine is to absorb the energy in multiple
rings of rotor blades. This method of reducing the speed is known as compounding. Compounding is needed
to avoid the above disadvantages of high flow-velocity of steam and lower efficiency of expansion in nozzles.
Compounding is the method adopted for the transfer of energy from the steam to the rotor in multiple
rows of rotor blades, in order to run the turbine at lower speeds.
1. If the process of expansion of steam is shared in multiple rows of nozzles (or nozzle-shaped flow
passages between the blades of stator rings), then the method is known as pressure compounding.
2. If the process of expansion of steam is in one set of stator nozzles and the absorption of the resultant
high velocity is in multiple rows of rotor blades, then the process is known as velocity compounding.
Pressure compounding and velocity compounding can be combined together to have pressure–velocity
compounding.
Moving
Moving
No ΔP No ΔP
Supply pressure Pressure drop in all the rings
Exit Supply
pressure pressure
Exit
velocity
Approach Exit
Approach Exit
velocity velocity
velocity pressure
Figure 5.5 Pressure compounding: (a) Rateau stages and (b) Parsons stages. In both the parts, the top
portions of the figures indicate lay out of the nozzle-rings, the rotor and stator blade-rings;
the lower portions indicate the variations of pressure and velocity along the flow path.
Steam Turbines 171
2. The cross-sectional area of the passages between the rotor blades is such that the passages act as
nozzles, with expansion of steam occurring in the rotor blades also, as shown in Fig. 5.5(b). The
turbine is known as the pressure-compounded reaction turbine. This arrangement can have any degree
of reaction R, but the Parsons turbine has only one value of degree of reaction, R 0.5. These stages
are repeated one after the other, each stage comprising one set of stator blades followed by one set of
rotor blades. In Fig. 5.5(b), two Parsons stages are shown.
Moving rotor
Moving rotor
Stator
Stator
Stator
nozzle
ring
(a)
Supply pressure
Exit
pressure
Axial
distance
Approach Exit velocity
velocity
(b)
Figure 5.6 Curtis stage with three rotor blade rings. (a) Layout of the nozzle-ring and the rotor/stator
rings and (b) Variation of pressure and velocity of steam along its flow-path.
172 Turbomachines
5.4 Analysis
The analyses of a single-stage impulse turbine (De Laval turbine) and a single-stage reaction turbine (Parsons
turbine) are discussed in the sections 5.2.1.1 and 5.2.2.1. As has been seen above, the compounding of the
steam turbines results into the following types of turbines, with multiple stages:
1. Rateau stages: Pressure-compounded impulse turbine.
2. Parsons stages: Pressure-compounded reaction turbines with 50% reaction.
3. Curtis stages: Velocity-compounded impulse turbines with more than one row of rotor blades for
each pressure drop in the nozzles.
4. Combination stages: Repetition of the above stages, either of the same type or of different
types.
When there are multiple stages, the effect of a previous stage gets carried on to the next stage and hence
the analysis has to be inclusive of this effect. The analyses of the above cases can be considered now in
detail.
V 2( $h ) Va2
Steam Turbines 173
Moving
Moving
Moving
Nozzle Stator Stator
ring blades blades
No ΔP No ΔP No ΔP
Supply pressure
Exit pressure
Exit velocity
Axial distance
Approach
velocity
Figure 5.7 Rateau stages (pressure-compounded impulse type). (a) Layout of the nozzle-ring and
the rotor/stator rings. (b) Variation of pressure and velocity of steam along its flow-path.
where $h is the enthalpy drop across the nozzles and Va is the inlet or approach velocity of steam at the entry
of the nozzles. The velocity triangles for a stage are the same as those in Fig. 5.2 and are drawn as shown in
Fig. 5.8. The data required for the complete solution of the velocity triangles are as follows:
1. The velocity at the inlet to the rotor blades, V1.
2. The angle of V1 with U, namely, the fluid angle @1.
3. The blade velocity U.
4. The blade angles A1 and A2.
Vr2 V1
V2
Vr1
b2 b1
A U B
Since this is the impulse blade, we also have Vr1 Vr2 and A1 A2. The requirement of maximum
utilization factor imposes the condition that the absolute exit velocity of steam from the rotor blade must
be axial (@2 90o).
In the next stage, if the exit velocity from the second set of nozzles is the same as the exit velocity
from the first set of nozzles [i.e., if the enthalpy drop $h for the second set of nozzles is the same as
that of the first set of nozzles and if all the angles (@1, @2, A1, A2) are also the same], the same set of
velocity triangles holds good for the second row of rotor blades. In such a case, the specific work of
the second row of rotor blades is the same as that of the first row. This is the situation in the case
of Rateau stages, and this may continue for the subsequent stages also. The total output is the sum of
the outputs from each row.
n
WT ¤ Wi
i 1
nWi
where
Wi [U (Vu1 Vu2 )]i (5.9)
where n is the number of Rateau stages. Now, this result may indicate that the nozzles in all the rows and
the rotor blades of all the rows have the same geometry and design. However, this is only partly true. As the
steam expands to lower pressures, the specific volume of the steam increases. Hence, for the same mass flow
rate, the volume flow rate increases. This increased volume flow rate has to be accommodated by increasing
the area of flow as may be required. Increasing the height of the blades is one method of increasing the area
of flow, even when the blade angles are kept the same. But after a few stages, increasing the blade height may
not be possible. Then the mean diameter of the blade ring can be increased, causing an increased U. In such
cases, the whole design can be changed without requiring the condition of maintaining the enthalpy drops
to be equal to the previous nozzles.
If the design is such that the enthalpy drop across each set of nozzles is the same and the angle of velocity
is also the same, then the rotor blade angles are the same for each row, that is, A2 A1.
( $h )a Hn s ( $h )i
Two to three percent losses in nozzles can be accounted for by having Gn as 0.97–0.98. With these correc-
tions, the velocity triangles can be drawn as shown in Fig. 5.9.
Steam Turbines 175
V1
Vr2 Vr1
V2
b2 b1
A U B
Figure 5.9 Velocity triangles of one Rateau stage with losses B B; Vr 2 cb . Vr1( cb z 0.98 ).
EXAMPLE 5.1
The mean rotor diameter of a De Laval turbine is 0.5 m. Its speed is 3000 rpm. Steam is supplied from
nozzles at a velocity of 200 m/s at a nozzle angle of 22o. The relative velocity of steam reduces by 5% in
the blades due to friction. Taking the blade angles at the inlet and outlet to be equal, find the angles, the
power output, and the axial thrust for a flow rate of 10 kg/s. If the axial thrust has to be reduced to zero,
what modifications of the blades are required?
Solution: Given D 0.5 m, N 3000 rpm, V1 200 m/s, @1 22o, Vr2 0.95 Vr1, A1 A2, m 10
kg/s. To calculate (a) A1, P, Axial thrust. (b) Modifications of blades for zero axial thrust
We know that blade velocity is given by
P DN
U1 U 2 U
60
3000
P s 0.5 s
60
78.54 m / s
Also whirl component of inlet velocity is given by
Vu1 V1 cos A1 200 s cos 22o 185.44 m / s
The velocity triangles are shown in Fig. 5.10, U and V1 are marked; CE Vf1, DF Vf2, V2 AD;
BC and BD are respectively Vr1 and Vr2.
C
D V 1 = 200
22° b2 b1 x
F A B E
U = 78.54
In the triangle ABC and AEC together, AB U 78.54 and AE Vu1 185.44.
Therefore, BE AE – AB 185.44 – 78.54
BE x 106.9 m/s, x as shown in triangle BCE.
The flow component of inlet velocity, Vf1 CE V1 sin A1 200 s sin 22o 74.92 m / s
1 74.92
(a) Inlet blade angle is given by B1 tan 35o B2
106.9
Outlet blade angle is A2 A1 35o
x 106.9
Relative velocity at inlet, Vr1 BC
cosB1 cos35o
Vr1 130.5 m / s
Relative velocity at outlet, Vr2 Vr1 c b 130.5 s 0.95 124 m / s
In the triangle BDF, BF Vr2 cos B2 124 cos35o 101.57
Therefore
Vu2 AF BF AB 101.57 78.54 23.03 m /s
Specific work, W U (Vu1 Vu2 ) 78.54(185.44 23.03)
16.3756 kJ/kg
Power Wm 163.756 kW
Axial thrust m (Vf1 Vf2 )
10(74.92 Vr2 sin B2 )
37.97 N
(b) To make the axial thrust zero, A2 can be increased, so that Vf1 Vf2 . Then
1 74.92
B2 sin 37.17o
124
EXAMPLE 5.2
An impulse-type steam turbine has a speed of 1500 rpm. The mean rotor diameter is 0.8 m. The steam
velocity at the nozzle exit (inlet to the blades) is 200 m/s, at an angle of 20o to the plane of the wheel. (a)
Find the blade angle at the inlet. (b) Find also the outlet blade angle for the utilization factor of 0.8. If the
mass flow rate of steam is 10 kg/s, determine the power of the turbine and the axial thrust of the rotor on
the bearings. Take Vr1 Vr2 neglecting friction.
Solution: Given N 1500 rpm, D 0.8 m, V1 200 m/s, @1 20o, 0.8, m 10 kg/s. To find
A1, A2, P, Axial thrust.
We know that
P DN P s 0.8 s 1500
Blade velocity is given by U 62.83 m /s
Also 60 60
Whirl component is Vu1 V1cos A1 200 cos20o 187.9 m /s.
Flow component is Vf1 V1sin A1 200 sin20o 68.4 m /s.
Steam Turbines 177
¨ Vf1 ·
(a) The inlet blade angle is B1 tan 1 © ¸
ªVu1 U ¹
¨ 68.4 ·
tan 1 ©
ª187.9 62.83 ¸¹
28.67o
(b) Since this is an impulse machine, the reaction component is zero. Therefore
(V12 V22 )
W
2
Now, utilization factor is
W W
2
2 0.8
¥V ´ V1
W ¦ 2 µ
2
§ ¶ 2
¥V 2 ´
W ¦ 1 µ s 0.8
§ 2 ¶
¥ 2002 ´
¦ s 0.8 16 kJ/ kg
§ 2 µ¶
C
V1
D V
r2
Vr1
V2
89.44
a2 20° 28.67 = b1
F A U = 62.83 B E
V u1 = 187.9
V u2 = −66.755
(ΔV u ) = 254.655
Therefore
Vf2 66.75 tan ( 41.72o) 59.53
And hence, the blade outlet angle A2 is, from triangle BDF, angle DBF, that is,
¨ 59.53 ·
B2 tan 1 © 24.67o
ª 66.75 62.83 ¸¹
The axial thrust is given by
Axial thrust m (Vf1 Vf2 )
10(68.4 59.53)
88.7 N
V12 HcoV22
( $h )is, stator (5.11)
2Hn
Further, the enthalpy drop in the rotor blade passages ($h)is, rotor in a reaction turbine can be related to
($h)is, stator [refer Eq. (3.8)] as
R
( $h )is, rotor ( $h )is, stator s
1 R
R (V12 HcoV22 )
or ( $h )is, rotor (5.12)
2Hn (1 R )
Therefore, the total enthalpy drop for the stage, inclusive of stator and rotor, is given by
( $h )is, stage ( $h )is, stator ( $h )is, rotor
(V12 HcoV22 ) R (V12 HcoV22 )
2Hn 2Hn (1 R )
V12 HcoV22
(5.13)
2(1 R )Hn
Recalling Eq. (3.11) we have
V12 V22
W U (Vu1 Vu2 )
2(1 R )
180 Turbomachines
Vu12 Vu22
or U (Vu1 Vu2 ) for Vf1 Vf2
2(1 R )
2U (1 R ) Vu1 Vu2
Vu2 Vu1 2U (1 R )
Hence
W U [Vu1 (Vu1 2U (1 R ))]
W 2U [Vu1 U (1 R )]
Now, the stage efficiency is
W
Hst
( $h )is, stage
2U [Vu1 U (1 R )]
Hst
¨ (V12 HcoV22 ) ·
© ¸
ª 2(1 R )Hn ¹
4U (1 R )Hn [V1 cos A1 U (1 R )]
V12 HcoV22
4F(1 R )Hn [cos A1 F(1 R )]
(5.14)
¥V 2 ´
1 Hco ¦ 22 µ
§ V1 ¶
where E U/V1 is the speed ratio.
Now, from
(V12 V22 ) 2(1 R )U (Vu1 Vu 2 ) 4(1 R )U [V1 cos A1 U (1 R )]
we have
V22
1 4(1 R )F[cos A1 F(1 R )]
V12
Therefore
4 R (1 R )cos2 A1
Hr (5.17)
1 Hco [1 4 R (1 R )cos2 A1 ]
For the case of R 0.5, that is, Parsons stage, we have
cos2 A1
Hr
1 Hco (1 cos2 A1 )
cos2 A1
Hr (5.18)
1 Hco sin 2 A1
EXAMPLE 5.3
In a reaction turbine, the inlet and outlet blade angles are 50o and 20o, respectively. The steam enters at
18o to the plane of the rotor wheel and leaves at 40o. The rotor speed is 260 m/s. Calculate the speed
ratio, specific work, degree of reaction, utilization factor, and axial thrust.
D
Vr2
V2
V1 C
Vr1
U 260
0.69
V1 376
The specific work is
W U (Vu1 Vu2 )
260 (357.6 199.2)
144768 J/kg
144.8 kJ/kg
This means 50.8 N of thrust (force) is in the direction opposite to that of Vf1.
EXAMPLE 5.4
In a Parsons stage, the steam inlet velocity is 200 m/s at an angle of 18o to the plane of the rotor. The rotor
diameter is 0.75 m and the speed is 3000 rpm. Calculate the blade angles, specific work, and utilization
factor.
Solution: Given V1 200 m/s, @1 18o, N 3000 rpm, D 0.75 m. The Parsons stage is of 50%
reaction; therefore, the velocity triangles are symmetric: @1 A2; A1 @2.
Blade velocity is
P DN P s 0.75 s 3000
U 117.8 m/s
60 60
We have
whirl component , Vu1 V1 cos @1 200 cos18o 190.2 m/s
and, component, Vf1 V1 sin @1 200 sin18o 61.8 m/s
Now
¨ Vf1 ·
Blade angle at inlet is B1 tan 1 © ¸
ªVu1 U ¹
¨ 61.8 ·
tan 1 © ¸
ª (190.2 117.8) ¹
40.48o A 2
Now, velocity triangle at inlet is drawn, Fig. 5.13, (ABC), and the outlet triangle (ABD) can be com-
pleted by symmetry.
D C
Vr2 V1 = 200
V2 Vr1
In Fig. 5.14, the absolute velocity of steam at the inlet to each of the rotor blade ring is assumed to be at the
same angle, that is,
A11 A 21 A 31
In Fig. 5.15, the rotor blade angles at the inlet and outlet for all the three rings are assumed to be the same.
This means that
B11 B12 B21 B22 B31 B32
In Fig. 5.16, the axial components of absolute steam velocities of all the three rings are assumed to be the
same.
The way Figs. 5.14–5.16 are explained and drawn indicates that the procedure of drawing velocity tri-
angles is started with reference to the point of inlet of the steam at the first rotor ring, that is, triangle ABC1.
For the purpose of illustration, the absolute values of angles and velocities are assumed to be known, but
are not specified in the diagram; only the equalities of entities are specified (either Vr11 Vr12 or B11 B12 ) . In
such cases, one cannot be sure that the last exit velocity, V32 or AD3, would be exactly at 90o to U or AB. The
data of U, V11, @11, etc., being arbitrarily fixed, the final exit velocity (V32 or AD3) can be of any magnitude
and at any angle.
D3
Rotor
C3
B Stator
D2
Rotor
A C2
Stator
D1
B Rotor
C1
Nozzles C1
D1 V11 = AC1
A
D2 C2
B
C3
D3
F1 F2 A U B E3 E2 E1
Figure 5.14 Velocity triangles for a three-row Curtis stage (@11 @21 @31). ABC1 and ABD1 are the
inlet and outlet triangles for the first rotor ring blades. ABC2 and ABD2 are the inlet and
outlet triangles for the second rotor ring blades. ABC3 and ABD3 are the inlet and outlet
triangles for the third rotor ring blades.
The procedure, therefore, is a little modified. V32 or AD3, with a definite magnitude (a reasonable percentage
of V11) and at 90o to U, is taken as the starting point. Then with the data of angles, one can proceed in the
reverse direction (D3 to C3, C3 to D2, and so on). Actual field problems may require some trials to converge
to a good solution.
186 Turbomachines
If, in a general problem, it is not absolutely essential to have the last exit velocity at 90o to U, the proce-
dure can start with the inlet velocity triangle of the first ring, ABC1. Further, a Curtis stage with two rotor
rings may be even easier than the illustrated case, but a Curtis stage with four rotor rings should not be more
difficult than the three-rotor-ring stage.
The blade angles are the same. A21 A22, that is, C 2 B E 2 D2 B F2
The axial components are the same. Vf21 Vf22, that is, C2E2 D2F2
The total specific work for all the three rings of rotor blades is the sum of the specific works of each of the
rings and is given as
WT W1 W2 W3
U (Vu11 Vu12 ) U (Vu21 Vu22 ) U (Vu31 Vu32 )
U [($Vu )1 ( $Vu )2 ( $Vu )3 ]
Steam Turbines 187
A C1
D1
D2
B
C2
D3
C3
F1 F2 A U B E3 E2 E1
Figure 5.15 Velocity triangles for a three-row Curtis stage. (Blade angles are the same: A11 A12
A21 A22 A31 A32.) (The legend is the same as for Fig 5.14, Table 5.1).
A
B
D1 D2 D3 C3 C2
C1
M
F1 F2 A U B E3 E2 E1
Figure 5.16 Velocity triangles for a three-row Curtis stage. (Flow components are the same:
Vf11 Vf12 Vf21 Vf22 Vf31 Vf32 ). (The legend is the same as for Fig 5.14, Table 5.1).
Some interesting results are obtained in the case of Fig. 5.16, in which the flow components of the absolute
steam velocities in all the rotor rings are assumed to be the same.
Consider a pair of velocity triangles, ABC3 and ABD3, for the third rotor blade ring. For the impulse
wheel, the vertices of the triangles, C3 and D3, are required to be equidistant from point M, which is directly
188 Turbomachines
above B, refer Fig. 4.19 or Fig. 5.2. Because MD3 is equal to AB (i.e., U), C3D3 2U. Hence, the specific
work of the third rotor blade ring is
W3 U ( $Vu )3 U (2U ) 2U 2
Again, D3 is the center of D2C3 because AD2 AC3. This results in D2D3 2U, and further D2M 3U
MC2, giving rise to C2D2 6U. Hence, the specific work of the second rotor blade ring is
W2 U ( $Vu )2 U (6U ) 6U 2
Proceeding in the same way, one gets C1D1 10U, and hence, the specific work of the first rotor blade
ring is
W1 U ( $Vu )1 U (10U ) 10U 2
Thus, for a Curtis stage with three rotor wheels, the specific works are 10U2, 6U2, and 2U2, that is,
in the ratio 10:6:2 or 5:3:1. If the number of rotor rings are 3, the specific works are (4i – 2)U2, i 1,
2, 3. This can be extrapolated for a four-wheel (or five-wheel) Curtis stage, the corresponding specific
works being (4i – 2)U2, i 1, 2, 3, 4, that is, 14U2, 10U2, 6U2, and 2U2, (18U2, 14U2, 10U2, 6U2,
and 2U2, when n 5).
Once again Fig. 5.16 also shows that AE1 6U, and angle C1AE1 is @11. Hence,
AE1 6U
cosA11 6F
AC1 V11
cos A11
F
6
This can also be written in the general form as
cos A11
F
2n
where n is the number of rotor blade rings in a Curtis stage. For maximum utilization, V11, U, and @11 are
related through the number of rotor blade rings n in a stage, such that
U cos A11
F (5.19)
V11 2n
flow of steam from the inlet of the first rotor blade ring to its outlet. This is BC1 to BD1. Now, if the losses
are 3%, then the starting point of the arc is at 97% of BC1. In a similar way, when the steam flows in the
stator blades, the shifting of V12 ( AD1) to V21 ( AC2) can be done, with an arc starting at 97% of AD1.
The three situations of Figs. 5.14–5.16 are now modified, accounting for the losses and are shown in Figs.
5.17–5.19. It is to be noted that losses occur in all the five rows of blades, that is, three rows of the rotor
blades and two rows of the stator blades.
A
C1
D1 B
A C2
D2
B C3
D3
F1 F2 A U B E3 E2 E1
Figure 5.17 Velocity triangles for a three-row Curtis stage with losses (@11 @21 @31).
A C1
D1
B
D2
A C2
B
D3
C3
F1 F2 A U B E3 E2 E1
Figure 5.18 Velocity triangles for a three-row Curtis stage with losses (A11 A21 A31, A12 A22 A32).
190 Turbomachines
A A
B
D1 D2 D3 B C3 C2 C1
F1 F2 A U B E3 E2 E1
Figure 5.19 Velocity triangles for a three-row Curtis stage with losses. (Flow components
are all equal.)
One simple observation in Figs. 5.17–5.19 is that the two conditions (a) A1 A2 and (b) zero axial
thrust do not go together. When the losses were not considered earlier, these two conditions almost
meant one another. The deviation between A1 and A2, to make the flow components equal, is very
small. Alternately, when A1 A2, the flow components differ from one another by very little amount,
still giving rise to some axial thrust. A good design is to aim at zero axial thrust. Simple trigonometric
calculations are required to calculate A1 and A2 to find the complete solutions to the velocity triangles
with zero axial thrust.
EXAMPLE 5.5
The velocity of steam at the entry to the first row of rotor blades is 300 m/s, in a two-row Curtis turbine.
The first row has the blade angles of 25o each at the inlet and outlet. The second row has the blade angles
of 30o each at the inlet and outlet. The blade coefficients of friction are 0.92 in each of the rotor blades
and 0.95 in the intermediate stator blades. The exit velocity of steam from the second row is axial. Find
the blade velocity, the specific work in each of the two rotor rows, and the axial thrust due to each row.
Also determine the rotor efficiency.
Solution: Given V11 300 m/s, A11 A12 25o, A21 A22 30o, cb1 cb2 0.92, (cb)st 0.95, @22
90o. To calculate U, W1, W2, axial thrust, rotor efficiency.
This example is solved by the graphical method. As the blade velocity is not known, the base of the
velocity triangles may be arbitrarily taken as 2 cm, with the scale of the drawing to be decided later
(Fig. 5.20).
Steam Turbines 191
(Δ Vu)1
X3
(Δ Vu)2
D1 C1
V11
Vf12 X1 D Vr11 Vf11
2 X2
(D1 F1) C2 (C1 E1)
Vf22 F1 A U B E2 E1 Vf21
(D2 A) (C2 E2)
AC1 = 8.8 cm; E1F1 = 12 cm; E2A = 4.2 cm; C1E1 = 2.95 cm; D1F1 = 2.7 cm;
D2E2 = 1.3 cm; D2A = 1.18 cm;
The stepwise procedure is as given below, starting from the exit velocity triangle of the second row:
1. Mark AB 2 cm on a horizontal line. This represents blade velocity, U.
2. Draw BD2 at 30o to BA and AD2 at 90o to AB. ABD2 is the exit triangle of the second row.
AD2 is V22 ; BD2 is Vr22 .
3. Extend BD2 to BX1:BD2 BC2 x 0.92 ; BC2 BD2/0.92
BD2
BX1
0.92
4. Transfer BX1 to BC2 BC2 is at 30o to extended AB (BD2 BC2 s 0.92).
5. Draw AC2 and extend to X2:
AC 2
AX 2
0.95
ABC2 is the inlet triangle of the second row.
6. Transfer AX2 to AD1, where BD1 is at 25o to BA. ABD1 is the exit triangle of the first row.
7. Draw BD1 and extend to X3:
BD1
BX 3
0.92
8. Transfer BX3 to BC1 at 25o to extended AB.
9. Draw AC1. ABC1 is the inlet triangle of the first row.
10. AC1 is the inlet velocity of steam to the first row. Measure AC1:
AC1 8.8 cm; this must represent V11, that is V11 300 m/s
Therefore, 8.8 cm represents 300 m/s; or, 1 cm represents (300/8.8) 34.1 m/s.
Hence the scale of the drawing is given as:
1 cm 34.1 m /s
Blade velocity U 2 cm 68.2 m/s
192 Turbomachines
Also
( $Vu )1 E1F1 12 cm 409.2 m /s
EXAMPLE 5.6
The mean diameter of a two-row rotor of a Curtis stage is 0.9 m and the speed is 1500 rpm. For the first
row of the rotor blades, the blade inlet angle (A11) is 30o. For the stator blade, the inlet angle @12 is 40o.
For the second row of the rotor, the blade inlet and outlet angles (A21, A22) are 20o each. The final dis-
charge of steam from the second row is axial (@22 90o). For each row of the blades (rotors, stator), the
friction coefficient is 0.96. Calculate the following:
(a) Nozzle angle @11 of the first row.
(b) Steam velocity V11 at the inlet to the first row.
(c) Stator blade angle @21 at its outlet (entry to the second row).
(d) Outlet blade angle A12 of the first row.
(e) Total axial thrust.
(f ) Total specific work.
(g) Rotor efficiency.
Solution: Given D 0.9 m, N 1500 rpm, A11 30o, @12 40o, A21 A22 20o, @22 90o, cb 0.96.
Because the steam velocity is not known and because the final discharge of steam is required to be axial, the cal-
culation or the construction of the velocity triangles is in the reverse direction, that is, the last triangle first.
Both analytic calculations and procedure for drawing the velocity triangles are given in the following
table with the left-hand side column showing the calculations and the right-hand side column showing
the corresponding steps of drawing. The velocity triangles drawn to scale are shown in Fig. 5.21.
Steam Turbines 193
6. Angle C2AE2 by
A 21 C 2 A E 2
measurement
26.81
1
tan
(70.686 73.63)
10.52o
11. 98.3
A12 tan 1 27.62o
187.816 D1 B F1 27.62o
14. Vf11 220.82 sin30o 110.41 BC1 220.81, at 30o, C1E1 110.41
(Continued)
194 Turbomachines
(Continued)
¥ 110.41 ´
tan 1 ¦
§ (70.686 191.23)µ¶
22.86o
V11 C1
D1 Vr12
Vr11
V12
Vf12 Vf11
D2 V21
V22 C2
Vr21
F1 40° A U 20° B 30° 20° E2 E1
P DhVf mv
mv
h
P DVf
5 s 1.08
= 6.88 cm
P s 1 s 25
At the outlet from the stage
mv
h
P DVf
5 s 2.28
= 14.51 cm
P s 1 s 25
Thus, it can be seen how the expansion of steam to lower pressures and its increase of specific volume finally
decide the increase in the blade height (Refer Example 5.9).
196 Turbomachines
5.6 Efficiencies
Right from Chapter 1, various efficiencies have been defined in different types of machines, in different
processes, and with different viewpoints. Even a single process has been seen in different contexts and effi-
ciencies have been defined accordingly. In the sections 5.2 to 5.5, in the analysis of steam turbines, different
efficiencies were stated. These efficiencies are now again explained for the purpose of clarity, consolidation,
and review.
The exit state (2a) is the isentropic exit state and state 2 is the actual exit state. (The initial condition is
recognized in the stagnation condition.) Both these states are static states because the velocity is separately
accounted as V2. Thus
where GcoV22/2 is the part due to the velocity at the exit of the previous blade ring. It is interesting to note
that if the carryover efficiency were equal to unity, the blade passage efficiency Gp would be equivalent to the
nozzle efficiency Gn. In the expression of V12/2 as above, the term that includes Gp is an independent term
(i.e., with or without Gco). The value of Gp, therefore, is just like that of Gn. Because Gp refers to compounded
turbines, the blade passages are only convergent (not convergent–divergent), and Gp has values of the order
of 98%–99%.
because the rotor blades have the inlet energy of kinetic type only. In reaction turbines, the energy available
for conversion includes two parts: The kinetic part (V12/2) and the part that could arise due to the pressure
drop (or enthalpy drop) in the rotor. It is in this context that two separate expressions are there for rotor
efficiency: One for an impulse turbine and the other for a reaction turbine.
EXAMPLE 5.7
Steam supply to the nozzles of an impulse turbine is at 4.0 bar, 200oC. The expansion of steam in the
nozzles is down to 2.5 bar with a nozzle efficiency of 86%. The nozzles are inclined to the plane of the
rotor at 20o. The mean diameter of the rotor is 1.3 m and the speed is 3000 rpm. (a) Calculate the speed
ratio and the blade angle at the inlet. (b) Also determine the outlet blade angle for zero axial thrust when
the friction coefficient of blades is 0.96. (c) Find the specific work, the rotor efficiency, and the stage
efficiency.
198 Turbomachines
20° b2 b1
A F U = 204.2 B E
P DN P s 1.3 s 3000
U 204.2 m/s
60 60
(a) Speed ratio is
U 204.2
0.49
V1 415.55
1
Vf1
Inlet blade angle, B1 tan
(Vu1 U )
¨ 142.13 ·
tan 1 ©
ª 390.5 204.2 ¸¹
37.34o
¥ Vf ´
(b) Relative velocity at outlet, for zero axial thrust, Vr2 0.96 Vr1 0.96 ¦
§ sin37.34o µ¶
225 m/s
Steam Turbines 199
¥V ´ ¥ 142.13 ´
Outlet blade angle, B2 sin 1 ¦ f2 µ sin 1 ¦
§ Vr2 ¶ § 225 µ¶
39.17o
(c) Whirl velocity at outlet, Vu2 U Vr2 cos B2 204.2 225 cos39.17o 29.76
Now
Inlet energy to the rotor Kinetic energy
V12 ( 415.55)2
86.34 kJ / kg
2 2
Therefore
Output 73.66
Rotor efficiency 85.3%
Input 86.34
Stage efficiency is
EXAMPLE 5.8
The nozzles are inclined at 18o to the plane of the rotor in a two-row Curtis stage. The outlet angles of the
rotor blades are 25o and 30o in the first and second rows, respectively. The stator blades (between the two
rotor blade rings) have the outlet angle of 20o. The friction coefficients of the blades in all the three rows
are each 0.92. The rotor speed is 3000 rpm. The mean diameter of the three rings of blades is 70 cm. The
final discharge velocity of the steam is axial.
Based on a nominal flow rate of steam at 1 kg/s, find the following:
(a) Initial velocity of steam from the nozzles.
(b) Power output from each row of the rotor.
(c) Rotor efficiency.
(d) Power lost in friction.
(e) Axial thrust.
Solution: Given @11 18o; A12 25o; A22 30o; @21 20o; cb 0.92 for all rows. Also N 3000 rpm,
D 0.7 m; @22 90o, m 1 kg/s.
Because the final discharge is required to be at @22 90o with blade velocity, and the initial velocity
of steam is required to be found out, the construction of the velocity triangles has to be in the “reverse”
direction i.e., the last triangle first).
200 Turbomachines
It is also helpful to sketch a rough, free-hand velocity triangle (Fig. 5.23) set initially, so as to trace the
triangles in the reverse direction.
F1 A U B E2 E1
Draw BC2 (BD2/0.92) (127/0.92) 138, to intersect a line AC2 at @21 20o with AB.
(Arc with center B and radius 138, and line from A at 20o, intersecting at C2)
6. By measurement, AC2 234 m/s V21. (For analytical solution, we have “cos rule”, applied to
triangle ABC2, where we can write: BC22 AB2 AC22 – 2(AB)(AC2)cos @21 , and this results in
a quadratic equation in AC2. Solving this, we get AC2 234 m/s.)
7. We have V21 cb V12. And cb 0.92. Therefore,
V21
V12
0.92
That is
AC 2 (V21 ) 234
AD1 V12 254.4
0.92 0.92
Draw arc with center A, radius 254.4, and line from B at 25o to BA, to locate D1; draw AD1 and BD1.
8. By measurement, BD1 Vr12 348.8. (Analytical solution is just like step 6 above, triangle is
ABD1). BD1 348.8 m/s. Analytic value is quoted here.)
Steam Turbines 201
Vr12 BD1
348.8
9. We have Vr12 cb Vr11; hence, Vr11 379.1 BC1
0.92 0.92 0.92
10. Draw arc with center B, radius 379.1, and line from A at 18o to AB, to locate C1; draw AC1and
BC1.
11. By measurement, AC1 V11 480 m/s (This value is by analytic solution, as in step 6 above.).
12. Draw perpendiculars from C1 to E1, C2 to E2, and D1 to F1 to the base line.
By measurement, (Analytical values are: ($Vu)1 Vu11 Vu12 664; ($Vu)2 Vu21 Vu22 220)
E1F1 ( $Vu )1 664
E 2 A ( $Vu )2 220
Now, although both the construction of velocity triangles and analytical solutions have been stated
above (steps 1 to 12), it is not essential to have both procedures; any one procedure is sufficient.
(a) Initial velocity of steam, V11 (AC1) 480 m/s.
(b) Power output from the rings:
Specific work of the first rotor ring i
W1 U ( $Vu )1 110 s 664 73040 J/kg
Power output, of the first rotor ring: 73.04 kW/ (kg/s)
Specific work of the second rotor ring is
W2 U ( $Vu )2 110 s 220 24200 J/kg
Power output, of the second rotor ring: 24.2 kW/ (kg/s)
Total work is
W1 W2 97.24 kJ/kg
(c) Rotor efficiency:
The input kinetic energy is
V112 4802
115.2 kJ / kg
2 2
Therefore the rotor efficiency is
97.24
84.4%
115.2
Comments:
1. Although the graphical method (drawing velocity triangles and taking measurements) takes much
less time, the accuracy is a little less, but the results can be accepted.
2. Instead of the initial steam velocity as part of the data, the data can be in the form of enthalpy drop
across the nozzles, with a nozzle efficiency [V 2( $h )Hn ].
3. Data can also be in the form of initial state of the steam at the entry to nozzles and pressure at the
exit from nozzles. The enthalpy drop can be taken from the steam tables or Mollier charts.
4. The problem can also be extended to find blade heights.
EXAMPLE 5.9
Steam expands from 2 bar, 200oC to 1.1 bar in the nozzles of efficiency 0.96. These nozzles are inclined
at an angle of 18o to the rotor plane of an impulse turbine, running at 3000 rpm. The mean diameter of
the blade assembly is 70 cm. The outlet blade angle is 25o and blade friction coefficient is 0.92. Calculate
(a) the blade inlet angle, (b) specific work, (c) blade height, (d) axial thrust, and (e) exit velocity of steam.
Take the mass flow rate of steam as 10 kg/s.
Solution: Given
Initial state of steam: 2 bar, 200oC
Pressure at nozzle exit: 1.1 bar
Nozzle efficiency: 0.96
N 3000 rpm, @1 18o, D 70 cm, cb 0.92, A2 25o, m 10 kg/s. To calculate A1, blade height,
W, axial thrust.
At initial state, 2 bar, 200oC, we have
Enthalpy of steam (from steam tables) 2870.5 kJ/kg
Entropy 7.507 kJ/kg K
At the same entropy (7.507), exit pressure 1.1 bar, we have
Enthalpy 2750.5 kJ/kg
Therefore
Isentropic enthalpy drop ($h)is 2870.5 – 2750.5 120 kJ/kg
At 0.96 efficiency, the actual enthalpy drop is
( $h )act 120 s 0.96 115.2 kJ/kg
The velocity of steam, at the exit of nozzles or inlet to blades, is
V1 2( $h )act 2 s 115.2 s 1000
480 m / s.
(The velocity triangles of the first rotor blade ring of the Example 5.8 may be referred.).
The whirl velocity, Vu1 V1 cos 18 480 cos 18 456.5 m/s
The flow velocity, Vf1 V1 sin 18 480 sin 18 148.33 m/s
Steam Turbines 203
P DN P s 0.7 s 3000
The blade velocity, U 110 m / s
60 60
¥ Vf1 ´
(a) The blade inlet angle from the inlet triangle, B1 tan 1 ¦ µ
§ (Vu1 U )¶
¨ 148.33 ·
tan 1 © 23.17o
ª 456.6 110 ¸¹
Vf1 148.33
Relative velocity at inlet from the inlet triangle, Vr1 377 m / s
sin B1 sin 23.17o
Therefore, outlet relative velocity, Vr2 Vr1 s 0.92 347 m/s
From the triangle, Vu2 Vr2 cos A2 – U 347 cos25o – 110 204.5
(b) Specific work, W U(Vu1 Vu2)
110[ 456.5 ( 204.5)] 72710 J/kg
72.71 kJ/kg
(c) Blade height:
The specific volume of steam at the exit of nozzles 1.72 m3/kg (from tables).
For 10 kg/s, the volume flow rate is
Area of flow s Flow velocity
mv
17.2 m3 /s A s Vf 1
17.2
Area of flow m 2 1160 cm 2
148.33
This area is PDh (annular area, with mean diameter D and blade height h). Therefore
1160 1160
Blade height is: h 5.3 cm
(d) Axial thrust: P D P s 70
Now, Vf2 Vr2 sin 25o 146.65
So
Axial thrust m (Vf1 Vf2 ) 10(148.33 146.65)
16.8 N
The reheat factor of multi-stage steam turbines is defined as the ratio of the sum of individual isentropic
enthalpy drops or isentropic works of each stage ¤ Wsti to the single-stage isentropic enthalpy drop or
i
isentropic work Wss, if the expansion of the steam were to take place between the same initial state and final
pressure in a single stage.
p1
h
p2
1
2 p3
2
3 p4
3 4
3
4 pm 1
4
pm
m
m m m1
(m 1) (m 1)
s
The sum of individual stage isentropic enthalpy drops, (h1 h2a ), (h2 h3a ), …, (hm h(m 1)a ), is higher than
the isentropic enthalpy drop between the same initial and final pressures, during the one-stretch expansion,
due to the fact that the constant pressure lines in an h–s chart are divergent. Also, the increased temperatures
at the ends of any individual stage expansion processes, which are at the beginning of the expansion pro-
cesses of the next stages, indicate the higher availability of steam for the next stages. Thus, the work lost due
to fluid friction in one stage is made up in the next stage. This continues throughout the stages. But only in
the last stage, the frictional loss is not recovered because of the absence of further stages. Overall, the whole
system has an increased output. Thus
¤Wsti
i
RF ; (RF 1) (5.20)
Wss
The usual values of reheat factor are of the order of 1.03, 1.05, etc., signifying 3–5% increase in output due
to the multi-staging. The reheat factor depends on the initial state of the steam (pressure and temperature),
the pressure ratio of expansion of each stage, the isentropic efficiency of each stage, and the number of stages
in a turbine.
Although multi-staging is adopted as a means of reducing the velocity of steam in the turbine passages
and the speed of the turbine, the reheat effect is an unintentional advantage of multi-staging.
Steam Turbines 205
EXAMPLE 5.10
In a section of a turbine, there are four stages of the Rateau compounded types. The steam at the inlet to
the first stator blades of this section is at 1 bar, 200oC. The pressure of the steam at the exit of the fourth
row of the rotor blades is 0.3 bar. The overall isentropic expansion efficiency is 0.85. The actual expansion
process may be represented by a straight line on an enthalpy–entropy chart. The steam velocity at the
entry to each ring of the rotor blades is 380 m/s at an entry angle of 20o to the rotor plane. The exit blade
angle is 23o. The enthalpy drops, work produced, and blade angles are the same in all the rotor rings. The
mean diameter of the rotor is 1.2 m and the design speed is 3000 rpm. The coefficient of blade cb is 0.96.
The flow rate of steam is 20 kg/s. Draw the velocity triangles and calculate the following:
(a) Pressure at the entry to each rotor blade ring.
(b) Specific work of a rotor ring.
(c) Total power of the four stages.
(d) Blade heights of successive rotor rings.
(e) Axial thrust.
(f ) Reheat Factor.
P DN P s 1.2 s 3000
The blade velocity is U 188.5 m/s
60 60
In inlet velocity triangle ABC, along with ACE, the segment BE AE – AB;
that is, BE 357 – 188.5 168.5
130
Inlet blade angle is B1 tan 1 37.65o
168.5
168.5
Vr1 212.82
cos 37.65o
Vr2 212.82 s 0.96 204.3
V2 Vr2 sin23 79.8 m /s
Vr2 cos23 188.06
This indicates that V2 is almost perpendicular to the blade velocity U and that Vu2 0.
Enthalpy 2.57 m3/kg
kJ
kg 1 3.14
2875 1.0 bar
2 3.81 46.75
2
2828.25
0.84
3 4.65 187
2781.50
220
0.67 3 4 5.714 m3/kg
2734.75
0.49 4 5
2688
5
0.3 bar
2655
5 Entropy
20° 23°
U = 188.5 B E
A
Vu1 = 357
(b)
Figure 5.25 (a) Extract of h–s chart. (b) Velocity triangles at inlet and outlet of any one
stage for Example 5.10.
Steam Turbines 207
Now
Vf2 Vr2 sin 23 79.8 m / s
Therefore, the specific work is
W U (Vu1 Vu2 ) 188.5 s 357 67.295 kJ/kg
(c) Total power from all four stages is
(67.295 s 20) s 4 5383.6 kW
(d) Heights of blades on successive rotor rings:
The specific volumes of the steam, after expansion in each of the stator rings, are obtained from the
Mollier diagram (h–s chart): Refer Fig. 5.25 (a):
Exit of the first rotor: 3.14 m3/kg v1
Second rotor: 3.81 m3/kg v2
Third rotor: 4.65 m3/kg v3
Fourth rotor: 5.714 m3/kg v4
Let H1, H2, H3 and H4 be the heights of the blades from the first rotor to the last rotor,
respectively. Then
(P DH1 ) s Vf1 m s v
(mv 1)
H1 0.128 m 12.8 cm
P DVf1
Similarly
2)
(mv
H2 0.1553 m 15.53 cm
P Dvf1
3)
(mv
H3 0.1895 m 18..95 cm
P DVf1
4)
(mv
H4 0.2328 m 23.29 cm
P DVf1
(e) Axial thrust for each row is
Axial thrust m (Vf1 Vf2 )
20(130 79.8) 1004 N per ring
4016 N for four rotor rings
(f ) The reheat factor is
¤( $h )is 55 56 57 58
Reheat factor 1.03
( $h )total 220
Comments:
1. As mentioned in the example itself, this turbine is a part of a bigger turbine (or a bigger “project”).
The overall enthalpy drop has to be from a much higher pressure and temperature, expansion taking
place down to a much lower pressure. A small segment is chosen as an example to illustrate the
design activity (to some extent).
208 Turbomachines
2. Steam tables and Mollier charts are used to read the values of specific enthalpy and specific volume. The
accuracy is subject to verification, especially because of the interpolation required to locate the exact
values. However, the results obtained amply indicate the nature of variation of the parameters.
3. In the text, it has been mentioned that the very same velocity triangles hold good for a series of rotor rings,
provided the enthalpy drops are maintained the same for the stages. This example supports the same.
4. A look at the values of V1 and V2 throws some more light on the subject: V2 is the absolute velocity
of steam as it leaves the rotor blades and enters the next stator blades that act as nozzles. Hence, V2
is the “approach velocity” for these nozzles. With $h as the enthalpy drop, the velocity generated
(to enter the next set of rotor blades) is 2( $h ) V22 , including the effect of the approach velocity.
In the design process, this exercise involves the balancing of the values.
5. The axial thrust is very much present because Vf1 x Vf2 . In a full size turbine, this can be balanced
by splitting the steam flow into two streams, flowing in the opposite direction, with a common
shaft. (Even with a single stream, 50% of turbine can be arranged in opposite directions.)
6. The present example is with Rateau compounding stages. A similar procedure can be adopted with
Parsons stages with R 0.5.
Governor
Levers
Drive from
main shaft
Turbine
Steam Drive to
supply generator
Throttle valve
Exhaust steam
(a)
h A B C D
ly
pp
Su ssure
pre
e
sur
tpres
aus
Exh
s
(b)
Figure 5.26 (a) Governing of steam turbines by throttle control. (b) Drop in enthalpy gets reduced due
to throttling process A-B-C-D (Drop in enthalpy at D is less than that at C).
The process of throttling is shown in the enthalpy–entropy diagram in Fig. 5.26 (b). The state of steam
at supply is shown as A. During the throttling process, the enthalpy remains constant. The pressure gets
reduced to lower values. These states are shown as B, C, D, etc. Because the condenser pressure does not
vary, the enthalpy drop keeps on reducing as shown. Hence, when speed of the turbine increases due to drop
in load, the throttle control comes into effect, the energy input to the turbine is reduced and the speed is
brought back to the rated speed.
In the case of steam turbines, there is a certain peculiarity. As an example, in IC engines, every kg of
fuel spent can represent a definite amount of energy fed to the machine. But in steam turbines, the input
energy to the machine, per kg of steam flow, depends on a whole range of pressures and temperatures of that
steam, expanding up to the condenser pressure. Considering the schematic enthalpy–entropy chart shown
in Fig. 5.27, the steam condition at the inlet can be anywhere in the super-heated region (any pressure, any
temperature) and the steam condition at the outlet can be up to the condenser pressure that can also vary.
With this background, it is necessary to specify the conditions of steam at the inlet and outlet for the curves
of efficiency or steam consumption.
Condenser
pressure
Dry saturated line
Entropy
B Steam Pressure = PA =
Steam Temperature = TA =
A
Efficiency Condenser Pressure =
Speed of the Turbine =
C (PB < PA < PC)
In the light of the above facts, the characteristic of efficiency versus load for a steam turbine can be discussed,
as referred to Fig. 5.28. Suppose that the steam supply is at a pressure PA and temperature TA at 100% load.
Since this is the design point, all the parameters such as flow areas, flow angles, etc. are as per the design
values, the losses are the least and the efficiency is the maximum. If the load varies from the design value to
any lower value such as 80%, 60%, etc., the flow quantity gets reduced due to the governing process, but the
velocity triangles and angles do not vary. Hence, the efficiency remains almost constant over a large portion
of the varying load. However, if the load is too low, the efficiency naturally decreases. This is shown in Fig.
5.28 by a line passing through A. The entire line represents one inlet steam pressure.
Steam Turbines 211
Suppose that the supply pressure is at a lower value than the pressure at A. The enthalpy drop per kg
of steam is also less, but the governor adjusts the flow rate to be higher. The net effect is that the losses are
comparatively less and hence the efficiency increases marginally. At part-loads also, that is, as the load on the
turbine decreases below the rated load, the efficiency is maintained at the same trend. This is shown by the
line through B, with PB PA.
Suppose that the supply pressure is increased. The tendency is now in the opposite direction, the decreased
efficiency line passing through C and PC PA. Another representation of the performance is a plot of steam
consumption versus load. This is shown in Fig. 5.29. The entire line, showing the consumption, is at con-
stant supply pressure. The trend of variation is almost the same, with the consumption (kg/h) being lower
at higher pressures due to the higher enthalpy drops per kg of steam.
Steam Pressure = PA =
Steam Temperature = TA =
Steam Condenser Pressure =
Speed = PB
Consumption
PA > PB
kg/hr
PA
Steam Pressure =
SSC Steam Temperature =
kg/kWh Condenser Pressure =
Speed =
Yet another characteristic is the steam consumption in terms of “specific steam consumption (SSC; kg/
kWh),” as shown in Fig. 5.30. This specific steam consumption is the lowest at full load. As in other situa-
tion, here also the line shifts to lower levels as the supply pressure increases.
212 Turbomachines
K eywords
Impulse steam turbine De Laval turbine
Reaction steam turbine Parsons turbine
Single-stage turbine Rateau turbine
Multistage turbine Stage efficiency
Compounding of steam turbine Blade efficiency
Pressure compounding Maximum utilization factor
Velocity compounding Reheat factor
S ummary
Steam turbines are power-producing turbomachines turbine in-series, expansion of steam in many
in thermal power plants and nuclear power plants. stages; range of pressure drop in one stage is
In this chapter, small, unlike De Laval turbine.
6. The purpose of the compounding of steam tur-
1. Steam turbines are classified and identified as
bines is clearly understood as a means of avoid-
impulse turbines or reaction turbines.
ing the disadvantages of single-stage turbines.
Impulse turbine: Expansion of steam is only in
7. Disadvantages of single stage turbine: Too
nozzles, no expansion in rotor blades, Vr1 Vr2,
high velocities of steam, higher losses, low effi-
W has only kinetic component, no reaction
ciency, too high rotor speeds, higher stresses,
component.
costly materials. All these are avoided by multi-
Reaction turbine: Expansion of steam is in staging.
both nozzles and rotor blades, W has both 8. After studying the basic physical arrangements,
kinetic and Reaction components; Degree of the different types are analyzed with respect to
reaction is the fraction of reaction component the blade efficiency, stage efficiency, and maxi-
in total W. mum utilization factors.
2. The designs are also classified as De Laval turbines, 9. A reheat factor of pressure-compounded steam
Parsons turbines, and Rateau turbines. Turbines turbines is studied in detail.
are also single-stage or multistage units. 10. RF is ratio of sum of individual isentropic
3. De Laval turbine: Impulse machine. One stator works to single-stage isentropic work. RF is
ring of nozzles and one rotor ring of impulse about 1.03, 1.04, etc. Applicable to only mul-
blades tistage turbines (whether impulse, reaction or
4. Parsons turbine: Reaction is 50%; half expan- combination).
sion in stator blades and half expansion in rotor Steam turbines are the important prime mov-
blades. ers in the power sector.
5. Rateau turbine: Basically, this is impulse
turbine, in multiple stages. Similar to De Laval
I mportant E quations
1. Impulse turbine rotor efficiency 2. Maximum utilization factor
Hr max cos2 A1 max cos2A1
Steam Turbines 213
R eview Q uestions
1. Explain with a neat sketch the working of a De have very high steam velocities and therefore
Laval turbine. (Refer Section 5.2.1) higher losses. (Refer Section 5.3.1)
2. Derive an expression for the rotor efficiency of 6. Explain with neat sketches the scheme of pres-
a De Laval turbine. What are the conditions sure compounding. (Refer Section 5.3.1)
for this efficiency to be maximum? What is the 7. Explain the velocity compounding in steam
maximum rotor efficiency? turbines with relevant sketches.
(Refer Section 5.2.1) (Refer Section 5.3.2)
3. Explain the working of a single-stage, reaction- 8. Explain a Curtis stage with two rotor rings.
type steam turbine, with relevant diagrams. Make suitable changes in the number of stages
(Refer Section 5.2.2) and number of pairs of velocity triangles.
4. Why is compounding of steam turbine neces- (Refer Section 5.3.3)
sary or what are the disadvantages of single- 9. Explain the losses in a reaction stage of a steam
stage steam turbines? How can we overcome turbine. Also explain how to account for the
such disadvantages? (Refer Section 5.3) same. (Refer Section 5.4.1.1)
5. Distinguish between pressure compounding 10. Explain the losses in a Curtis stage of a steam
and velocity compounding. Add further ideas turbine. Also explain how to account for the
such as in velocity compounding, initial rotors same. (Refer Section 5.4.3.1)
Steam Turbines 215
11. Explain the reheat factor and its significance. 13. Explain nozzle governing in steam turbines.
(Refer Section 5.5) (Refer Section 5.6.1)
12. What is governing of steam turbines? How is 14. Explain the throttle control governing in steam
governing done in steam turbines? Explain. turbines. (Refer Section 5.6.2)
(Refer Section 5.6) 15. Write a note on the performance characteris-
tics of steam turbines. (Refer Section 5.7)
E xercises
1. In an impulse turbine with a single row of the velocity of steam at the exit of the nozzles
rotor blades, the absolute exit velocity from and the angle of the blade at the inlet. Taking
the blades is axial. The blade angle at the exit the blade outlet angle as 2o more than the inlet
is 22o. The mean diameter of the rotor is 0.8 angle and blade friction factor as 0.98, calculate
m and the speed is 1500 rpm. For zero axial the specific work. If the flow rate of the steam
thrust, calculate the blade inlet angle, nozzle is 10 kg/s, calculate the blade height required,
angle, the steam velocity at the inlet, and the the power, the axial thrust, and the utilization
specific work. Assume the coefficient of blade factor.
friction, cb as 0.95. 5. The nozzles are inclined at 20o to the plane
2. In a steam turbine with 50% reaction, the noz- of the wheel in a Curtis stage with two rotor
zle angle is 18o. The blade velocity is 160 m/s wheels. The velocity of steam from the nozzles
and the steam velocity is 220 m/s. Calculate is 350 m/s. The friction coefficients of the two
the blade inlet angle, utilization factor, and rotor wheels and the stator wheel between
power for a steam flow rate of 15 kg/s. them are 0.95 each. The stator blades again
3. A De Laval steam turbine is being designed direct the steam at 20o to the plane of the rotor
for zero axial thrust with a mass flow rate of wheel. The outlet blade angles for both the
12 kg/s. The steam velocity at the exit of the rotor wheels are 25o each. Calculate the blade
nozzles is 300 m/s. The nozzles are inclined to inlet angles for the first and the second row,
the plane of the wheel at 19o. The mean diam- specific works of the first and second row, and
eter of the rotor is 1.6 m and the speed is 1500 the total axial thrust. Also calculate the blade
rpm. The friction factor of the blades can be heights at the inlet and outlet of the first row
taken as 0.95. Calculate the blade angles at the and the inlet and outlet of the second row. The
inlet and outlet, the specific work, and the uti- specific volume of the steam remains constant
lization factor. If the specific volume of steam at 1.2 m3/kg and the mass flow rate is 10 kg/s.
during the transit through the blades is 1.6 m3/ The mean diameter of the rotor is 0.9 m and
kg, calculate the blade height. the speed is 1500 rpm.
4. In a De Laval turbine, the steam supply to 6. In a reaction turbine, the steam velocity at
the nozzles is at 3 bar, 300oC with negligible the inlet to the rotor wheel is 240 m/s at a nozzle
approach velocity. The pressure at the exit of angle of 20o to the plane of the wheel. The mean
the nozzles is 2.5 bar. The nozzles are placed at diameter of the rotor is 1.15 m and the speed is
23o to the plane of the rotor wheel. The diam- 1500 rpm. The axial flow component remains
eter of the rotor measured at the mid-height constant. The degree of reaction is 0.6 and the
of the blades is 1.1 m and the speed is 3000 steam flow rate is 10 kg/s. Calculate the blade
rpm. The nozzle efficiency is 98%. Calculate angles at the inlet and outlet, specific work,
216 Turbomachines
power, and blade height. The mean specific row is axial. The outlet blade angle of the
volume of steam may be taken as constant at second rotor blade row is 30o. The outlet angle
1.2 m3/kg. of absolute steam velocity from the first row is
7. The inlet velocity of steam to a stage of Parsons 40o. For a design with the steam inlet velocity
turbine is 180 m/s at an angle of 20o with the of 320 m/s and the axial thrust in both rows
plane of the wheel. The speed of the rotor is equal to zero, determine the following:
1500 rpm and the mean diameter is 75 cm. (a) Inlet blade angle of the first row.
The steam flow rate is 8 kg/s. Calculate the (b) Outlet blade angle of the first row.
blade inlet angle and the power developed. If (c) Inlet blade angle of the second row.
the available enthalpy drop in a power plant is (d) Angle of entry of steam to the first row.
800 kJ/kg, and each stage of the above type has (e) Angle of entry of steam to the second row.
an efficiency of 0.85, determine the number of (f ) Blade velocity
stages possible in a turbine. (g) Diameter of rotor if the speed is 1500 rpm.
8. In a Curtis stage with two rows of rotor blades, (h) Total specific work.
the final discharge of steam from the second (i) Rotor efficiency.
2. In the above problem, you have chosen one (b) A convergent–divergent nozzle can accom-
of the three alternate enthalpy drops. Now, modate only a fixed ratio of pressures;
choose one of the remaining two enthalpy (c) This pressure ratio (downstream to upstream
drops to design Curtis stages, each stage hav- pressures, p2/p1) is about 0.53;
ing two rotors. (d) If this pressure ratio is different, then,
For the chosen process, determine the num- the shockwaves occur in the flow, with
ber of stages that may be required for the expan- losses.
sion process, with every stage having equal As a first approximation, for this prob-
enthalpy drop about 100 kJ/kg. Because of the lem, assume that shockwaves are absent. An
integer number of stages, this enthalpy drop enthalpy drop of about 100 kJ/kg generates
may have to be corrected. Also, because you higher velocities. Let the exit velocity from
are referring to the Mollier chart, the numeri- each stage be axial. Choose a convenient speed,
cal values may not be exact. Refer to the steam and a diameter of the rotor, so that the veloci-
tables to refine your values. Switch over to the ties of steam and blades are in agreement with
actual processes with an isentropic efficiency of a speed ratio, of your choice. Now follow the
0.8 as you proceed with the expansion process, steps of choosing/designing the other param-
stage-by-stage. Record the values of enthalpy eters of the turbine, such as inlet angle of
and specific volume at every point, as has been steam, blade angles, blade heights (mass flow
illustrated in the Solved Example 5.10. rate 10 kg/s). Check, whether the exit veloc-
Recall from your earlier course on ity, together with genereated velocity, gives rise
Thermodynamics that: to the entry velocity; and if not, by how much
(a) Any enthalpy drop that generates a it differs.
velocity more than sonic velocity requires a Complete your project by calculating the
convergent–divergent nozzle; efficiencies and the reheat factor.
A nswers
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. (c) 7. (c)
2. (b) 8. (b)
3. (a) 9. (d)
4. (c) 10. (c)
5. (a) 11. (c)
6. (b) 12. (b)
Exercises
1. 20.85o, 11.09o, 132 m/s, 8.136 kJ/kg 6. 31.26o, 18.62o, 34.213 kJ/kg, 342.13 kW, 4.05 cm
2. 54o, 0.922, 620 kW 7. 29.18o, 131.65 kW, 42
3. 31.7o, 33.6o, 38.324 kJ/kg, 0.885, 3.91 cm 8. Hint: For analytical or graphical solution,
4. 439.4 m/s, 36.54o, 78.227 kJ/kg, 1.97 cm, assume a blade velocity. Finally, scale up or
782.27 kW, 43.8 N, 0.8244 scale down to V11 320 m/s.
5. 24.87o, 30.4o, 35.576 kJ/kg, 16.3 kJ/kg, 194.6 26. 5o, 28o, 20.37o, 15.6o, 76.614 m/s, 97.55
N, 3.54 cm, 3.71 cm, 6.267 cm, 7.9 cm cm, 45.3 kJ/kg, 88.48%
6 Hydraulic Turbines
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
v Understand the different types of hydraulic v Understand the application of a simple draft
turbines, their ranges of the basic parameters, tube, how it saves the head that would have been
such as head, discharge, specific speeds, and lost otherwise, and how it reduces exit losses.
suitability for a site. v Understand the mechanism of cavitation, its
v Study the Pelton turbine with its working fea- causes, effects, and methods to prevent its
tures, suitability, efficiencies, and design parameters. occurrence.
v Study the Francis turbine with its working fea- v Study the application of the governor to
tures, suitability, efficiencies, and design parameters. hydraulic turbines.
v Study the Kaplan and propeller turbines with v Study the characteristics of hydraulic turbines.
their working features, suitability, efficiencies,
and design parameters.
6.1 Introduction
Hydraulic turbines are power-producing turbomachines, using water as the fluid. The water has to be avail-
able at a reasonable height or head, in fairly large quantities so that some economically feasible power proj-
ects may be developed. As was seen in Chapter 1, the power available in the water is proportional to the
product of the flow rate and the head (P wQH). In a project site, the available flow rate depends on the
rainfall in the region, the extent of the catchment area, and the possibility of storage of water (natural or
built-up). The available head is a characteristic of the topography of the project site. A schematic layout of a
typical hydroelectric power project is shown in Fig. 6.1.
1
4 5
2 6
3
7 Hg
Figure 6.1 Schematic layout of a typical hydroelectric power project. (1) Dam; (2) reservoir fed from
rainfall in catchment; (3) trash gate; (4) forebay (to take care of daily fluctuations); (5) surge
tank; (6) valve house; (7) penstocks; (8) powerhouse; (9) turbines; (10) tailrace.
220 Turbomachines
The type of turbine to be employed for the power project depends on the head available and the round-the-year
uniform flow rate that is possible at the site of the project. This chapter aims at identifying the different types
of turbines, based on the characteristics of the modern-day turbines, their suitability for a given project site,
the constructional details, and the design of each type of turbine.
Apart from the criteria of classification, it can be seen that basically there are three types of turbines: Pelton,
Francis, and Kaplan turbines, named after their designers.
1. The Pelton turbine is an impulse turbine, with tangential flow, for high-head applications.
2. The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine, with radial or mixed flow, for medium head applications.
3. The Kaplan turbine is a reaction turbine, with axial flow, for low-head applications.
There are two approaches to decide the type of turbine suitable for a given project site, with specified head
and flow rate:
1. One criterion is the head (meters of water) available. Shown in Fig. 6.2 is a scale that indicates the
head and the corresponding suitable turbine.
It may be observed that there are some ranges of overlaps, such as the 50 75 m or 150 250 m
stretches. In these ranges, the turbine can be selected by the criterion of the specific speed, men-
tioned in the next paragraph, to include the effect of the available flow rates also.
2. Another criterion is the specific speed corresponding to the site data. The head, H (m of water), and
the flow rate, Q (m3/s), are taken as data. An overall efficiency G of the order of 0.85 or 0.88 can be
assumed. Then, the power P is given by
P (wQH H / 1000) kW
Now, the speed of the turbine N rpm has to be selected that must be one of the synchronous speeds
(N 3000/p, p 1, 2, 3, …, to have a frequency of 50 Hz of electrical power supply) because tur-
bines drive the alternators. With this, the specific speed can be calculated by
N P
Ns
H 5/ 4
Figure 6.3 indicates a scale of specific speeds and the corresponding suitable turbines.
Ns 5 30 35 60 70 300
Pelton Kaplan
Types
of Multi-jet
turbine Pelton
Francis
It may be noted here that even on this scale, there are overlaps. Also, the limits of the specific speed
to select any particular type of turbine are, however, not very sharp. There are many other consider-
ations, such as cost factors, control factors, applications, etc., and the calculated specific speed can
be logically manipulated.
If the calculated specific speed happens to be like 400, then one can assume two equal-sized
turbines with the available flow rate equally divided between the two. The new specific speed for
each of the turbine becomes
222 Turbomachines
N P /2
Ns
H 5/ 4
This new specific speed is brought in the range 60−300 to select a Francis turbine. This method of cross-
ing over the range (from Kaplan to two or more units of Francis, or from Francis to multiple-jet Pelton)
has to be evaluated with alternate plans and other possible cost factors.
Selection of any type of turbine for a site is by any of the above two approaches. However, the selection also
has to focus on the further steps of the design. As an illustration, on the stretch of the Francis turbine in Fig.
6.3, another scale of the diameter ratio D2/D1 is also given. This indicates that the ratio D2/D1 varies with
specific speeds. As the specific speed increases, the Francis turbine tends to be nearer to the axial flow ma-
chine. The name “Francis turbine” therefore is not an all-time standard design. Just like the diameter ratios,
all the comparative and absolute dimensions have to be determined for a given project. The guidelines start
from the values of the specific speed.
It has to be mentioned here that Figs. 6.2 and 6.3 are derived from Fig. 1.13, where the different types
of turbines are compared for their suitability for the situation dictated by the specific speed. The aim is to
maximize the efficiency in a given set of data for a project site.
Runner/rotor
Pelton cups
Bearings
Shaft Coupling
Water
supply
To generator
Section AA
The water, supplied from the head-works to the power house through the penstocks (steel pipes), is led to
these buckets in the form of a high-speed jet issued from a nozzle (Fig. 6.6). The kinetic energy of water jet
is transferred to the series of the buckets (and to the rotor) that come in succession in the line of the jet as
the rotor rotates. The jet gets divided into two equal halves by the jet splitter of the double cup, with each
half striking the cups on either side.
From penstocks
Water jet
Movement controlled
by seromotor Spear
of governor
The potential energy of the water at the head-works is converted into the kinetic energy of the jet of water
in the nozzle, with a nozzle efficiency Gn. This efficiency is of the order of 0.98. A concentric spear inside
the nozzle controls the rate of flow of water coming out of the nozzle. The movement of the spear is con-
trolled by a servomotor of the governor that is intended to maintain a uniform speed of the turbine.
In multi-jet Pelton turbines, water is led around the rotor into the identical nozzles equally spaced around
the periphery of the rotor. The spear assemblies are also identical in all the nozzles. Their movement is con-
trolled by the same source, so that all the jets are equally controlled.
Whenever a Pelton turbine is required to be stopped, a shut-off valve in the supply mains has to be closed.
But this should not be done suddenly, as otherwise water hammer is likely to occur in the pipes. A deflector
can be actuated so that the jet can be deflected from the Pelton cups, in the opposite direction, so that it can
act, in the meantime, as a brake jet. This jet is in the opposite direction to the main jet, with water striking
the backside of the cups. These details are shown in Fig. 6.7. A separate brake jet can also be arranged in the
direction opposite to the main jet.
224 Turbomachines
Jet: Braking
position
From
penstocks
Open Close
Open
Close
Jet: Running position
Deflector
Pelton turbines can be designed with horizontal or vertical shaft arrangements. In a horizontal setup, the
turbine wheel can be between two journal bearings. The design can also be in the over-hung form, with
bearings on one side and its shaft coupled to the generator shaft. In vertical installations, the supports are
the thrust bearings, the turbine wheel being at the bottom level.
Jet
A
B
15°
Jet
Jet splitter
15°
The water takes a turn of about 165o from A1 0o to A2 165o. The velocity triangles corresponding to the
upper bucket of Fig. 6.9 are shown in Fig. 6.10. It may be noted that the inlet velocity triangle is reduced as
a straight line, as shown. When the blade friction factor is cb we have
Vr2 c b s Vr1
Vr2 = cb × Vr1
U b1 = 0 Vr1 V2 b2 = 165°
V1 U
Figure 6.10 Velocity triangles for the Pelton cup at the inlet and outlet.
W U (Vu1 Vu2 )
U [V1 (U c b (V1 U )cosB2 )]
U [V1 U c b (V1 U )cosB2 ]
U (V1 U ) (1 c b cosB2 )
U ¥ U´
1
V1 ¦§ V1 µ¶
1 cb cos B2 V12 (6.4a)
So
W F(1 F ) (1 c b cosB2 )V12 (6.4b)
where E U/V1 is the speed ratio. For a given installation, cb, A2, and V1 are constants. The specific work W
is maximized when dW/dE is taken as zero, resulting in E 0.5. Hence
where the hydraulic efficiency is defined as the ratio of the power of rotor to the power available in the inlet
stream of water (Gh = Pr/P), including the effect of exit losses, fluid friction on the blade surface, etc.
One can recall the definition of volumetric efficiency Gv as
(Q $Q )
Hv (6.7)
Q
The reduction in the volume flow rate in a turbine ($Q) was earlier attributed to the leakage. In the case of
Pelton turbine, this loss can also be attributed to the “ineffective” volume flow rate that is in the outer layers
of water in the jet, which may not be as effective as the core of the jet in exerting the force on the buckets.
The mechanical efficiency (Gm) has also been defined as
Hydraulic Turbines 227
There are quite a few factors that affect the above efficiencies, individually and collectively. The surface finish
of the blades, the friction factor cb , the sand content of minute sizes in the water jet, the speed, the smooth-
ness of the bearings, the disk friction of the rotor, and the magnitudes of all these in relation to the total
power contribute to the final value of the overall efficiency. It is common to use a value of approximately
0.85−0.88 for the overall efficiency.
Pelton
Jet
bucket
Figure 6.11 Losses in the jet when buckets do not have notches.
T L
d
B
The geometrical features of the Pelton double cup are shown in Fig. 6.12. These features are the length (L),
breadth (B), and depth (T ) of the double cup. These parameters are optimized in terms of the jet diameter
d, and are specified by the following equations:
L 2.3d to 2.8d (6.14)
B 2.8d to 3.2d (6.15)
T 0.6d to 0.9d (6.16)
The width of the notch, N, in Fig. 6.12 is approximated as 2 5 mm more than the jet diameter d. The
number of buckets is also optimized and is given as
0.5D
Z 15 (6.17)
d
EXAMPLE 6.1
Design a Pelton turbine for a project site where the available head is 510 m and the uniform flow rate is
0.03 m3/s. Assume an overall efficiency of 0.867, coefficient of velocity of nozzle as 0.985, a speed ratio
of 0.46, and a speed of 1500 rpm.
Solution: Given H 510 m, Q 0.03 m3/s, Go 0.867, cv 0.985, E 0.46, N 1500. Now the
power output is
Hydraulic Turbines 229
N P 1500 s 130.13
Ns 7.06
H 5/ 4 5105/ 4
4Q 4 s 0.03
d 0.0197 m 1.97 cm z 2 cm
PV1 (P s 98.53)
Diameter of rotor is
60 60
D 0.46 V1 s 0.46 s 98.53 s 0.577 m 57.7 cm
PN P s 1500
The jet ratio is
D 57.7
28.85
d 2
Therefore,
Number of buckets 0.5 s 28.85 15 14.42 15 29.42
That is Z 30. Now
Length of bucket 2.3d 2.3 s 2 4.6 cm
Breadth of bucket 2.8d 2.8 s 2 5.6 cm
Depth of bucket 0.6d 0.6 s 2 1.2 cm
Inlet angle 5o
Outlet angle 180 165 15o
Comment:
1. This is a very small turbine, 130 kW. The head is normal but the flow rate available is only 30 lps. The
project might be a “micro hydroelectric plant,” which is possible only if the cost of the head works is
very small.
2. Becausee Ns is 7, the lower range is adopted for bucket dimensions. The bucket angles are also
adopted by the thumb rule.
3. If not part of the data, Go, cv, and E can be assumed.
4. The example may be reworked with N 3000 rpm. Compare the results.
230 Turbomachines
EXAMPLE 6.2
A Pelton turbine running at 600 rpm has a net head of 260 m at its nozzles. It is supplied with water at
a rate of 2 m3/s. The speed ratio of the machine is 0.46 and the velocity coefficient of the nozzle is 0.98.
Calculate the jet diameter, wheel diameter, and salient dimensions of the Pelton cups, with outlet angle
A2 20o. It is estimated that 0.015 m3/s of water is ineffective in the system. Windage and bearing losses
are 60 kW. Take an initial approximation of overall efficiency as 91%. Then calculate the actual hydraulic
efficiency, volumetric efficiency, mechanical efficiency, and overall efficiency.
Solution: Given N 600 rpm, Hn 260 m, Q 2 m3/s, E 0.46, cv 0.98, A2 20o, $Q 0.015 m3/s,
mech. losses 60 kW, initial Go 0.91. To calculate d, D, cup dimensions, various efficiencies. Initially,
wQH H0 9810 s 2 s 260 s 0.91
Power 4642 kW
1000 1000
Therefore, the specific speed is
N P 600 s 4642
Ns 39.15
H 5/ 4 2605/ 4
At this specific speed, two jets have to be chosen and the flow rate of each jet has to be half of the total
flow rate. Hence, the flow rate per jet 1 m3/s. The jet velocity is
4Q j 4 s1
d 0.1349 m 13.5 cm
PV1 (P s 70)
Also
U
F 0.46
V1
Therefore
U 0.46V1 0.46 s 70 32.2m /s
Moreover
P DN
U
60
Hydraulic Turbines 231
Therefore
60U 60 s 32.2
D 1.025 m 102.5 cm
PN P s 600
Hydraulic efficiency is
1 cos B2 1 cos 20o 1 0.93969
Hh 0.9698
2 2 2
Hh 97%
Volumetric efficiency is
$Q 2 0.015
Q
Hv 0.9925
Q 2
Hv 99.25%
EXAMPLE 6.3
The gross head available at a project site is 350 m of water. The penstock pipe is estimated to be 600 m
long. The pipe friction factor is f 0.007. The total pipe losses have to be limited to 4% of gross head. The
expected power from the project is 2600 kW. The turbine speed is 600 rpm. Calculate (a) the required
flow rate Q m3/s, (b) the pipe line diameter Dp, (c) the jet diameter d, and (d) the rotor mean diameter D.
The speed ratio is 0.46, the nozzle velocity coefficient is 0.985, and the overall efficiency is 0.92.
232 Turbomachines
Solution: Given Hg 350 m, L 600 m, f 0.007, losses in pipe: 4% of gross head, P 2600 kW,
N 600 rpm, E 0.46, cv 0.985, Go 0.92. The net head is
H n H g s 0.96 350 s 0.96 336 m
EXAMPLE 6.4
The mean diameter of a Pelton wheel is 2.6 m. The bucket outlet angle is 20o. The net head available at
the nozzle is 500 m of water. Calculate (a) the speed of the rotor, (b) the theoretical efficiency, (c) the
theoretical power, when the flow available is 3.5 m3/s, and (d) the specific speed.
Solution: Given D 2.6 m, A2 20o, Hn 500 m, . Assume cv 0.985, E 0.46. To calculate N, G,
P for Q 3.5 m3/s as also Ns.
(a) The jet velocity is
V1 0.985 2 gH n 0.985 s 2 s 9.81 s 500 97.56 m /s
The blade velocity is given by
U FV1 0.46 s 97.56 44.88 m /s
Also
P DN
U
60
Therefore the rotor speed is
60U 60 s 44.88
N 330 rpm
PD (P s 2.6)
(b) The theoretical efficiency is
1 cos B2 1 cos 20o 1 0.96939
H 0.969845
2 2 2
H 97%
(c) The theoretical power is
wQH H 9810 s 3.5 s 500 s 0.97
P 16652 kW
1000 1000
(d) The specific speed is
N P 330 s 16652
Ns 18
H 5/ 4 5005/ 4
Comments:
1. For Ns 18, the turbine has a single jet.
2. If the jet diameter were to be calculated, it would be d 4Q / PV1 0.2137 m 21.4 cm. Both the
diameter of wheel and jet diameter (D and d ) are on the larger side.
234 Turbomachines
3. If the wheel diameter D were to be redesigned, it could be adjusted for N 500 or 600 (both are
synchronous speeds). The 330 rpm obtained above is non-synchronous. The nearest one is 300 rpm
or 375 rpm.
For N 500, D 60U/ON 1.7143 m. The corresponding specific speed is
N s N P / H 5/ 4 27.29
This design with D 1.7143 m and d 21.4 cm would have been better. Adopting two jets would
have been still better (Why?)
4. Important: The above comments are offered with a view to analyze the design process. However,
given data need not be (and should not be) altered or commented upon, unless comments are invited.
In fact, a wheel diameter of the order of 2 2.5 m is preferred when huge quantities of water are
available and three, four, or five nozzles are required to be placed around one rotor to work on it.
Shaft Thrust
bearing
Runner
vanes
Draft tube
Water discharge
Tailrace level
The guide vanes have airfoil shapes so that the passages between them act like nozzles that convert a part of
the pressure energy of water into kinetic energy. The water coming from the casing is directed on to the rotor
vanes. Each guide vane has its own axis about which it can swing, so as to vary the area of flow of water. The
swinging of all the guide vanes (about their individual axes) is controlled by a governor-actuated regulator
ring, so that the flow of water can be controlled. The details are shown in Fig. 6.14.
Regulator ring
Open (actuated by
governor)
Close
Close
Water
entry from
casing
Guide-vanes
This control is only to the extent of maintaining constant speed over the fluctuation of loads over the turbine.
The water from the guide vanes enters the rotor, with both kinetic energy and pressure energy. The rotor
vanes absorb these energies and the water is discharged to a component known as a draft tube (Fig. 6.13).
As a reaction turbine installation, the casing, guide-vane ring, and rotor of the Francis turbine run full
without the water coming in contact with the atmosphere. At the exit of the rotor, that is, in the draft tube
also, the water is not open to atmosphere.
The draft tube is a slightly divergent tube, connecting the outlet of the runner to the tailrace level. The
draft tube also runs full. The water column in the draft tube is under sub-atmospheric pressure and effec-
tively saves the head that otherwise would have been lost, when the turbine is installed at a higher level than
the tailrace. Because of the divergent portion, a part of the exit kinetic energy is also recovered.
Francis turbine installations can be designed either with horizontal shafts or vertical shafts. With hori-
zontal shafts, the draft tubes have to be provided with a bend that reduces the effectiveness of the draft tube
in recovering the lost head. The vertical shaft installations have the turbine rotor at the lowest level so that
the axial discharge from the runner becomes vertically downward. This becomes a very good feature of the
vertical draft tube, with better efficiencies.
236 Turbomachines
Francis turbines with huge capacities are usually designed with vertical shafts. Some dams are built pri-
marily for the purpose of irrigation. The water level in the dams may reach such levels that it is possible to
use that head while letting the water out to the canals through the turbines in power houses at the bottom of
the dams. Generally, Francis turbines become the most suitable choices for such “dam power houses.”
Vu1
B0 1 U1
2
b1
Vr1 Vf1
D1
D2 V1
Parallel
to Vr1 Vu2 = 0
b1
U2 Ns = 60 − 120
a1 = 15° − 25°
f1 = 0.62 − 0.68
b1 = 90° − 120°
Vf2
V2 Vr2
1
2
Parallel to Vr2
B0 Vu1
U1
b1
Vf1
Vr1
V1
°
a1 = 25° − 32 2
1
f1 = 0.68 − 0.72
b1 = 90°
B0
U1
Vu1
b1
Parallel Vf1
to Vr1
Vr1
V1
1 ° 1°
a1 = 32 2 − 37 2
f1 = 0.72 − 0.76
b1 = 60° − 90°
Figure 6.16 Francis runner with velocity triangles. Runner and velocity triangles for specific speed
(a) Ns 120 180 and (b) Ns 180 300.
d
B
Aq B
(Both the above are only assumptions; neither the guide vanes rotate around the runner nor the potential
energy of water is totally converted into velocity in the Francis turbine.) With these assumptions, the hypo-
thetical tangential velocity of the guide-vane tip is
P D0 N
U0
60
Also
U 0 F0 2 gH (6.19)
So
60F0 s 2 gH
D0 (6.20)
PN
Here E0 is a hypothetical “speed ratio” or a simple coefficient, varying between 0.7 at Ns 60 and 1.31 at Ns
300. The length of the guide vanes, L0, is taken as
L0 0.3D0 (6.21)
The height of the guide vanes, B0, is calculated from the equation of flow rate:
Volume flow rate (m3/s ) Flow area around the rotor (m2) s Flow velocity (m/s)
Q P D0 B0Vfo P D0 B0Y 0 2 gH
So
Q
B0 (6.22)
P D0Y 0 2 gH
6.4.4.3 Rotor
The rotor diameter at the inlet (namely, the outer diameter) and the tangential velocity of the blades at the
inlet are related, as usual, by the relation
P D1N
U1
60
The velocity U1 is taken as
U1 F1 2 gH (6.23)
240 Turbomachines
where E1 is the speed ratio with respect to the reference velocity 2 gH . This speed ratio has values ranging
from 0.62 to 0.82 over the range of specific speeds 60−300. Equating both the expressions for U1 we get
(60F1 2 gH )
D1 (6.24)
PN
The outlet diameter D2 of the runner (inner diameter) is calculated from the ratio D2/D1, varying from 0.5
to 1, with the specific speed range of 60−300. The height B1 of the blades at the inlet is taken as equal to
the height of the guide vanes B0. The number of blades on the runner is generally within p1 of that of the
guide vanes. The blade angles of the runner are also chosen over a range of values, depending on the specific
speed. These values are indicated in Figs. 6.15 and 6.16. It may be noted that the values of @1 and A1 shown
in Figs. 6.15 and 6.16 are the values at full load on the turbine.
EXAMPLE 6.5
A Francis turbine is to be designed for the flow rate of 2 m3/s available at a project site at a net head of
10 m of water. The expected overall efficiency is 80%. The speed coefficient (or speed ratio) and the flow
coefficient can be assumed as 0.8 and 0.6, respectively. The hydraulic losses in the turbine are 15% of
available energy. Design the turbine rotor, with the salient dimensions and angles, to run at 300 rpm. The
water leaves the rotor without any whirl component.
Flow velocity is
Vf1 Y 2 gH 0.6 2 s 9.81 s 10 8.4 m /s
Power output is
9810 s 2 s 10 s 0.8
P wQH Ho 156.96 kW
1000
Specific speed is
N P 300 s 156.96
Ns 211.36
H 5/ 4 105/ 4
Now
P D1N
U1 11.2
60
Therefore the wheel diameter is
Hydraulic Turbines 241
U1 = 11.2 U2 = 7.84
a1 7.445 b2
b1 a2 = 90°
Vf1=
8.4 Vf2
=Vf1
=V2
V1 Vr1 Vr2
60 s 11.2
D1 0.713 m
(P s 300)
¨ Vf1 · ¨ 8.4 ·
B1 tan 1 © ¸ tan 1 © ¸¹ 65.9o
ªU V u1 ¹ ª 11 . 2 7 . 445
Now, salient features of the runner include the diameter, width, and blade angle at outlet. To calculate these
parameters, the ratio D2/D1 can be assumed as 0.7 (at a specific speed of 211) and Vf2 Vf1. The diameter
at the outlet is
D2 D1 s 0.7 0.713 s 0.7 0.5 m 50 cm
Wheel width at the outlet is
Q 2
B2 0.15 m 15 cm
P D2Vf1 P s 0.5 s 8.4
Blade angle at the outlet is
1
Vf2 1 8.4 1 8.4
B2 tan tan tan 47o
U2 U1 s D2 7.84
D1
The outlet velocity triangle is also drawn in Fig. 6.18.
Comments:
1. With the coefficients such as E1 and X1 as part of the data, the procedure is straightforward.
2. The stator guide vanes are not yet designed. Eo and Xo are required. Coefficients (including that of
the rotor also) can be remembered in their ranges, approximately.
3. The dimensions and blade angle at outlet were obtained, after the value of D2/D1 was assumed as
0.7. Therefore, these parts of answers can vary over some range.
4. As an alternate problem, if the speed were not given for the values of the product D1N, the possible
values of speed and diameter could be listed. The cost factors can also be considered in choosing
the appropriate speed and diameter.
EXAMPLE 6.6
A Francis turbine is supplied with water at a rate of 1.7 m3/s under a net head of 60 m and runs at 500 rpm.
The blade angle of the rotor at the inlet is 90o. The ratio D2/D1 is 0.5. The velocity of flow through the rotor
is constant and is equal to 8 m/s. The water leaves the rotor at 90o. The thickness of blades accounts for 5%
loss of flow area. Assume that the hydraulic losses are negligible. Determine the following:
(a) Inlet and outlet diameters of the rotor, D1 and D2.
(b) Power.
(c) Specific speed.
(d) Widths of the rotor at the inlet and outlet, B1 and B2.
(e) Guide-vane angle, @1.
(f ) Rotor blade angle at the outlet, A2.
Solution: Given Q 1.7 m3/s, H 60 m, N 500 rpm, A1 90o, D2/D1 0.5, Vf1 Vf2 8 m/s, @2
90o, loss of area due to thickness 5%. Due to negligible hydraulic losses, we have
U1Vu1 gH
Because A1 90o, we can write Vu1 U1, and therefore
U12 gH
Hydraulic Turbines 243
U1 = 24.26 U2 = 12.13
a1 = 18.25° a2 = 90°
b1 = 90° b2 = 33.4°
8 Vf1 Vf2 8
Vr1 V2
V1 Vr2
Also
P D1 N (U s 60)
U1 D1 1
60 (P s N )
(a) Hence, we have
Rotor inlet diameter D1 0.93 m
Rotor outlet diameter D2 D1/2 0.463 m
(b) Power is given by
wQH 9810 s 1.7 s 60
P 1000.62 kW
1000 1000
(c) Specific speed is given by
N P 500 s 1000.62
Ns 94.7
H 5/ 4 605/ 4
(d) To calculate the widths of the rotor at inlet, we have
Flow area s Flow velocity Volume flow rate
P D1B1Vf s (1 0.05) Q
Blade width at inlet is given by
Q 1.7
B1
P D1Vf s 0.95 P s 0.93 s 8 s 0.95
Vf
tan A1 1
U1
So guide-vane angle is
1 8
A1 tan 18.25o
24.26
(f ) Blade angle at the outlet is
1
Vf1 ¥ 8 ´
B2 tan tan 1 ¦ 33.4o
U2 § 12.13 µ¶
EXAMPLE 6.7
A project site has a possibility of 8 m3/s of water flow at a net head of 70 m. The overall efficiency
is expected to be 0.85. Table 6.2 may be used in the selection of ratios or coefficients for the Francis
turbine. Design all the elements of a Francis turbine for this project.
Table 6.2
Ns 60 120 180 300
@1 15o 25o 32½o 37½o
E1 0.62 0.68 0.72 0.76
A1 120o 90o 90o 60o
D2/D1 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Higher speeds involve smaller diameters of the rotors, the torques are lower, and blade thicknesses have to be
high. Lower speeds are with higher diameters, high torques (but the same power). More important is the fact
that lower speeds are to be coupled to alternators with higher number of pairs of poles. Hence, lower speeds
impose increased costs of both turbine and alternator. The cost of the entire project, therefore, increases. It
is required that:
1. Either a few speeds (such as 375, 300, 250 in this case) have to be selected, and after arriving at a
complete design, each has to be evaluated with cost factors.
2. Or a possibility of splitting the flow and having multiple units has to be explored.
At present, select N 300. Specific speed is
N P 300 s 4670
Ns 101.25
H 5/ 4 705/ 4
Now, make the choice from the data table (Table 6.3): E1 0.64, A1 100o, D2/D1 0.55.
Blade velocity at inlet is
W U1Vu1 J/ kg
The power is 4670 kW and flow rate is 8 m3/s or 8000 kg/s. Therefore, from P W s mass flow rate, we
have
4670 s 1000 U1Vu1 s 8000
4670 s 1000
Vu1 24.61 m /s
8000 s U1
Vu1 = 24.61
U1 = 23.72 U2 = 13.05
From the outlet velocity triangle, we have the outlet blade angle as
1
Vf2 ¥ 5.05 ´
B2 tan tan 1 ¦ 21.15o
U2 § 13.05 µ¶
2. Not all the data are required from the data table. Example is @1. In fact, after the design process,
it is seen that @1 does not check with value in the table. This is because of the “range of values.”
Hence, it is alright.
3. Now, it can be appreciated why “model testing” is required (as mentioned in the first chapter).
Runner
Draft
tube
pa
Tailrace
Generally, the turbine runners are installed at a level about 3−4 m above the tailrace level so as to avoid
any eventual flooding of the entire turbine floor (in case the tailrace is blocked for the flow of water for
any reason). Thus, that much head would be lost for use in the generation of the power output of the
turbine.
The main purpose of the draft tube is to recover that head. Because of the draft tube, the pressure at the
exit of the runner is lower than the atmospheric pressure. The second purpose of the draft tube is accom-
plished by making the draft tube a little divergent. At the exit of the runner, there is the exit loss, V22 /2g,
but due to the divergent shape, this loss is reduced to V32/2g, where V3 is the velocity at the exit of the draft
tube and V3 is less than V2. The divergent angle cannot be too large; otherwise there may be separation of
flow from the walls. The usual semi-cone angle of divergence is about 4o–5o.
Although a very good positioning of the draft tube is vertically downward with the least length, some
different orientations have been designed to meet various requirements. Some of the shapes have been dis-
cussed as follows:
1. A simple, straight type of draft tube is shown in Fig. 6.21.
2. Moody’s design of the draft tube is shown in Fig. 6.22. This type of draft tube has a well spread-
out shape with a solid cone inside. The semi-cone angle can be more, without the possibility of
separation, because of the inside cone. With this, a large exit area is possible, without requiring
large lengths, with a consequent lower value of exit velocity and lower exit losses.
248 Turbomachines
3. A simple, divergent, elbow-type draft tube is shown in Fig. 6.23. The purpose of the elbow type is
to accommodate a longer length and larger exit area, keeping the cone angle low, as also avoiding
separation. This is suitable at places where the danger or possibility of flooding of the turbine is very
remote, and therefore turbine installation need not be too high above the tailrace level.
Tailrace
Tailrace
4. A simple, divergent, elbow-type draft tube with a rectangular outlet is shown in Fig. 6.24. This has
the same features as the simple elbow type, but is more suitable where excavations are required in
order to place the draft tube.
Tailrace
5. Elbow-type draft tubes with split exit areas, shown in Fig. 6.25, are made possible by piers that
have the same functions as Moody’s center cone. This also adds the advantages of constructional
stability.
pa
Tailrace
p2 V22 p3 V32
z2 hf z3
w 2g w 2g
Rotor
2
Draft
tube hs
z2
pa
3 h3
z3
Reference
Therefore
p2 p3 ¥ V 2 V32 ´
( z2 z3 ) ¦ 2 µ hf
w w § 2g ¶
But
p3 pa
h3
w w
where pa is the atmospheric pressure. Therefore
p2 pa V22 V32
( z2 z3 h3 ) hf
w w 2g
From Fig. 6.26, z2 z3 h3 Hs, where Hs is the height of the rotor outlet above the tailrace. It is usual to
take hf as a fraction k of (V22 V32 ) / 2 g . The equation for p2/w reduces to
p2 pa V22 V32
Hs (1 k ) (6.25)
w w 2g
This equation indicates that at the outlet of the runner, “2,” the pressure head is less than the atmospheric
pressure head by the following two quantities:
1. Hs, the height of installation of runner above the tailrace level.
2. (1 k )(V22 V32 ) / 2 g , a part of the exit losses.
If the draft tube were not there, the pressure head at the exit of the runner would be the atmospheric head
and the exit losses would be V22 /2g. Thus, the draft tube saves the above two heads for power output.
The factor (1 k) in Eq. (6.25) is also known as the draft tube efficiency. This draft tube efficiency can be
100% when k reduces to zero, that is, when the losses in the draft tube (friction, bend, etc.) reduce to zero.
Even while it is not possible to completely avoid the losses, it is always advisable to reduce k by having the
internal surfaces of the draft tube very smooth and avoiding any bends, and making the length of the draft
tube as small as possible.
EXAMPLE 6.8
The head available at the inlet to a Francis turbine is 28 m. The output of the turbine is 1000 kW at an
overall efficiency of 0.88, when there is no draft tube attached to the exit of the turbine. The level of the
turbine is 2.5 m above the tailrace. The flow coefficient of the turbine is 0.3. Assess the effect of installing
(a) a straight cylindrical draft tube and (b) a draft tube with the half-cone angle of 5o at the exit of the
turbine. The efficiency of the draft tube may be taken as 95% in either case.
Solution:
Francis turbine, H 28 m, P 1000 kW, Go 0.88, Hs 2.5 m, X 0.3.
Draft tube efficiency 95%.
We know that
P wQH Ho
Hydraulic Turbines 251
P 1000
Q 4.137 m3 /s
wH H0 ¥ 0.88 ´
¦§ 9810 s 28 s µ
1000 ¶
Flow velocity is
Vf Y 2 gH 0.3 s 2 s 9.81 s 28 7.0315 m / s
This is the velocity at the exit of turbine or the inlet to the draft tube.
The inlet diameter of the draft tube is calculated from
P d12
V Q
4 f
0.5
4Q ¥ 4 s 4.137 ´
d1 ¦ µ 0.8655 m
PVf § P s 7.03515 ¶
Draft tube with inlet diameter 0.8655 m and half-cone angle 5o is shown in Fig. 6.27.
d1 = 0.8655 m
2.5 m
5°
d2 = 1.303 m
6.6 Cavitation
Cavitation is a phenomenon that starts in low-pressure regions in liquids adjacent or close to solid sur-
faces. If the low pressure is equal to or less than the vapor pressure of the liquid at the prevailing tempera-
ture, the liquid starts vaporizing. The vapor bubbles are formed on the solid surfaces. When, due to eddies
and turbulence, the higher pressure liquid comes adjacent to such vapor bubbles, the pressure in the
bubbles also increases and the vapor condenses. The bubbles collapse and the surrounding liquid rushes
from all the directions to occupy the space vacated by the condensing vapors. This generates very high
localized pressures on the surfaces, enough to even chip off the metal particles and cause pits or cavities.
The overall process is named pitting or cavitation. Such cavitation occurs over a large number of points
on a surface. It is accompanied by the vibrations due to the collapse of vapor bubbles and rush of water
from all around.
Cavitation, even from its starting, causes the loss of surface finish, and therefore increases losses. This reduces
the efficiency of the machine. Continuous cavitation can cause even complete mechanical failure of the parts.
Cavitation can occur in low-pressure regions that are at the discharge side of the reaction turbine blades (Francis
or Kaplan) when connected to the draft tubes. In Fig. 6.28 the turbine outlet with draft tube is shown.
Turbine
outlet 2
Draft tube
Hs
pa
Tailrace
In Fig. 6.25, the point of the likely occurrence of cavitation is at a height Hs m above the free surface level
of water in the tailrace.
The free surface level of water in the tailrace is at the atmospheric pressure pa. Due to the water column
in the draft tube, the pressure at the blade surfaces is less by Hs. Also, the pressure is further reduced by
Hd (V22 V32 ) / 2 g in the draft tube as seen by Eq. (6.25). Thus
p2 pa ¥ V 2 V32 ´
Hs Hdt ¦ 2 µ (6.26)
w w § 2g ¶
When the pressure p2, as indicated by Eq. (6.26), reduces to the level of vapor pressure of the water at the
temperature of the surroundings, the cavitation is likely to commence. When p2 reduces further (below the
vapor pressure), cavitation is almost certain to occur.
Cavitation is not a desirable phenomenon. Efforts to avoid cavitation can be made by preventing the
formation of low-pressure regions by the installation of the turbine as near to the tailrace level as possible, or
even below that level. Cavitation damage also can be controlled by the use of high-strength materials (e.g.,
cast iron, cast steel, stainless steel, etc.).
Inlet
Spiral casing
Guide vanes
Shaft
a B0
b
Runner vanes Whirl chamber
Tailrace
Hub
Draft tube
Outlet
pa
Upstream
Power
house Shaft
Trash H
gate
Guide
vanes Down stream
Tailrace
Turbine
Draft tube
Vr1h
Vr1t V1h
V1t
Inlet Inlet
U2t U2h
Figure 6.31 Velocity triangles of Kaplan turbine: (a) Kaplan blade, (b) tip edge, and (c) hub edge.
At the outlet, or discharge end, the absolute velocity of water is axial, without any whirl component, at both
the tip and hub. The specific works when calculated at the tip and hub are given by
Wtip U1tVu1t
and Whub U1hVu1h
However, the flow at the inlet to the blade is like a free vortex (VuR constant). Therefore, it may be easily
seen that the specific works at the tip and hub are the same and hence the expression for the overall specific
work can be written as
W (U1Vu1 )tip (6.27)
The hydraulic efficiency is given by
W
Hh
gH
(U1 Vu1 )tip
Hh (6.28)
gH
Head (m) 75 50 40 20 5
Specific speed 300 400 600 800 1000
E0 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5
E1 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.4
X0 0.12 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.39
X1 0.35 0.4 0.51 0.62 0.75
d/D1 0.7 0.55 0.5 0.4 0.3
No. of blades on the runner 10 6 5 4 3
As in the Francis turbine calculations, the design parameters can be used in the following equations to design
the Kaplan or propeller turbines:
1. Spiral casing: The inlet diameter D can be calculated for the available flow rate Q with a maximum
velocity V of about 8−10 m/s as
4Q
D (6.29)
PV
With this diameter, the inlet area of the spiral casing is (OD2)/4. This area can be uniformly
reduced, over 360o, around the guide-vane ring, as per the following equation (refer Fig. 6.17):
¨ (P D 2 ) ·
© 4 ¸ (360 Q )
AQ ª ¹ (6.30)
360
L0 0.3 D0 (6.32)
Hydraulic Turbines 257
d
d1 D1 s (6.35)
D1
7. The flow velocity is
Vf Vf1 Vf2 , Vf Y 1 2 gH (6.36)
8. From Hh U1Vu1 / gH , we have
gH Hh
Vu1 (6.37)
U1
where U1 P D1N / 60.
9. From the inlet velocity triangle at the tip, the guide-vane angle is
¥V ´
A1 tan 1 ¦ f µ (6.38)
§ Vu1 ¶
EXAMPLE 6.9
The speed ratio and flow ratio of a Kaplan turbine are 2.0 and 0.65, respectively. The hub diameter to
tip diameter ratio is 0.3. The hydraulic efficiency and overall efficiency are estimated as 92% and 85%,
respectively. The head acting on the turbine is 4 m. One single rotor develops as much as 8000 kW of
power. Determine (a) flow rate, (b) the tip and hub diameters of the runner, (c) the speed, (d) the specific
speed, (e) and the blade angles of the runner. Assume that the discharge is axial and flow components
remain constant through the rotor.
Solution: Given E 2.0, X 0.65, Dh /Dt 0.3, Gh 0.92, Go 0.85, H 4 m, P 8000 kW.
Inlet velocity at the tip (U1)t is given by
P 8000
Q 239.85 m3 /s
(w s H n s H0 ) ¥ 0.85 ´
¦§ 9810 s 4 s µ
1000 ¶
(e) To find the runner blade angles: There are four angles to be found at inlet and outlet at the tip; and
inlet and outlet at the hub. We start with hydraulic efficiency, which is
U1Vu1
Hh
gH
U1Vu1
0.92 (as per data)
gH
(Vu1 )t 0.92 s 9.81 s 4 / 17.7 2.04 m /s
(V1)t (Vr1)h
(V1)h
(Vr1)t (Inlet)
Therefore
Rt 1
(Vu1 )h (Vu1 )t s 2.04 s 6.8
Rh 0.3
With this, the inlet velocity triangles can be drawn as shown in Fig. 6.32.
At the inlet: The inlet blade angle at the tip is
¨ Vf · ¨ 5.76 ·
(B1 )t tan 1 © 1
¸ tan 1 © ¸ 20.2o
(U )
©ª 1 t (V )
u1 t ¸
¹ ª (17. 7 2 . 04 ) ¹
¨ V f1 · 5.76
(B1 )h tan 1 © ¸ tan 1 75.5o
ª (U1 )h (Vu1 )h ¹ (5.31 6.8)
Velocity triangles at the outlet, for both tip and hub, are now drawn in Fig. 6.33.
(b2)t (b2)h
(Vf2)t = 18.03° = 47.33°
(Vf2)h
(V2)t (V2)h
(Outlet)
¨ 5.76 ·
(B2 )h tan 1 © ¸ 47.33o
©ª 5.31 ¸¹
Comments:
1. This is a typical run-of-the-river power plant. The land topography, in such cases, does not permit
a large reservoir. The head of 4 m, mentioned in the example, may not require even a penstock
conduit or a spiral casing as shown in Fig. 6.30. Water just arrives, passes through the turbine,
and goes off.
2. It is a good experience to visualize the blade of the runner with the angles as calculated.
Hydraulic Turbines 261
EXAMPLE 6.10
A project site has a capacity of providing with 150 m3/s of water flow at a head of 18 m. The overall
efficiency can be 0.87 for the development. Select the type of turbine and calculate the salient dimensions
and angles of the runner. The speed can be assumed as 375 rpm.
Solution: The power that can be developed is given by
9810 s 150 s 18 s 0.87
P wQH Ho 23044 kW
1000
Therefore the specific speed is
N P 375 s 23044
Ns 1535.4
H 5/ 4 185/ 4
This specific speed, calculated for a single unit of turbine, indicates that there must be multiple units of
turbines. The specific speeds corresponding to the number of units are listed as follows:
(Ns can be calculated as 1535.4/ x , where x is the number of units.)
1. Two units, power per unit 11522 kW, Ns 1086
2. Three units, power per unit 7681 kW, Ns 886
3. Four units, power per unit 5761 kW, Ns 768
4. Five units, power per unit 4609 kW, Ns 687
It is better to select (except Ns 1086) the highest Ns, 886, so that three identical units of Kaplan-type
turbines work to produce the total power, each unit having a power of 7681 kW.
Flow rate per unit is
Qu 150/3 50 m3 /s
So
Runner tip diameter D1 2.393m D2
As assumed above,
Hub diameter Tip diameter s 0.3
262 Turbomachines
(V1)t (Vr1)h
(Vr1)t (Inlet) (V1)h
(a) (b)
(b 2 )h = 40.9°
(b 2 )t = 14.57°
(V2)t
(Vr2)h
(Vr2)t (Outlet)
(c) (d)
Figure 6.34 Velocity triangles: (a) and (b) Inlet triangles at tip and at hub; (c) and (d) outlet
triangles at tip and at hub.
Hydraulic Turbines 263
The blade angles are calculated with reference to the triangles, as follows:
1 12.215
(B1 )tip tan 15.61o
43.72
12.215
(B1 )hub tan 1 75.332o
3.20
12.215
(B2 )tip tan 1 14.57o
46.99
12.215
(B2 )hub tan 1 40.90o
14.10
Comment:
Kaplan turbines, as have been seen, are meant for very high flow rates at rather low heads. Hence, their
working on part loads does not generally arise. As a result, as far as possible, one big unit is preferable to
two/three smaller units. Yet, in this example, three units are recommended to maintain the specific speeds
within the normally accepted limits, that is up to Ns 1000 (refer Table 6.1).
valve. Thus, the movement of the piston is controlled, and the piston is connected further to the
inlet side of the turbine.
Governor
Flyballs
A Lever B
Fulcrum
Drive
from Distribution valve
turbine-shaft
F
E
C D
Pump G
Oil sump
Servomotor Piston
4. Regulators: This is the final unit of the governing system. Depending on the turbine type, there can
be different types of regulators.
In the case of Pelton turbine, the piston of the servomotor is connected to the spear that is placed inside the
nozzle. The movements of the piston and the spear are therefore the same, controlling the flow of water from
the nozzle (also refer Figs. 6.6 and 6.7).
In the case of the Francis or Kaplan turbine, the movement of the piston of the servomotor is integrated to the
rotation of a regulating wheel. As this wheel rotates, all the inlet guide vanes swing about their individual axes so
as to vary the area of flow for water, thereby controlling the flow of water to the rotor (also refer Fig. 6.14).
Regulating ring
Guide vanes
Open Open
H Closed
Servomotor
Close
In the case of reaction turbine (Francis, Kaplan or propeller), the movement of the piston of the servomotor
is connected to another cranking lever, H, which in turn is connected to the regulating wheel. As shown
in Fig. 6.36, the rightward movement of the piston of the servomotor rotates the cranking lever clockwise,
the regulating wheel also moves clockwise, and the guide vanes close in, lowering the water flow rate. The
withdrawal of the piston of the servomotor causes the opening of the guide vanes to allow more water to
flow to meet the higher loads on the turbine.
Main shaft
Pinion
Sleeve
Helical
groove
Blades
Gear
Sleeve
Hub
Shaft
Figure 6.37 Schematic view of rotor blade control in the Kaplan turbine.
For Kaplan turbines, apart from controlling the guide vanes, the governing system also controls the swing-
ing action of the rotor blades, as shown in Fig. 6.37. The entire mechanism is enclosed inside the hub of
the main shaft. The complete assembly of this mechanism rotates along with the main shaft. When required
to control the swing of the rotor blades, the motions of the parts are relative to the shaft, and therefore the
understanding of the movements is better facilitated if the shaft is considered stationary.
The up and down movement of the governor sleeve is connected to another sleeve with helical grooves
on its surface. A gearwheel, having its stubs engaged in the helical grooves, gets a rotating movement that
in turn is used to swing all the blades through a conical pinion on the axes of the swing of the blades. For
the sake of clarity, the sleeve, the gearwheel, and the conical pinion are also shown separately and only one
direction of movement is marked in Fig. 6.37.
266 Turbomachines
As the speed of the main shaft is increased due to reduced load, the sleeve moves up and the gearwheel
rotates in the direction shown, causing the pinions (as many as number of blades) also to rotate and flatten
the blades. The flow area is reduced, the flow rate is also reduced, and the speed is brought back to the rated
value.
p/pmax
Kaplan Francis
0.5 0.5
Francis Kaplan
Propeller Pelton
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
As the flow rate is varied in the Pelton turbine, the jet diameter is varied. But the velocity of the jet and the
angle of jet do not vary. As a result, the velocity triangles remain the same. Theoretically, there is no change
in the mechanism of energy transfer. However, the disk friction losses, hydraulic losses, etc. continue to
be the same. Hence, the efficiency is slightly reduced. On the whole, the efficiency is considered to remain
the same over a wide stretch.
In the Francis turbine, the situation is slightly different. Because of the governing action, the guide vanes
allow the water to flow at different angles. The water strikes the rotor blades at angles other than the design
values. The flow velocity is also reduced. The smooth glide of water on the blade surface gets disturbed.
The losses increase, and the efficiency is reduced. A similar situation holds good in the case of propeller
turbine.
In the Kaplan turbine, because of the dual control of the governor, the blade angles are also varied along
with the reduction of flow velocity. This gives rise to the smooth flow of water at the altered load also (with
new velocity triangles). The losses increase a little, but not too much. The efficiency also remains approxi-
mately the same over a wide stretch of loads.
Hydraulic Turbines 267
The characteristics obtained with varying speeds are known as main characteristics. Actually, the hydrau-
lic turbines, as they are employed in power houses, are supposed to run at a rated speed. The speed is one of
the main parameters with which the whole procedure of analysis and design is started. The blade angles are
designed for the constant speed. Hence, the main characteristics are not of much practical application.
K eywords
Hydroelectric power project Francis turbine, construction, runner
Head and flow rates at site Guide vanes, swing, control
Impulse and reaction turbines Velocity triangles, specific work
Selection based on the head Efficiencies, design parameters
Selection based on the specific speed Draft tube, types, efficiency
Pelton turbine, construction, double cup Cavitation, causes, and prevention
Nozzle, jet, deflector, brake jet Kaplan and propeller turbines
Multi-jet Pelton turbine Swing of runner blades of Kaplan turbine
Velocity triangles, specific work Velocity triangles, specific work
Efficiencies, design parameters Efficiencies, design parameters
S ummary
1. Hydraulic turbines are the prime movers that drive 5. The use of the draft tube is to recover the head
alternators in hydroelectric power stations. The lost in the installations of reaction turbines
energy flow to the turbines is in the form of when the turbines are required to be installed
flow rate of water (Q m3/s) and head of water at some level above the tailrace level.
(H m of water). 6. Cavitation occurs due to low pressures (below
2. Input power, P wQH. the vapor pressure of water), in the discharge
3. The different types of turbines and the criteria ends of rotor-blades of reaction turbines, when
of their selection are: draft tubes are installed. Its causes are:
(a) Pelton turbine: High head (150 m and (a) Higher heights of installation above the
above) and low specific speed (5 70). tailrace.
(b) Francis turbine: Medium head (50 250 m) (b) Lower atmospheric pressures (higher altitudes).
and medium specific speed (60 300). (c) Higher atmospheric temperatures.
(c) Kaplan turbine: Low head (5 75 m) and (d) Higher losses in the draft tubes (bends,
high specific speed (300 and above). length, rough inside finishes).
(d) Propeller turbine: Same as Kaplan turbine; (e) Effects of cavitation are loss of efficiency
this is for constant load application. and (eventual) failure of parts.
4. The components of the basic types of turbines (f ) Prevention of cavitation is by installation of
(in the order of flow of water) are: turbines as near to tailrace as possible.
(a) Pelton turbine: Nozzle, double-cups, rotor. 7. Governing is the process of maintaining con-
(b) Francis turbine: Volute casing, guide-vanes, stant speed of turbines with varying loads, by
rotor, draft tube. adjusting the flow rates of water.
(c) Kaplan turbine: Volute casing, guide-vanes, 8. Components of governing system are: speed
ellipsoidal whirl chamber, rotor, draft tube. sensing mechanism (fly-balls), actuating
268 Turbomachines
mechanism (pump, actuating valve), servo- 9. The operating characteristics of the turbine are
motor, and regulator. Regulator works on the plots of the power output and efficiency on the
spear-nozzle assembly of Pelton turbine and on base of input. Pelton and Kaplan turbines give
the guide-vane assembly of Francis turbine and better performance (less drop in efficiency)
propeller turbines. In Kaplan turbines, it works during part load working than the Francis and
on both guide-vane assembly and rotor blades. propeller turbines.
I mportant E quations
Pelton Turbine:
60F1 2 gH 1
Vf
5. D1 10. A1 tan
PN Vu1
p2 pa V22 V32 ¨ Vf ·
6. Hs (1 k ) 11. B1 tan 1 © ¸
w w 2g ª (U Vu1 ) ¹
R eview Q uestions
1. Write a note on the classification of hydraulic 8. Discuss the twin objectives of the draft tube.
turbines. (Refer Section 6.2) Also discuss how these objectives are met with.
2. Discuss the selection of hydraulic turbines for (Refer Section 6.5)
a project site. (Refer Section 6.2.1) 9. Sketch the different types of draft tubes and
3. Explain with a neat sketch the single-jet Pelton mention their advantages.
turbine installation. (Refer Section 6.3.1) (Refer Section 6.5, Figs. 6.21−6.25)
4. What is the function of the braking jet? How 10. What are the factors affecting the efficiencies
does it work? of the Francis turbine? (Refer Section 6.4.3)
(Section 6.3.1, Explanation with a figure of a 11. Define the draft tube efficiency.
nozzle/jet in the opposite direction) (Refer Section 6.5.1)
5. When is the multi-jet Pelton turbine to be 12. Explain the phenomenon of cavitation. Where
used? (Refer Section 6.2.1) is it likely to occur in turbine installations?
6. Explain with a neat sketch the setup of a Francis How to reduce its effects?
turbine. (Refer Section 6.4.1) (Refer Section 6.6)
7. Describe the regulation of the movement of guide 13. Explain with a neat sketch the setup of Kaplan
vanes and its purpose. (Sections 6.8.1, 6.8.2. turbine. Where is it suited?
Explanation can be with reference to Fig. 6.36) (Refer Section 6.7)
270 Turbomachines
14. What is the special feature of Kaplan turbine? 18. Discuss with a neat sketch the working of a
Discuss the purpose of special feature. governing system. (Refer Section 6.8.2)
(Refer Section 6.8.2) 19. Draw the typical operating characteristics
15. Discuss the governing of Kaplan turbine. of hydraulic turbines. Discuss their features.
(Refer Section 6.8.2) (Refer Section 6.9)
16. Write a note on the need of the governing process 20. Draw the typical velocity triangles of the
of the hydraulic turbines. (Refer Section 6.8) different types of hydraulic turbines.
17. Discuss with a neat sketch the governing system (Refer Figs. 6.10, 6.15, 6.31)
with respect to hydraulic turbines.
(Refer Section 6.8.1)
E xercises
1. As a small laboratory project, a table-top work- estimated as 4.8 m3/s. The speed ratio and the
ing model of a Pelton turbine is required to be coefficient of velocity of nozzle are 0.46 and
designed. It may be assumed that water is avail- 0.96, respectively. The overall efficiency may be
able at a constant net head of 4 m from the over- taken as 85%, as a starting point. The selected
head tank. A nozzle of 5 mm diameter is the speed is 500 rpm. Calculate the (a) specific
starting point. Calculate the following param- speed, (b) diameter of rotor, (c) number of jets,
eters of the Pelton turbine with a proposed speed and (d) jet diameter.
of 600 rpm, assuming a speed ratio of 0.46, 4. A Pelton turbine is coupled to an alternator,
nozzle velocity coefficient of 0.98, and an overall running at 600 rpm. The output of the
efficiency of 83%: (a) power, (b) diameter, (c) alternator is 4300 kW. At this output, the alter-
specific speed, (d) number of Pelton cups, (e) nator is specified to have an overall efficiency
length of the cup and (f) breadth of the cup. of 88%. On the turbine side, the mechani-
2. As a small laboratory project, a table-top work- cal loss on the shaft is found to be 100 kW.
ing model of a Francis turbine is required to be The Pelton cups turn the jet through an angle
designed. The water is available at a constant of 160o ( A2 20o). The relative velocity of
head of 4 m from the over-head tank. As a start- water experiences a loss of 10% due to fric-
ing point, assume a specific speed of 120, a rotor tion, as the water moves in the cups. The head
speed of 800 rpm, and an overall efficiency of measured at the nozzle is 340 m of water. The
75%. Also in standard notations, assume the nozzle efficiency is 0.975. Calculate the (a)
following: Eo 0.75, X0 0.36, E1 0.68. output power of the turbine, (b) mechanical
Calculate the following: (a) power, (b) flow rate, efficiency of the turbine, (c) hydraulic effi-
(c) inner diameter of guide-vane ring, (d) length ciency, (d) water flow rate, (e) specific speed,
of guide vanes, (e) breadth or height of guide and (f ) jet diameter.
vanes, (f ) inlet diameter of runner, (g) breadth 5. The inlet blade angle of a Francis runner is
of runner inlet, (h) number of runner vanes, (i) 55o. The flow rate of water is 2.8 m3/s at a
guide-vane angle, (j) runner blade angle at the net head of 65 m of water. The discharge of
inlet, and (k) runner blade angle at outlet. water from the runner is without any whirl
3. The net head at the nozzle of a Pelton turbine component. The overall efficiency of the tur-
is 260 m of water and the flow rate available is bine is 82%. The outlet diameter of runner
Hydraulic Turbines 271
is 0.6 times the diameter at the inlet. The 8. A run-of-the-river power house has a potential
blade velocity at the inlet is 26 m/s. For the of a steady flow of 95 m3/s, and the head that
runner wheel, the diameter to width ratio is can be arranged is 5.5 m of water. Design a
8. The flow component of velocity of water Kaplan turbine that can be assumed to have
remains constant in the runner. Calculate the an overall efficiency of 87%. The speed ratio
(a) power of the turbine, (b) specific work, (c) and flow ratio may be taken as 2.1 and 0.75,
the speed ratio of the runner E1, (d) runner respectively. The hub diameter is 0.35 times
inlet diameter, (e) runner width, (f ) speed, (g) the tip diameter of the runner. The flow com-
specific speed, (h) guide-vane angle, (i) guide ponent of velocity remains constant. Calculate
wheel diameter, (j) guide wheel width, and (k) the (a) power of the turbine, (b) tip diameter,
utilization factor. (c) hub diameter, (d) speed, (e) specific speed,
6. A Francis turbine of a dam power house devel- (f ) specific work, (g) inlet blade angle at the
ops 450 kW of power at a speed of 1000 rpm tip, (h) inlet blade angle at the hub, (i) outlet
when the head available is 85 m. An over- blade angle at the tip, and (j) outlet blade angle
all efficiency of 85% can be assumed. The at the hub.
runner wheel diameter is 12 times the width 9. A Kaplan turbine has a rated output of 2600 kW
of the runner. The guide-vane angle is 20o. at 600 rpm, the head being 40 m of water. The
The runner diameter at the outlet is half that speed ratio is 1.25. The overall and hydraulic
at the inlet. The flow component remains efficiencies are 0.86 and 0.9, respectively. The
constant. The discharge of water is without hub diameter is 0.6 times the tip diameter.
any whirl component. Determine the (a) Calculate the (a) flow rate, (b) specific speed,
mass flow rate of water, (b) specific work, (c) (c) specific work, (d) tip diameter, (e) hub
diameter of runner at the inlet, (d) diameter diameter, (f ) blade inlet and outlet angles at the
of runner at the outlet, (e) blade width, (f ) tip, and (g) blade inlet and outlet angles at the
blade angle at the inlet, and (g) blade angle at hub.
the outlet. 10. The flow rate of water in a reaction turbine is
7. For a Francis turbine, the net head available is 3.4 m3/s. The exit diameter of the turbine is
12.5 m of water, and the available flow rate is 62 cm, which is also the inlet diameter of the
0.35 m3/s. The blades are radial at the inlet (A1 draft tube connected to it. The diameter at the
90o). A velocity of flow, equal to 2.1 m/s, outlet of the draft tube is 92 cm. The length of
remains constant in the runner. The overall the draft tube is 3 m. Calculate the head saved,
efficiency is 0.85 and the speed is 500 rpm. due to the draft tube, if the efficiency of the
The diameter at the discharge is half that at the draft tube is 90%. The end of the draft tube is
inlet, and the discharge is radial. Take the reduc- 50 cm below the tailrace level. Take the atmo-
tion in flow area due to the vane thickness as spheric head as 10 m of water. If the saving in
10%. Overall efficiency is 85%. Calculate the head is required to be 7.5 m, with the same
(a) power, (b) specific speed, (c) specific work, efficiency and the same length, what should be
(d) diameter of runner at the inlet, (e) diam- the exit diameter of the draft tube? And in such
eter of runner at the outlet, (f ) width of runner a case, what is the half-cone-angle of the draft
at the inlet, (g) width of runner at the outlet, tube? If the atmospheric temperature is 33oC,
(h) guide-vane angle, and (i) blade angle at the is the cavitation likely to occur on the blade
outlet in the rotor. surfaces?
272 Turbomachines
A nswers
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. (b) 6. (b)
2. (a) 7. (c)
3. (c) 8. (b)
4. (c) 9. (a)
5. (c) 10. (c)
Exercises
1. (a) 5.55 W, (b) 12.7 cm, (c) 7.9, (d) 24, (e) 7. (a) 36.48 kW, (b) 128.5, (c) 104.23 J/kg, (d)
11.5 mm, (f ) 14 mm 39 cm, (e) 19.5 cm, (f ) 15.11 cm, (g) 30.22
2. (a) 720 W, (b) 24.465 lps, (c) 15.86 cm, (d) cm, (h) 11.623o, (i) 22.36o
4.8 cm, (e) 1.54 cm, (f ) 14.38 cm, (g) 1.4cm, 8. (a) 4460 kW, (b) 4.2 m, (c) 1.47 m, (d) 100 rpm,
(h) 5, (i) 38.37o, (j) 73.6o, (k) 52o (e) 793, (f) 46.95 J/kg, (g) 21.61o, (h) 79.2o, (i)
3. (a) 28.2, (b) 1.2 m, (c) 3 jets, (d) 17.24 cm 19.65o, (j) 45.57o
[Alternate solutions: (a) 24.43, (b) 1.2 m, (c) 4 9. (a) 7.7 m3/s, (b) 304; (c) 353.16 J/kg, (d) 1.115
jets, (d) 14.93 cm] m; (e) 0.669 m; (f ) 26.3o, 19.38o, (g) 71.25o,
4. (a) 4886 kW, (b) 98%, (c) 92.3%, (d) 1.66 m3/s, 30.4o
(e) 28.73, (f) 16.2 cm 10. Head saved: 7.1 m; exit diameter in the second
5. (a) 1464 kW, (b) 522.873 J/kg, (c) 0.73, (d) case: 1.02 m; half cone angle: 3.72o; at 33oC,
92 cm, (e) 11.5 cm, (f ) 540 rpm, (g) 112, (h) the vapor pressure head is 0.5 m of water. At a
22.74o, (i) 95 cm, (j) 12 cm, (k) 0.88 saving of 7.5 m, the absolute pressure at exit of
6. (a) 634.9 kg/s, (b) 708.77 J/kg, (c) 49.22 cm, runner is 10 7.5 2.5 m, well above cavita-
(d) 24.61 cm, (e) 4.1 cm, (f ) 80.2o, (g) 37.8o tion limits, hence safe.
7 Centrifugal Pumps
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
v Study the construction, working, and application v Clearly understand the complete meaning of
of centrifugal pumps. the specification of the centrifugal pump, such
v Understand the various types of centrifugal as its maximum suction lift and net positive suc-
pumps and the terminology used in their tion head, in a given installation of the pump
practice. and the relevance of the terms.
v Clearly understand the different heads and v Know the need of priming of centrifugal pumps.
efficiencies that are generally employed to v Know under what circumstances the multiple
explain the use of centrifugal pumps. units of the pumps are used, either in parallel
v Correlate the efficiencies of centrifugal pump or in series.
with those that were specified earlier with v Design a pump given the required specifications
respect to any work-absorbing turbomachine. such as the head and the flow rate.
7.1 Introduction
A centrifugal pump is one of the versatile examples of turbomachines. Perhaps the smallest centrifugal pump
is the one that is employed in lifting water through a height of about 20 cm in a decorative water fall of a
household drawing hall, circulating hardly a few milliliters of water per second. The input to such a pump
could be in terms of a few milliwatts. On the higher side of the spectrum, there are centrifugal pumps for
applications such as city water-supply, pulp handling in pulp-and-paper industries, crude oil handling in oil
wells, etc. The power consumption of such pumps can be of the order of 1–1.5 MW per stage.
The subject matter in this chapter is the study of centrifugal pump, its constructional features, different
parts, its classification, and the various terms associated with its operation, such as minimum starting speed,
net positive suction head (NPSH), cavitation, priming, and so on.
Delivery valve
Delivery Casing Delivery
Priming
valve
Coupling
Impeller Motor
Shaft
Suction
Vanes Base
Bearings
Sump level
Foot-valve
D2
Ns Flow Pattern
D1
« 50 80 1.5 to 1.3 º
Medium ¬80 160 1.3 to 1.1 » Mixed flow
¼
2. Working head: The pumps are classified as low-head (up to 15 m), medium-head (15–40 m), and
high-head (above 40 m) pumps. As the head increases, the casing of the pump also has to participate
in the process of diffusion of kinetic energy into pressure energy. This means that diffuser blades
are to be provided in the casing as shown in Fig. 7.2. The diffuser blades are the fixed blades in
the casing, between the impeller and the volute casing, with their angles aligned with the absolute
exit velocity of water from the impeller. The divergent passages between the diffuser blades convert
kinetic energy into pressure energy of the water. The head generated is higher than that of the same
impeller at the same speed without the diffuser blades.
Centrifugal Pumps 277
Delivery
Diffuser blades
Impeller
Spiral casing
3. Type of casing: The casing can be of simple volute type or diffuser volute type. A third type of
casing is of “vane-less” diffuser type. Even without the diffuser blades, the area of flow increases with
increased radius, and the velocity decreases resulting in an increased pressure.
4. Type of impeller: Depending on the number of entries, the impeller can be either single-entry type
or double-entry type. The double-entry type is like two impellers kept back to back. Apart from
this, there are other types of impellers such as closed-type, semi-open-type, or open-type impellers.
The semi-open or open types are for applications such as sewage handling or handling of liquids
which may have solid particles, or handling heavy and highly viscous slurries, etc. These impellers
are shown in Fig. 7.3.
Back shroud
Vanes
Front
Hub
shroud
Eye
Figure 7.3 Schematic diagrams to show the types of impellers: (a) Closed type,
(b) semi-open type, and (c) open type (with stronger vanes).
5. Number of impellers: There can be two or more impellers on the same shaft. These are known as
multi-stage pumps, each stage having one impeller. The casing is so designed that the outlet from
one impeller is guided to the inlet of the next impeller.
6. The direction of flow: The pumps are of the radial flow type, mixed flow type and axial flow type
pumps, depending on the direction of flow of water in the impeller.
7. Type of material of construction: This classification depends on the material of construction such
as cast iron, alloy steel, or stainless steel, suitable for pumping water, corrosive chemicals, milk in the
dairy industry, etc.
The above classifications are summarized in Table 7.3.
278 Turbomachines
V 2d /2g
Vd hfd
hd
Pump
hs
pa
Sump
hfs
Foot-valve
Because the pump is required to work against the total of the static head, friction head, and delivery velocity
head, one can write
Vd2
Hm h hf
2g
Vd2
or H m hs hd hfs hfd (7.2)
2g
The head developed by the impeller is given by the Euler turbine equation, where the whirl component Vu1
is taken as zero. Hence
WE U 2Vu 2
HE (7.3)
g g
The difference between Hm and HE is the loss due to fluid friction, wall friction, eddies, etc. in the impeller.
Referring back to the power flow diagram of Chapter 1 (Fig. 1.9), it may be noted that the manometric head
Hm is the same as the output H, mentioned in the diagram. The net head Hn mentioned therein is the head
developed by the impeller, equal to (U2Vu2/g).
Pr
Hm (7.4)
Ps
Here, the shaft power is the input power supplied by the motor. Due to mechanical losses at the bearings,
the impeller or rotor gets slightly less power. The mechanical efficiencies of the pumps are of the order of
98–99%. Higher capacity pumps have higher mechanical efficiencies.
P wQH H
Hh (7.6)
Pn wQH n H n
where H is the head that is finally overcome by the pump, namely, the manometric head Hm given by
Vd2
H Hm h hf
2g
The denominator Hn in Eq. (7.6) is the head developed by the impeller. This is equivalent to the specific
work as per the Euler turbine equation:
WE U 2Vu2
Hn HE
g g
The difference between Hm and HE is due to (a) the fluid friction because of viscosity, (b) fluid-rotor friction,
and (c) non-ideal flow of liquid in the impellers. Hence
gH m
Hh
U 2Vu2
The hydraulic and manometric efficiencies are the same
gH m
Hmano (7.7)
U 2Vu2
Centrifugal Pumps 281
The manometric efficiency depends on the viscosity of liquids being pumped, the surface finish of the blades
and shrouds, etc. The usual values of manometric efficiencies are of the order of 85–94%.
water is the fluid, the head created is x meters of water; if gasoline is the fluid, the head created is x meters of
gasoline; and if mercury is the fluid, the head created is x meters of mercury. In all the cases, the impeller is
the same, the speed is the same, and therefore, the numerical value of x ( U2 Vu2/g) is the same. But x meters
of water, x meters of gasoline, or x meters of mercury are not equal to one another. Hence, the pressure
created is different for different fluids (depending on their densities) for the same impeller running at the
same speed. As a result, the power inputs for different fluids are different. In contrast, if the output pressure
generated is the same, with different fluids giving rise to different fluid columns, then the other parameters
(D2, A2, N, W ) may be different.
With the background of this discussion, the characteristic curves of the “head created” and the “pressure
created” on the base of the flow rate can be different, but qualitatively the curves may still be of the same
nature.
EXAMPLE 7.1
The blade angles at the inlet and outlet of the impeller of a centrifugal pump are 55o and 75o, and the
corresponding diameters are 3 cm and 6 cm, respectively. The blade width at the outlet is 0.75 cm. The
speed is 1500 rpm. The entry of water is radial without any whirl component. The flow component of
fluid velocity remains constant in the impeller. Draw the velocity triangles and calculate (a) the specific
work, (b) rate of flow, (c) power of the machine, and (d) the manometric head. The hydraulic efficiency
may be taken as 0.85.
Vr1 V2
Vr2
V1
=Vf1
=Vf2
EXAMPLE 7.2
The impeller of a centrifugal pump has the inlet and outlet diameters of 6 cm and 18 cm, respectively,
with the blades bent backward at 70o to the wheel tangent at the outlet. The blade width at the outlet is
3 cm. The speed of the pump is 1000 rpm and the flow rate of water is 0.125 m3/s. The volute casing is
designed to recover 25% of the outlet velocity head of the impeller. The losses in the impeller are equiva-
lent to 20% of the velocity head at the outlet. The flow component is constant in the impeller and the
entry of water is without any whirl component. Calculate (a) the pressure rise, (b) manometric efficiency
of the pump, (c) power, and (d) specific speed.
Solution: Given D1 0.06 m, D2 0.18 m, A2 70o, B2 0.03 m, N 1000 rpm, Q 0.125 m3/s.
V22
Recovery 25% of
2g
V22
Loss 20% of
2g
V1 Vf1 Vf2 , A1 90o, Vu1 0
To calculate $P, Gmano, P, Ns.
The blade velocity at inlet is
P D1N P s 0.06 s 1000
U1 3.1416 m/s
60 60
The blade velocity at outlet is
U 2 U1 s 3 9.4248 m /s
The volume flow rate is
Q P D2 B2Vf2
P s 0.18 s 0.03 s Vf2
0.125
Therefore
Vf2 7.368 m /s Vf1 V1
The velocity triangle at outlet is drawn as in Fig. 7.6.
V2
Vr2
9.988
b2 70°
Vu2 = 6.7428
U2 = 9.4248
We have that
Vf2
U 2 Vu2
tan 70o
7.368
Vu 2 U 2 9.4248 2.682 6.7428 m/s
tan 70o
The velocity at exit is
V2 Vu2 Vf22 6.74282 7.3682 9.988 m/s
EXAMPLE 7.3
A centrifugal pump is driven by an induction motor at 960 rpm. The flow rate of water is 50 lps against
a head of 10 m. The flow velocity is constant at 6.5 m/s through the impeller. The blades are radial at the
outlet and the losses are estimated as 15% of the output. Assume that water enters the rotor at @1 90o.
Calculate (a) tip diameter of the impeller, (b) width of the blades at the outlet, (c) fluid delivery angle,
(d) power, and (e) specific speed.
Solution: Given N 960 rpm, Q 50 lps, Hm 10 m, Vf1 Vf2 V1 6.5 m/s, A2 90o, losses
15%, @1 90o. To calculate D2, B2, @2, P, Ns. The outlet velocity triangle can be drawn because
A2 ( 90o) and Vf2 ( 6.5) are known as per data. It is as shown in Fig. 7.7. (At this stage, U2 is not known,
and it will be known in the next two steps.)
V2
Vr2
=Vf2
= 6.5
b2 = 90°
a2
U2 = 10.74
EXAMPLE 7.4
The power input to a centrifugal pump is 50 kW at the shaft while running the pump at 1440 rpm. The
impeller tip diameter is 30 cm and the blade width at the tip is 1.5 cm. The water flow rate is 110 lps. The
vacuum gauge reading at the suction flange is –20 cm of mercury and at delivery flange the pressure gauge
reading is 370 kPa. The blade outlet angle is 65o. A 2% slip (L 0.98) may be assumed. Calculate the (a)
theoretical head, (b) ideal head, (c) hydraulic efficiency, (d) mechanical efficiency, (e) overall efficiency,
and (f ) specific speed of the pump. Assume radial entry and constant flow velocity.
Solution: Given shaft power 50 kW, N 1440 rpm, D2 0.30 m, B2 0.015 m, Q 0.11 m3/s,
p1 –20 cm of mercury, p2 371 kPa, A2 65o, L 0.98, Gm 0.96. To calculate HE, Hi, Gh, Go, Ns.
We know that
Q P D2 B2Vf2
288 Turbomachines
Q 0.11
Vf2 7.78 m/s
P D2 B2 (P s 0.3 s 0.015)
The peripheral blade velocity at outlet is
P D2 N P s 0.3 s 1440
U2 22.62 m/s
60 60
The velocity triangle at outlet is shown in Fig. 7.8.
V2
Vr1
Vf2
= 7.78
65° b2
U2 = 22.62
We have
Vf2 7.78
Vu 2 U 2 22.62 18.99 m/s
tan B2 tan 65o
(a) Theoretical head or Euler head is
U 2Vu 2 22.62 s 18.99
HE 43.787 m of water
g 9.81
(b) The ideal head is
H i H E s M 43.787 s 0.98 42.91 m of water
(c) Now, to calculate the hydraulic efficiency, we have
Manometric head (H m ) Exit head Inlet head
370 kPa ( 20 cm of mercury)
37 ( 0.2 s 13.6 )
39.72 m of water
42.9
9810 s 0.11 s
1000 46.29 92.58%
50 50
(e) The overall efficiency is
N Q 1440 s 0.11
Ns 3 / 4
(Here H H m ) 30.18
H 39.720.75
EXAMPLE 7.5
The inlet and outlet diameters of the impeller of a centrifugal pump are 30 and 80 cm, respectively. The
width of the impeller at the outlet is 12 cm. While running at 600 rpm, the pump delivers 3.89 m3/s at a
head of 42 m of water. The water enters the impeller radially. The velocity of flow of water in the impeller
is constant. The manometric efficiency of the pump is 85%. Calculate the blade angles at the inlet and
outlet and the power of the driving motor if the mechanical efficiency is 97.5%.
P D2 N P s 0.8 s 600
U2 25.133 m/s
60 60
Also, for volume flow rate, we have
P D2 B2Vf2 Q
Therefore, the flow velocity is
Q 3.89
Vf2 12.898 m/s
P D2 B2 P s 0.8 s 0.12
Vr1 V2
V1 = Vf1 Vr2
12.898
b1 b2
U1 = 9.425 U2 = 25.133
We have
Hm gH m
Hmano
HE U 2Vu 2
Therefore
gH m 9.81 s 42
Vu 2 19.287 m/s
U 2 s Hmano 25.133 s 0.85
Blade angle at the inlet is, from the inlet triangle,
B1 tan 1 (12.898/9.425) 53.84o
Blade angle at the outlet is, from outlet triangle,
1 12.898
B2 tan 65.62o
(25.133 19.287 )
Theoretical head or Euler head is
Hm 42
HE 49.41 m
Hmano 0.85
Power developed in the rotor is
49.41
P wQH E 9810 s 3.89 s 1885.53 kW
1000
So
1885.53 1885.53
Power of the driving motor 1933.877 kW
Hm 0.975
the water just starts flowing. Further, since the water also starts having its velocities such as V1, V2, Vr1,
and Vr2 in the impeller, the head developed in the impeller picks up and becomes equal to the manometric
head.
The minimum speed at which the pump just starts to deliver the water against the specified manomet-
ric head is known as the minimum starting speed of the pump. The water can be delivered only when the
centrifugal head equals and exceeds the manometric head at the installation. Thus, at the minimum starting
speed N, we have
(U 22 U12 )
r Hm
2g
2
¥ PN ´ 2
¦§ µ ( D2 D12 )
60 ¶
r Hm
2g
1/ 2
¨ 2 g s H s 3600 ·
N r © 2 2m 2 ¸ (7.9)
ª P ( D2 D1 ) ¹
EXAMPLE 7.6
A centrifugal pump has its impeller with inlet and outlet diameters of 35 cm and 70 cm, respectively. It is
used in a setup with a manometric head of 28 m. Determine its minimum starting speed.
If the atmospheric head is ha and the frictional head in the suction pipe is hfs , then the maximum possible
height up to which the water can be pushed up in the suction pipe is ha – hfs – Vs2 / 2 g . This is termed the
maximum suction lift (MSL), given by
V s2
MSL ha hfs
2g
One more parameter affects this expression. At any point in the suction pipe, above the level of water in the
sump, the pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure. As the point under consideration moves up, the
pressure at that point gets reduced. At some point, the pressure may reach the vapor pressure of the liquid
at the prevailing temperature. Then the liquid may start to vaporize and the continuity of the body of the
liquid may be disturbed due to the vapor bubbles, so formed. In order to avoid such occurrence, the vapor
pressure head hv also has to be subtracted from the MSL and the expression becomes
V s2
MSL ha hfs hv (7.10)
2g
It may be observed that many factors affect the value of MSL:
1. Altitude of the location of the pump: The higher the altitude above the mean sea level, the lower the ha.
2. Suction pipe parameters: The smoothness of surface, total length, pipe fittings, etc., affect hfs. The
frictional loss in the pipe increases with the surface roughness, length, pipe fittings, and loss in the
Foot-valve.
3. Velocity of water in the suction pipe: The larger the diameter, the lower the velocity, and hence,
the lower the loss.
4. Ambient temperature at the location: This affects hv. As the local temperature increases, the vapor
pressure head also increases.
A schematic diagram, shown in Fig. 7.10, indicates that a pump centerline can be at a height equal to the
MSL above the sump water level. If the pump is installed at still higher levels, the vapor bubbles are sure
to occur in the suction line. Continuous occurrence of such bubbles and their accumulation may cause the
absence of liquid water in the impeller, and may eventually result in the complete stoppage of the pumping
action. Hence, the upper limit of suction head hs is the MSL.
Barometer
hv
hfs
V 2s /2g Upper limiting position of pump
NPSH
ha
Any Maximum
MSL position suction
of pump hs lift
pa
Sump
level
The suction head, hs, can always be less than the MSL for the safe working of the pump. In such a case, the
difference between the MSL and hs ensures that the pump is really working in safe limits. At this juncture,
another parameter is identified as (MSL – hs ) or “Net Positive Suction Head” (NPSH) given by
NPSH MSL hs
V s2
NPSH ha hfs hv hs (7.11)
2g
The value of NPSH is a sort of guarantee for the safe working of a pump. The factors that affect the value of
the MSL, naturally, affect the value of the NPSH also. The lower values of the suction head, hs, indicate the
higher values of the NPSH, which is better for the working of the pump.
EXAMPLE 7.7
A centrifugal pump is installed at a site where the atmospheric pressure and temperature are 100 kPa and
35oC, respectively. The pump has a maximum flow rate of 40 lps of water. The suction pipe of diameter
10 cm is 8 m long. The friction factor of the pipe is 0.005. The resistance of Foot-valve and other pipe
fittings together is equivalent to 2 m length of the suction pipe. Determine the maximum height above
the water level in the sump, where the pump can be installed. If the pump is actually installed 2.5 m above
the sump water level, find the NPSH.
¦§ 4 µ¶
7.10 Cavitation
Cavitation is a phenomenon that starts in the low-pressure regions in liquids, adjacent or close to the solid
surfaces. If the low pressure is equal to or less than the vapor pressure of the liquid at the prevailing tempera-
ture, the liquid starts vaporizing. The vapor bubbles are formed on the solid surfaces. When, due to eddies
and turbulence, the higher pressure liquid comes adjacent to such vapor bubbles, the pressure in the bubbles
also increases and the vapor condenses. The bubbles collapse and the surrounding liquid rushes from all the
directions to occupy the space vacated by the condensing vapors. This generates very high localized pressures
on the surfaces, enough to even chip off the metal particles and cause pits and cavities. The overall process
is called pitting or cavitation.
Such cavitation occurs over a large number of points on a surface. It is accompanied by the vibrations due
to the collapse of vapor bubbles and rush of water from all around occurring at a number of points.
Cavitation, even from its starting, causes the loss of surface finish, and therefore increases losses. This reduces
the efficiency of the machine. Continuous cavitation can cause even complete mechanical failure of the parts.
Cavitation can occur in the low-pressure regions of the centrifugal pumps on the suction side. At the sur-
face of the rotor blades, the water enters at low pressures. The energy from the blades is soon transferred to
water. The process of formation of bubbles (due to the low pressures) and then their collapse (due to transfer
of energy from impeller blades) is the onset of cavitation at the blade surfaces.
In Fig. 7.11 the suction pipe of a centrifugal pump is shown. In this figure, the point of the inlet to the
impeller from the suction pipe is at a height hs meters above the free surface level of water in the sump. If hs is
equal to the MSL of Fig. 7.10, the cavitation is just about to start; if hs is more than the MSL, the cavitation is
sure to occur; and if hs is less than the MSL, then there is a NPSH, guaranteeing that there is no cavitation.
Cavitation is not a desirable phenomenon. Efforts to avoid cavitation can be made by preventing the for-
mation of low-pressure regions by installing the pump at the level or below the level of sump, and providing
smooth pipes for the suction, avoiding or reducing the pipe fittings such as bends. Cavitation damage can
also be controlled by the use of high-strength materials (e.g., cast iron, cast steel, stainless steel, etc.).
Possibility
of cavitation
hear
Pump inlet
hs Suction pipe
pa
Sump level
7.11 Priming
Priming is the process of filling up the space in the suction pipe, impeller and casing by the same liquid as
the one required to be pumped, before starting the pump. Unless the liquid exists in the body of the impel-
ler, the impeller cannot create the head in terms of the column of that liquid even while running. Both the
non-return valve (foot-valve) and the priming valve make it easier to prime the pump in the beginning.
7.12.1 Pumps-in-Series
This method is to meet the requirements of high heads and is shown in Fig. 7.12. The figure shows the
schematic layout [Fig. 7.12(a)] and the characteristics of two identical pumps in series [Fig. 7.12(b)]. The
resulting head, curve y, represents the values that are twice the head of a single pump, curve x. Pumps of
different heads can also be operated in series, with a condition that the rated flow-capacities must be equal.
In such a case, the heads are additive. In the case of pumps-in-series, individual pumps cannot be stopped
or withdrawn from the total system.
Multi-stage pumps with several impellers mounted on the same shaft and outlet from one impeller leading to
the inlet of the next impeller are actually pumps-in-series. These are suitable for applications such as pumping of
water to overhead tanks of high-rise buildings, boiler-feed pumps, deep-well pumps, pumps for oil rigs, etc.
Q
(a) (b)
Figure 7.12 (a) Schematic view of two identical pumps in series;(b) Characteristic of combined operation.
7.12.2 Pumps-in-Parallel
This method is to meet the requirements of large flow-rates and is shown in Fig. 7.13(a). The schematic
layout shows two identical pumps operating in parallel. The characteristic of the combined operation is also
shown in Fig. 7.13(b).
296 Turbomachines
x y
Q
(a) (b)
The resulting flow rate, curve y, represents the values that are twice the flow rate of a single pump, curve x.
Pumps of different flow rates can also be operated in parallel, with a condition that the heads must be equal.
The flow rates in such a case are additive. Individual pumps can be stopped or withdrawn from the system.
The other pumps can continue the pumping.
EXAMPLE 7.8
A number of centrifugal pumps are available, with specifications of the one in Example 7.3, namely,
Q 50 lps, Hm 10 m, and N 960 rpm. Calculate the number of pumps required to meet a demand of
Hm 30 m of water and flow rate of 150 lps. Sketch the arrangement.
Solution: When three pumps, each of Hm 10 m, are connected in series, the total head becomes
30 m, but the flow rate is only 50 lps through the three pumps. In order to get 150 lps, therefore, three
such assemblies are required in parallel. Hence, the total number of pumps required are 3 s 3 9. This
assembly is shown in Fig. 7.14.
Comments: This example is only to illustrate the principle of series and parallel operation of pumps. The
answer, in principle, is quite alright. However, the installation (piping with various fittings) and operation
(head loss, during running, in all the pipes) can make the layout quite complicated. Suppose a new single
pump is to be designed for 30 m, 150 lps (and say 1440 rpm), the specific speed is 43.5, and a compact
pump can be designed, with total power of, approximately, 50 kW.
EXAMPLE 7.9
The outlet diameter of the impeller of a centrifugal pump is restricted to 25 cm and width at the
outlet to 1.5 cm. The blade angle at the outlet is 60o. The drive to the pump is from a motor at 1440
rpm. Find the number of identical stages required to pump water to a water tube boiler, operating at
4 MPa. The capacity of the boiler is 60 kg/s. The hydraulic efficiency of the pump is 80%. The entry
of water to the impeller is radial, without any whirl component and the flow component remains
constant in the impeller. If the overall efficiency of the setup is 75%, find the power of the motor to
drive the pump.
U2 = 18.85
Now
Vf2
Vu2 U 2
tan B2
5.1
18.85 18.85 2.944
tan 60o
15.91 m/s
298 Turbomachines
EXAMPLE 7.10
It is proposed to design a pump to have a flow rate of 2 m3/s at a head of 30 m of water. The usual efficien-
cies that are assumed are as follows: Mechanical efficiency 0.98 and manometric efficiency 0.88. The
usual speed (in rpm) to be adopted is 2880, 1440, 960, 735, or 590. (These are rpm of induction motors.)
Assuming that the blade inlet angle is 45o and the outlet angle is 65o, find the possible dimensions of the
impeller. The entry of water to the impeller is radial.
Generally, up to Ns b 105, the pumps are radial flow pumps; for 100 Ns 210, the pumps are mixed
flow pumps; and for Ns 200, the pumps are axial flow pumps.
Presently, therefore, the possible speeds are 960, 735, and 590. Also select D2/D1 2.
As per data, A1 45o which implies U1 V1 Vf1 Vf2 U2/2
The general form of the exit velocity triangle is shown in Fig. 7.16.
V2
Vr2
Vf2
= U2/2
b2 = 65°
U2 = 20.884
Figure 7.16 Outlet velocity triangle.
Vf2
Vu2 U 2
tan B2
U2
U2
2 tan 65o
U2
U2
4.289
¥ 1 ´
U 2 ¦1 µ
§ 4.289 ¶
0.7668 U 2
Therefore
300 Turbomachines
U 2 s 60
D2 N 398.855
P
Select N and workout further details. See Table 7.5.
Table 7.5
The alternate designs can be one of the above three speeds: 960 rpm, 735 rpm, or 590 rpm.
The specific speed 316.8 (N 2880) belongs to the design of axial flow pump and that of 158.4
(N 1440) belongs to the design of mixed flow pump.
K eywords
Impeller Mechanical efficiency
Casing Volumetric efficiency
Blade angles Hydraulic efficiency
Suction pipe Manometric efficiency
Delivery pipe Overall efficiency
Foot valve Velocity triangles
Delivery valve Radial entry
Specific speed Radial vanes at outlet
Multi-stage pumps Slip
Static suction head Losses
Static delivery head Energy flow
Friction head Maximum suction lift
Dynamic head Net positive suction head
Manometric head Cavitation
Euler head Priming
Ideal head Series operation
Developed head Parallel operation
Centrifugal Pumps 301
S ummary
1. Different parts of pumps are (a) motor (power 5. Cavitation is due to low pressures, less than
source); (b) shaft; (c) bearings (support); (d) vapor pressure of water,
impeller (energy transfer); (e) casing (spiral/ 6. Priming is filling of pump with water (same
volute/diffusion); (f ) delivery pipe; (g) suction liquid as being pumped).
pipe; (h) Foot-valve (non-return); (i) priming 7. The performances of pumps, when work-
valve; (j) delivery valve; (k) base. ing in series or in parallel, have been consid-
2. Classification of centrifugal pumps is based on ered taking into account their head-capacity
(a) specific speed; (b) head; (c) casing; (d) impeller; characteristics as also their applications.
(e) direction of liquid flow; (f ) applications; 8. In-series: Heads are additive, Q is same.
(g) multi-staging. 9. In-parallel: Flow rates are additive, H is same;
3. A variety of heads in the practice of centrifugal any pump can be isolated/disconnected.
pumps have been considered, followed by the 10. It may be mentioned here that the effects of
various efficiencies (hs, hd, hfs, hfd, Hm, Gm, variation of the blade outlet angle on the reac-
Gh Gmano, Gv). tion and the energy transfer have already been
4. A number of performance parameters have also studied earlier in Chapter 4, including the
been studied, such as the minimum starting speed overall performance of the pump.
(MSS), maximum suction lift (MSL), net positive
suction head (NPSH), cavitation, and priming.
I mportant E quations
1. Specific speed gH m
7. Hmano
N Q U 2Vu 2
Ns
H 3/ 4
8. Ho Hmano s Hv s Hm
Vd2
2. H m hs hd hfs hfd
2g 9. Minimum starting speed
WE U 2Vu 2 1/ 2
3. H E ¨ 2 g s H s 3600 ·
g g N r © 2 2m 2 ¸
ª P ( D2 D1 ) ¹
Pr
4. Hm
Ps V s2
10. MSL ha hfs hv
2g
m
5. Hv
m $m V s2
11. NPSH ha hfs hv hs
P wQH H 2g
6. Hh
Pn wQH n H n
302 Turbomachines
15. Taking that all the centrifugal pumps are well 18. When the centrifugal pumps work in
designed, their overall efficiency parallel,
(a) increases as the specific speed increases (a) their heads are additive
(b) decreases as the specific speed increases (b) their flow rates are additive
(c) does not depend on the specific speed (c) both (a) and (b)
(d) none of these (d) none of these
16. For a constant manometric head, the minimum 19. When centrifugal pumps have to work in
starting speed of a pump series,
(a) increases as the outlet diameter of the impeller (a) their heads have to be equal
increases (b) their flow rates have to be equal
(b) decreases as the outlet diameter of the impeller (c) both their heads and flow rates have to be
increases equal
(c) does not depend on the outlet diameter of the (d) none of these
impeller 20. When pumps have to work in parallel,
(d) none of these (a) their heads have to be equal
17. When the centrifugal pumps work in series, (b) their flow rates have to be equal
(a) their heads are additive (c) both their heads and flow rates have to be
(b) their flow rates are additive equal
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
(d) none of these
R eview Q uestions
1. With a neat diagram, explain the construction 7. Define the maximum suction lift. State the
and working of a centrifugal pump. expression to calculate it. What factors affect
(Refer Section 7.3) its values? (Refer Section 7.9)
2. List the parts of a centrifugal pump, mention- 8. Define the NPSH, as referred to the installa-
ing their functions in each case. (Table 7.1) tion of a centrifugal pump. State an expression
3. How are centrifugal pumps classified? What to find its value. What factors affect its values?
are the basic criteria for the classification? Which one is desirable, a high NPSH or a low
(Refer Section 7.4, with Table 7.3) NPSH? (Refer Section 7.9)
4. With a neat diagram, show the different heads 9. What is cavitation? Explain the phenomenon
that are used in the study of the centrifugal of cavitation. State some methods of
pump. (Refer Section 7.5) eliminating or reducing cavitation.
5. Define the different efficiencies as the perfor- (Refer Section 7.10)
mance criteria of centrifugal pumps. List the 10. Explain the process of priming of pumps. Why
factors that influence the values of such effi- is it required? (Refer Section 7.11)
ciencies. (Refer Section 7.6) 11. Why multiple pumps are required? Under what
6. Define the minimum starting speed of a cen- circumstances, do we use multiple pumps?
trifugal pump. Derive an expression to calculate Write a note on operation of multiple pumps.
the minimum starting speed. (Refer Section 7.8) (Refer Section 7.12)
304 Turbomachines
E xercises
1. The diameters of the impeller of a centrifugal is required. The overall efficiency is estimated
pump are 20 cm and 40 cm at the inlet as 80%. Calculate the power output of the
and outlet, respectively. The blades of the motor driving the pump, if f 0.009, and
impeller are bent backward at an angle the specific speed of the pump if the speed is
of 40o at the outlet. The radial velocity 1440 rpm.
of flow is constant at 6.8 m/s. The water 5. The diameters of the impeller of a centrifugal
enters the impeller in the radial direc- pump are 0.4 and 1.0 m at the inlet and outlet,
tion. The total head to overcome is 61.5 m respectively. The speed is 300 rpm. The outlet
of water. The speed is 1440 rpm. Calculate angle of the blades is 30o. The radial compo-
the following: (a) Blade angle at the inlet, nent of velocity is constant and is equal to 6.5
(b) angle and magnitude of outlet velocity, m/s. The head across the impeller is 6 m, and
(c) specific work, (d) manometric efficiency, the flow rate of water is 1 m3/s. Calculate (a)
and (e) power required to drive the pump if hydraulic efficiency, (b) power required to drive
the width of the impeller passage at the outlet the pump. (c) Also determine the minimum
is 2 cm and the overall efficiency is 88%. starting speed.
2. The blades of the impeller of a centrifugal 6. The head measured at the outlet flange of
pump are bent backward at 35o to the tangent a centrifugal pump is 20 m of water above
of the wheel rim. The outer diameter of the that at the inlet. The flow rate is 0.09 m3/s.
impeller is 30 cm and the speed is 980 rpm. The impeller diameters are 20 and 40 cm.
The measured head across the inlet and outlet The blades are bent backward with an angle
of the pump is 15 m. Find (a) loss of head in of 40o at the outlet. The width of the impel-
the impeller (b) hydraulic efficiency. (c) Also ler at the outlet is 20 mm. The losses in the
calculate the power required to drive the pump impeller are 1.5 m, and the gain in the diffuser
if the flow rate is 15 kg/s. The entry of water is blades is 3.5 m. The entry of water is radial.
radial and the flow velocity remains constant at The flow velocity remains constant in the
3.5 m/s. impeller. Calculate the following: (a) Head at
3. In a performance test of a centrifugal pump, the outlet of the impeller, (b) head developed
it was found that the maximum efficiency by the impeller, (c) hydraulic or manometric
occurred when the flow rate was 45 lps, at a efficiency, (d) speed, and (e) angle of the dif-
head of 30 m, while running at 1440 rpm. The fuser blades.
impeller diameter of the pump was 28 cm. 7. A pump is required to be designed for a flow
Calculate the number of similar stages and the of 0.1 m3/s at a manometric head of 60 m.
diameter of the impeller of a multi-stage unit A manometric efficiency of 85% and a
to deliver 85 lps against a head of 130 m at a mechanical efficiency of 95% can be assumed.
speed of 960 rpm. The effect of the vane thickness is to reduce the
4. The vertical height of the outlet of the delivery flow area by 10%. The proposed speed is 1500
pipe of a centrifugal pump is 22 m, above the rpm. The velocity of flow remains constant at
centerline of the pump. The length of the 2.5 m/s and the blade angle at the outlet is
delivery pipe is 32 m, including the effective 55o. If a three-stage unit is preferred, calculate
lengths of all the pipe fittings, and its diam- the following: (a) Impeller diameter, (b) width
eter is 7.5 cm. The suction side head and the of impeller at the outlet, and (c) overall powe
losses are negligible. A flow rate of 1500 lps required to drive the pump.
Centrifugal Pumps 305
8. In a centrifugal pump, the width of the impeller 29oC, and barometer reading 10.01 m of
passage is 2.5 cm at the outer diameter of 45 water. Calculate the following: (a) Manometric
cm. The thickness of blades in the impeller head, (b) head developed in the impeller, (c)
accounts for 10% reduction in the flow area. power drawn by the pump, and (d) NPSH.
The manometric efficiency is 82%, and the 10. A centrifugal pump delivers 0.04 m3 of
overall efficiency is 78%. The whirl velocity water per second through a vertical height
at the exit is 24 m/s. The speed is 1440 rpm. of 35 m. The suction and delivery pipes
Calculate the following: (a) Head generated, are of equal diameter of 10 cm, and their
(b) flow rate, (c) exit vane angle, and (d) total length inclusive of effects of pipe fit-
power required to drive the pump. tings is 55 m. The pipe friction coefficient f
9. The following observations were recorded is 0.006. In the impeller, the blade width at
during a trial in a centrifugal pump installation. the outlet is 1/10th of the diameter, and the
Static suction head 5.3 m, static delivery head thickness of blades accounts for 8% of loss
26 m, frictional loss of head in suction pipe of flow area. The blades are bent backward,
1 m, frictional loss of head in delivery pipe making an angle of 65o with the wheel tan-
6.3 m, diameter of suction pipe 10 cm, gent. The hydraulic efficiency is 80% and
diameter of delivery pipe 7.5 cm, flow rate the specific speed is 30. Calculate the fol-
0.045 m3/s, manometric efficiency 82%, lowing: (a) Manometric head, (b) speed, and
overall efficiency 76%, room temperature (c) impeller diameter.
A nswers
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. (c) 3. (b)
2. (b) 4. (d)
306 Turbomachines
Exercises
1. (a) 24.27o, (b) 17.13o and 23.08 m/s, 7. (a) 20.5 cm, (b) 6.2 cm, (c) 72.89 kW
(c) 665.35 J/kg, (d) 90.68%, (e) 129.2 kW 8. (a) 83 m, (b) 0.25447 m3/s, (c) 38.86o,
2. (a) 1.31 m, (b) 92%, (c) 2.4 kW (d) 265.6 kW
3. 5, 39.62 cm 9. (a) 43.888 m, (b) 53.522 m, (c) 25.493 kW,
4. 14.92 kW, 12.35 (d) 1.63656 m
5. (a) 84.16%, (b) 80.23 kW, (c)226 rpm 10. (a) 53.772 m, (b) 2978.6 rpm, (c) 17.2 cm
6. (a) 16.5 m, (b) 18 m, (c) 91.67%, (d) 744.5 rpm,
(e) 17.55o
8 Fans, Blowers, and
Compressors
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
v Understand the constructional and working v Understand the mechanism of diffusion of
features of radial and axial flow compressors. velocity to create pressure and hence find the
v Analyze the working of radial and axial flow diffusion efficiency in radial and axial flow
compressors. compressors.
v Identify the factors influencing the working of v Understand the phenomena of surging,
radial and axial flow compressors. choking, and stalling as they occur in the
v Find the influences of various parameters on the process of compression in radial and axial
performance of radial and axial flow compressors. flow compressors.
8.1 Introduction
Power-absorbing turbomachines that handle gaseous or compressible fluids, such as air, ammonia, freons,
etc., are classified as fans, blowers, and compressors on the basis of the pressure ratios they create.
1. The pressure ratios of fans hardly exceed 1.07 (i.e., a few centimeters of water). Fans are used to
supply air for circulation or ventilation.
2. Blowers have their pressure ratios of the order of 1.5–2. Blowers are used to provide air for ventilation
of large areas, to supply combustion air to the furnaces, to fluidize combustion beds, and so on.
3. Compressors create the overall pressure ratios of the order of about 2.5–10. Compressors are
employed to circulate refrigerants in refrigeration plants of large sizes and to supply compressed air
to the combustion chambers of gas turbine power plants or aircraft engines.
Blowers and compressors are of two types: (a) Radial flow type and (b) axial flow type. Adoption of multiple
stages in radial flow type machines involves some constructional complexities. Axial flow type machines can
be arranged in multiple stages very easily, with less cost. Their working is with low losses and high efficien-
cies. Multi-stage axial flow compressors (AFCs) are very compact and are best suited for turboengines of
aircrafts. Their pressure ratios are of the order of 6–8, sometimes even up to 10.
Unlike centrifugal pumps, blowers and compressors are run at high speeds to increase the mass flow rates.
Especially, the compressors employed in gas turbine plants are directly coupled to turbines and therefore the
speeds can reach as high as 30000 rpm or more, thus increasing their air-handling capacities.
section is provided in the radial blades, as shown, to avoid entry shocks. At the outlet of the impeller, there
is a diffuser ring with diffuser blades. When the fluid flows through the passages between these diffuser
blades, its velocity is converted into its pressure. Even without the blades, due to the increased diameter
and increased area of flow, the passage acts as a diffuser. Such a passage is known as a vaneless diffuser. The
fluid further flows into a volute casing to finally enter the delivery pipe. The volute casing has continuously
increasing area of flow. The fluid enters the volute casing from the entire periphery of the impeller. Hence,
the increase of area of flow in the volute casing is to accommodate the incremental flow of fluid from around
the impeller, so that the velocity of fluid does not vary in the volute casing. Alternately, if the rate of increase
of area is more than the rate required to maintain a constant velocity, then, the casing may further contribute
to the diffusion of velocity into the increase of pressure.
Delivery
Inducer
section
Shaft
Impeller
vanes
Diffuser vanes
Volute casing
V1 Vr1 V1 Vr1 V
1
Vr1 V
1
Vr1
a
b (b1)a (b1)b (b1)c (b1)d
c
d U1a U1b U1c U1d
Now, the impeller shown in Fig. 8.1 or Fig. 8.2, has the inlet section or “eye” with a diameter corresponding
to the point “a”. The effect of variation of this diameter is to be considered in some details.
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 309
In any velocity triangle of Fig. 8.2, at any radius such as at a, b, c or d, the following equation holds:
Vr12 U 12 V 12
In this equation,
2
¥ PD N ´
U 12 ¦ 1 µ
§ 60 ¶
2
¥ 4Q ´
and V 12 ¦ 2 2 µ
§ P ( D1 Dh )¶
In these equations for U12 and V12, D1 is the impeller eye diameter corresponding to point “a” and Dh is the
hub diameter. It is seen that, when D1 is increased, the quantity corresponding to U 12 increases and the
quantity corresponding to V 12 decreases in the expression for Vr12
For the specified or constant values of the flow rate Q, hub diameter Dh and speed N, if the differential of
Vr1 with respect to D1 (i.e., d Vr1 /dD1) is equated to zero, a value of D1 is obtained for which Vr1 is a minimum.
This means that at any value of D1, other than this value, Vr1 is more than the minimum possible value. It is
desirable to adopt this value of D1 for the diameter of the eye as its optimum diameter, during the design process
to get a minimum Vr1, for the following reason: Compressors generally have very high speeds. Hence, along
with blade velocities, the fluid and relative velocities also have very high values. In the process, if the values of
relative velocity Vr1 approach the sonic velocity (or exceed it), then there is the possibility (or certainty) of occur-
rence of shocks or shock waves at the inlet of the impeller. This is not desirable because such shock waves give
rise to discontinuities in the flow field of the fluid, further resulting in losses. It is desirable, therefore, to have as
low a value of Vr1 as possible for the specified conditions of the flow rate, speed, temperature, etc.
Apart from deciding upon the optimum value of D1 to get minimum Vr1, a second method to reduce
Vr1 is to use inlet guide vanes (IGV) so as to shift the fluid flow at an angle and introduce a pre-whirl in the
direction of the blade velocity. In Fig. 8.3(a), the inlet velocity V1 is axial, without the presence of IGV. In
Fig. 8.3(b), the inlet velocity triangle is with the presence of inlet guide vanes (IGV) to direct the flow so that
the inlet velocity V1 is at the designed angle. The result is that Vr1 gets reduced. In Fig. 8.3(b), it looks as if
the base of the velocity triangle, U1, is shifted backward, keeping the vertex at the same point.
The pre-whirl, so introduced, reduces the specific work, by a quantity which is equal to U1Vu1 (whereas,
without the inlet guide vanes, this U1Vu1 would be zero). But the undesirable effects of shocks are avoided.
It may also be mentioned here that in multi-stage units, the first stage is more like later stages because of the
pre-whirl. In later stages the pre-whirl is likely to exist (or, designed so) due to the preceding stages.
V2
Vr1 V1 Vr1
V1 Vr2
b2 = 90°
a1 = 90°
U1 U1 U2
(a) (c)
U1
(b)
With IGV Without IGV
Figure 8.3 Velocity triangles for an RFC: (a) Inlet tip, (b) inlet tip with and without the presence of inlet
guide vanes (IGV), (c) outlet: A2 90o.
310 Turbomachines
Shown in Fig. 8.3(c) is the outlet velocity triangle. At the outlet, because the blades are radial, A2 90o, the
whirl component of the fluid velocity becomes equal to the blade velocity, that is, Vu2 U2. Hence, the work
done on the fluid can be stated as follows, from Euler’s equation (changing the negative sign)
U 2Vu2 U 22
WE (without IGV ) (8.1a)
gc gc
U 22 U1Vu1
and WE (with IGV ) (8.1b)
gc gc
In Chapter 4, topics on general velocity triangles, effects of the blade outlet angle A2 on the specific work,
degree of reaction, the slip, the losses, the head capacity relationship, and the performance characteristics
were studied. All these topics may be recalled for this chapter also.
Although the general analysis includes the variation of outlet blade angle A2, it may be mentioned here
that in RFCs, the exit blade angle is almost always 90o, that is, the blades are radial at the outlet. In fact,
the entire blade is radial, with an inducer section at the inlet to accommodate the axial flow of fluid and to
avoid the entry shocks.
E p02
02 02
p01
01
s
The denominator WE U22/gc is the Euler work input with the assumption that the blades are radial
(A2 90o, Vu2 U2). Even if the blades are not radial, this quantity is taken as a standard of reference.
Also
The various work interactions Wis, Wi, WE, and W are shown in Fig. 8.5 just to indicate their relative mag-
nitudes and relationships with each other, but no scale is implied in the figure.
312 Turbomachines
WE
Wi
W
Wis
In Fig. 8.5, Wis is the isentropic work, 01–02a, Wi is the work from 01–02, WE is the work from 01–E, W is
the actual input work, Gc Wis/W, L Wi/WE, Xp Wis/WE, 7 W/Wi. It can be seen that
Wis Wis W Wi
Yp s s
WE W Wi WE
Y p Hc 7M (8.6)
Only 7 has a value more than 1, such as 1.035, 1.04, etc. All other coefficients are less than 1.
p2
Figure 8.6 Diffusion process (p03 < p02 due to losses in the diffuser).
Process 2–3 is the actual diffusion from the static pressure p2 to the static pressure p3, with some increase of
entropy. For any actual process, there is an ideal or isentropic process, and it is presently 2–3q for the diffu-
sion of the same quantity of kinetic energy. A diffuser efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual rise of static
pressure to the isentropic rise of static pressure, for the diffusion of a specified quantity of kinetic energy.
Thus diffuser efficiency is
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 313
For the ideal or isentropic process, the total pressure remains constant. Thus
RV 22 RV 32
p2 p3aa
2 gc 2 gc
Therefore
(V 22 V 32 )R
p3aa p2
2 gc
Substituting this expression, for (p3q – p2) in the denominator of the defining equation for diffuser efficiency,
we get:
( p3 p2 )2 g c
Hd (8.7)
¨ ¥ A ´2·
©1 ¦ 2 µ ¸ RV 22
© § A3 ¶ ¸
ª ¹
For a compressible flow, where the density is variable, the diffuser efficiency is stated in terms of enthalpy
changes (that can be converted to pressure changes using the isentropic relationships). The diffuser efficiency
is defined as the ratio of the isentropic enthalpy rise corresponding to the actual rise of static pressure, to the
enthalpy rise corresponding to the isentropic rise of static pressure for the diffusion of a specified quantity
of the kinetic energy:
¨¥ T ´ ·
c pT2 ©¦ 3a µ 1¸
h3a h2 c p (T3a T2 ) ©ª§ T2 ¶ ¸¹
Hd 2 2
h3aa h2 (V 2 V 3 )2 g c (V 2 V 32 )2 g c
2
314 Turbomachines
¨¥ p ´ (G 1)/G ·
c pT2 ©¦ 3 µ 1¸
©§ p2 ¶ ¸
Hd ª ¹
(8.8)
¨ ¥ A ´2· V 2
©1 ¦ 2 µ ¸ 2
© § A3 ¶ ¸ 2 g c
ª ¹
The diffuser efficiencies stated in Eqs. (8.7) and (8.8) have to be used with some discretion. The diffusion
of kinetic energy depends also on the rate of change of areas (from A2 to A3), that is, the angle of expansion
of areas and the shape of the areas. The general values of the diffuser efficiencies are of the order of 0.7–0.9
when the cone angles of expansion of areas are less than 20o.
As a result, the actual stage work required for a compression process from pressure p01 to pressure p02 can be
calculated by knowing the values of the compression efficiency Gc. The usual values of this efficiency are of
the order of 0.7–0.8. The stage work is given by
where W can be taken as equal to 7LU22/gc. For a known initial pressure (p1 or p01) and a prescribed actual
input work W, the total pressure p02 at the outlet of the rotor can be determined using Eq. (8.11). Then, the
static pressure p2 at the rotor outlet can be calculated when the exit fluid velocity V2 is known. After this,
the diffuser efficiency Gd can be used to find the static pressure at the exit of the diffuser. For example, from
Eq. (8.7)
¨ ¥ A ´2· RV 2
p3 p2 ©1 ¦ 2 µ ¸ Hd s 2 (8.12)
© § A3 ¶ ¸ 2 gc
ª ¹
and from Eq. (8.11)
G /(G 1)
¥WH ´
c
p02 p01 ¦ 1µ (8.13)
c T
§ p 01 ¶
Finally
RV22
p2 p02 (8.14)
2 gc
Now, using Eq. (8.13) in Eq. (8.14), that is, substituting for p02 from Eq. (8.13), in Eq. (8.14), and then
using the value of p2, so obtained, in Eq. (8.12), we get the expression for the exit pressure as
G /(G 1)
¥WH ´ RV 22 ¨© « ¥ A ´ 2 º·
® ®
p3 p01 ¦ c
1µ 1 Hd ¬1 ¦ 2 µ » ¸ (8.15)
c T
§ p 01 ¶ 2 gc © § 3 ¶ ®¸
A
ª ® ¼¹
Equation (8.15) states the value of the exit pressure of the compressor in terms of the initial pressure, rotor
exit velocity, and values of Gc, Gd, cp, A2/A3, etc. However, instead of the combined expression [Eq. (8.15)],
at a stretch, it is suggested that Eqs. (8.7) [or (8.8)], (8.10), and (8.11) may be used in steps to get the outlet
pressure.
EXAMPLE 8.1
The diameter ratio of the impeller of a centrifugal compressor is 2 and the pressure ratio is 4. At a speed of
12000 rpm, the flow rate is 10 m3/s of free air. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 84%. The blades
are radial at the outlet and the entry is radial at the inlet. The velocity of flow remains constant at 60 m/s
through the impeller. Calculate (a) power input to the machine, (b) the impeller diameters at the inlet and
outlet, and (c) the blade angle at the inlet. The suction is from the atmosphere at 100 kPa and 300 K.
316 Turbomachines
Solution: We have D2/D1 2, p02 /p01 4, N 12000 rpm, Q 10 m3/s, Gis 0.84, A2 90o, @1 90o,
Vf1 Vf2 60 m/s, p01 100 kPa, T01 300 K.
(a) To calculate the power input or specific work, first, we have to calculate the actual temperature at the
end of compression. We know that the temperature at the end of isentropic compression process can
be calculated by:
(G 1)/G
T02a ¥p ´
¦ 02 µ 40.4/1.4 1.486
T01 § p01 ¶
Therefore,
T02a T01 s 1.486
That is, temperature at the end of isentropic process is
T02a 300 s 1.486 445.8 K
Now we have ( T02a – T01 ) / ( T02 – T01) Gis 0.84 as per data. Therefore,
( 445.8 300)
T02 T01 173.56
0.84
Therefore actual outlet temperature is
T02 T01 (T02 T01 ), that is, T02 300 173.56 473.56 K
¥V ´ ¥ 60 ´
B1 tan 1 ¦ f 1 µ tan 1 ¦ 16.04o
§ U1 ¶ § 208.72 µ¶
EXAMPLE 8.2
The impeller of a centrifugal compressor has the inlet and outlet diameters of 0.3 and 0.6 m, respectively.
The intake is from the atmosphere at 100 kPa and 300 K, without any whirl component. The outlet blade
angle is 75o. The speed is 10000 rpm and the velocity of flow is constant at 120 m/s. If the blade width at
the intake is 6 cm, calculate (a) specific work, (b) exit pressure, (c) mass flow rate; and (d) power required
to drive the compressor if the overall efficiency can be assumed as 0.7.
Solution: We have D1 0.3 m, D2 0.6 m, p01 100 kPa, T01 300 K, Vu1 0, A2 75o, N 10000 rpm,
Vf1 Vf2 120 m/s, B1 0.06 m.
(a) First, to calculate the specific work, blade velocities are found as follows:
We know that the blade velocity at inlet, U1, is given by
U 2 U1 s 2 157.08 s 2 314.16 m /s
V2
Vr2
b2 = 75°
Vu2 = 282.01
U2 = 314.16
Also, from the triangle, (Fig. 8.7), we have the whirl component Vu2:
Vf2
Vu2 U 2
tan B2
120
314.16 282.01 m /s
tan75o
318 Turbomachines
We know that
pV mRT
Therefore, the mass flow rate is
pV
m
RT
100 s 1000 s 6.786
287 s 300
7.88 kg /s
(d) We have
Theoretical power input Wm
88596.3 s 7.88 698.138 kW
With an overall efficiency of 0.7, the actual power required is P 698.138 / 0.7 997.34 kW
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 319
EXAMPLE 8.3
A centrifugal compressor runs at 15000 rpm and produces a stagnation pressure ratio of 4 between the
impeller inlet and outlet. Stagnation conditions of air at the intake are 100 kPa and 300 K. The absolute
velocity at the compressor intake is without any whirl component. At the exit of the impeller, the flow
component of the velocity is 135 m/s and the blades are radial. The total-to-total efficiency of the com-
pressor is 0.78. Draw the velocity triangles and find the blade angle at the inlet. Also compute the slip and
slip coefficient. The rotor diameter at the exit is 0.58 m and that at the inlet is 0.25 m.
Solution: We have N 15000 rpm, p02/p01 4, p01 100 kPa, T01 300 K, Vu1 0, Vf2 135 m/s,
Gt-t 0.78, D2 0.58 m, D1 0.25 m. We know that the blade velocity at inlet, U1, is:
P D2 N P s 0.58 s 15000
U2 455.53 m /s
60 60
Also, by isentropic relation for the ideal process, we have:
(G 1)/G
T02a ¥p ´
¦ 02 µ 4 0.4/1.4 1.486
T01 § p01 ¶
Therefore
Also
W U 2Vu2
1004 s 186.923
Vu2 411.983 m /s
455.53
Because blades are radial at exit, we have the theoretical whirl component, Vu2’ as:
320 Turbomachines
Vu2a U 2 455.53
The velocity triangles at inlet and outlet are shown in Fig. 8.8. From the velocity triangle, we have
Slip Vu2a Vu 2
455.53 411.983 43.547 m /s
Slip
Vr1 C1 V2
V1 C
Vr2
34.51°
b1 Vu2 = 411.983
U1 = 196.35 A
U2 = 455.53 B
ABC: Exit velocity triangle without slip
ABC1: Exit velocity triangle with slip
Now
Vu 2 411.983
Slip coefficient 0.9044
Vu2a 455.53
¥V ´ ¥ 135 ´
B1 tan 1 ¦ f 1 µ tan 1 ¦ 34.51o
§ U1 ¶ § 196.35 µ¶
Comments:
1. The slip calculation may be particularly noted.
2. The example could be extended to find power if either the width of the blades were given (at the inlet
or outlet) or a mass flow rate were given. Suppose that the width at the inlet is 5 cm. Then
Volume flow rate P D1B1Vf 1
P s 0.25 s 0.05 s 135 5.3 m3 /s
Also,
pV
Mass flow rate m
RT
100 s 103 s 5.3
287 s 300
6.1556 kg /s
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 321
So power is
P Wm
1004 s 186.923 s 6.1556
1155.232 kW
H or (Δ P)
Load line
m j
n k
Characteristic
Q
Duty point
Case (b): Positive slope of the characteristic (Fig. 8.10): Suppose that the disturbance is the reduction
of flow rate. It can be seen that the available head Hn is less than the required head Hm, and
this deficit head causes a further reduction of the flow rate. This continues and the flow
322 Turbomachines
rate reaches practically a zero value. At this point, the load side gets drained and suddenly
the flow rate shoots up. Even when the initial disturbance is an increased flow rate, due to
excess head, the flow rate shoots up. At that time, the compressor reaches its upper limit, gets
choked, and the flow rate suddenly returns to its initial point and the cycle repeats. A cycle
may take approximately 1 or 2 s depending on the overall capacity of the machines.
H or (Δ P)
j Characteristic
Load line
m k
Q
Duty point
The periodic stoppage and revival of fluid flow is known as surging. During surging, the fluid flow fluctu-
ates between zero and peak flows. Surging is harmful for the machine, with consequent vibration, and is
not desirable. Surging during the working is avoided by maintaining the working range in the characteristic
with negative slope.
In a centrifugal compressor or an RFC, the forward bent blades are likely to give rise to H–Q character-
istics with a large portion of positive slopes. Therefore, forward bent blades are avoided in the design. While
the preferred shapes of vanes are backward bent ones, radial vanes may be accepted as design alternates
because of the ease of fabrication and lower costs.
In both backward bent vanes and radial vanes, the useful portions of their characteristics, for normal opera-
tions, are only those with negative slopes. A typical set of characteristics of a compressor, with speed as a param-
eter, is shown in Fig. 8.11. The points of peak efficiencies of all the lines are joined by a broken line x. To the left
of line x, another broken line y is drawn. This line separates the characteristics into portions with positive and
negative slopes. As such, line y sets the limits of operation of the compressor on the lower side to avoid surging.
H or (Δ P)
y
x
z
To the right of line x, there is another line z beyond which the characteristics droop sharply. This drooping
nature is due to the choking of the flow passages (increased flow rates have higher losses, and hence the sharp
fall in pressure or head). Once again, line z sets the limits of operation on the higher side, due to the highly
unstable operations. The operation of the compressor, therefore, has to be only in the regions between lines
y and z.
Casing
Inlet
Outlet
Shaft
Stator
Rotor
Stator
Rotor
Stator
Rotor
A three-stage AFC is shown in Fig. 8.12 along with the development view of the rotor and stator blades
and the corresponding velocity and pressure diagrams. Being a compressor, the blade geometries are es-
sentially reaction-oriented. Hence, the rotor blades while imparting energy to the fluid also transform
some kinetic energy to pressure energy. After each ring of rotor blades, there is a ring of stator blades
acting as a diffuser ring, where some more kinetic energy of the fluid is converted into pressure energy.
One ring of rotor blades followed by one ring of stator blades constitutes one stage. At the outlet of a
stage, the velocity is low and the pressure is high. The fluid gets ready to enter the next stage rotor, and
the processes keep repeating. As the pressure of the fluid increases, its specific volume decreases. Hence,
for the same order-of-magnitude flow velocities, the area of flow has to be decreased for a given mass
flow rate.
324 Turbomachines
Vr2 Vr2
a1 = 90°
A B
b2 N1 N2 U b2
The velocity triangles of the rotor blades are shown in Fig. 8.13. The triangles have a common base. The inlet
velocity triangle is ABC. There are two outlet velocity triangles ABD1 and ABD2, of which only one has to
be chosen at a time. The purpose of showing the two outlet triangles is to compare the profiles of the blades
that are also shown in Fig. 8.13 with one set of blades each for one outlet velocity triangle. Thus, there are
the two sets, D1 and D2, of the blades. The blades of set D2 have a larger outlet blade angle (A2) than that
of set D1.
The following points may be noted:
1. The specific work of the blade set D1 is less than that of the blade set D2 (because the whirl
component Vu2 of set D1 is less than that of set D2).
2. The degree of reaction of blade set D1 is more than that of blade set D2 (because Vru mean of set D1,
BN1, is more than that of set D2, i.e., BN2).
The above two comparisons of the specific work and the degree of reaction suggest that as the blade outlet
angle A2 increases, the specific work increases but the degree of reaction decreases. For a compressor, these
two tendencies are in opposite directions: The increase of specific work is desirable but the decrease of the
degree of reaction is not desirable.
Now, in order that the work per kilogram of fluid may be more and the machine may be more compact,
if the outlet blade angle is increased, then the degree of reaction is reduced with a lower outlet pressure. But
more important is yet another effect: The flow separation may take place. Blade set D2 of Fig. 8.13 is once
again shown in Fig. 8.14 to indicate the onset of separation.
Once separation takes place, the entire working of the blades gets disrupted and the blades stall. This is not a
desirable phenomenon. To avoid the stall, it is a usual practice to maintain a minimum degree of reaction of
0.5. Then the remaining 50% of the specific work is in the kinetic form and this can be converted into the
increase of pressure in stator blades. The net result is that the fluid velocity at the end of the stage is almost
the same as that at the entry to the stage, and the increase of pressure is equivalent to the specific work. These
processes continue stage after stage.
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 325
Blades
Points of
separation
Flow
Figure 8.14 Separation in set of blades D2 of Fig. 8.13: Blades of higher specific works.
h, Δ p
Useful stretch
Radial flow
Useful
stretch
Axial flow
The useful stretch of the curve of axial flow machine can be seen as a narrow strip, compared to somewhat
wider stretch of the curve of radial flow machine. In fact, the limits due to surge and choking in an AFC
make up a narrow strip shown in Fig. 8.16, compared to those of RFC, as shown earlier in Fig. 8.9. An
AFC is very “sensitive” for the load variation. In spite of this, it is preferred to an RFC because of its
compact construction, and in particular, its application to aircraft engines where the load is generally
uniform.
326 Turbomachines
Δp
N4
N3
N2
Surging N1
limit
Choking
limit
EXAMPLE 8.4
In a multi-stage axial flow air compressor, the initial state of air is at 1 bar, 20°C and the final state is 5
bar, 270°C. Calculate the overall isentropic and polytropic efficiencies of the compressor. If the actual
temperature rise per stage is limited to 16°C, calculate the number of stages required, assuming that the
polytropic efficiency is the stage efficiency.
Solution: We have p01 1 bar, T01 20 273 293, p0 n 1 5 bar, T0 n 1 270 273 543.
A temperature-entropy diagram for the compression processes (isentropic and actual) is shown in
Fig. 8.17.
T
543 p0n + 1 = 5
464
p01 = 1
293
Let there be n stages (n to be found). From the isentropic relaton (ideal compression process), we have:
(G 1)/G
T0n 1
¥p ´
¦ 0n 1 µ (5)0.4/1.4
T01 § p01 ¶
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 327
Therefore,
T0n 1 293 s (5)0.4/1.4 464 K . This is shown in Fig. 8.17.
Isentropic overall efficiency is
464 293
Ho 76.4%
543 293
¥T ´
ln ¦ 0n 1 µ ¥ 543 ´
ln ¦
n 1 § T01 ¶ § 293 µ¶
0.3833
n ¥ p0n 1 ´ ¥ 5´
ln ¦ ln ¦ µ
§ p01 µ¶ § 1¶
Polytropic efficiency is
(G0.4 1)
G
Hp 1.4 74.53%
(n 1) 0.3853
n
Now, as per data, the actual rise of temperature, per stage, is given as:
$Tact 16
Therefore
Considering the first stage we have, T02 T01 11.9248, that is, T02 293 11.9248 304.9248.
Therefore, for the first stage, the pressure ratio is
G /(G 1)
p02 ¥T ´
¦ 02 µ
p01 § T01 ¶
3.5
¥ 304 . 9248 ´
¦ 1.14984
§ 293 µ¶
328 Turbomachines
Therefore,
¥p ´
ln ¦ 0n 1 µ ¥ 5´
ln ¦ µ
§ p01 ¶ § 1¶
n 11.52
¥ p02 ´ ¥ 1.14984 ´
ln ¦ ln ¦§ µ
µ 1 ¶
§ p01 ¶
EXAMPLE 8.5
A 16-stage AFC is to have an overall pressure ratio of 6.3. Tests have shown that a stage efficiency of
89.5% can be obtained. The intake conditions are 1 bar and 288 K. Find the overall efficiency, polytropic
efficiency, and pre-heat factor.
Solution: We have Pr 6.3, n 16, Gst 0.895, T01 288, p01 1 bar. We have the stage pressure
ratio, pr, given by
pr (Pr )1/n (6.3)1/16 1.1219
Now
( pr )(G 1)/G 1
Hst [(G 1)/G ](1/Hp )
( pr ) 1
(1.1219)0.2857 1
0.895 02857 /Hp
(1.1219) 1
0.2857 /Hp ¥ 1.12190.2857 1´
(1.1219) ¦ µ¶ 1 1.0373276
§ 0.895
0.2857 ln(1.0373276 )
0.31861
Hp ln(1.1219)
EXAMPLE 8.6
A compressor draws air from atmosphere at 1 bar and 290 K at a velocity of 70 m/s. The isentropic
efficiency of the compressor is 72%. The stagnation pressure ratio is 3. Find the stagnation pressure at the
exit and the power of the driving motor if the mechanical efficiency is 95% for a flow rate of 30 kg/min.
Solution: We have p1 1 bar, T1 290 K, V1 70 m/s, Gis 72%, p02 / p01 3, m 30 kg/min
0.5 kg/s, Gmech 95%.
Stagnation temperature at the inlet is
V12 702
T01 T1 290 292.44 K
2 g ccp 2 s 1004
Now, applying the isentropic relation between the static and stagnation states, (knowing temperatures at
both states) we can write:
G /(G 1) 1.4 /0.4
p01 ¥T ´ ¥ 292.44 ´
¦ 01 µ ¦ 1.02976
p1 § T1 ¶ § 290 µ¶
p
01 1.03
p1
p01 1.03 bar (because, p1 is 1 bar)
Stagnation pressure ratio is 3, as per data.
Therefore, stagnation pressure at outlet, p02, is
p02 p01 s 3 3.09 bar
From isentropic relation, we can now get ideal stagnation temperature at outlet T02a:
(G 1)/G
T02a ¥p ´
¦ 02 µ 30.4/1.4 1.3687
T01 § p01 ¶
At 95% mechanical efficiency and for a mass flow rate of 0.5 kg/s, the power of motor is
Wm 153.7626 s 0.5
P 80.93 kW
0.95 0.95
EXAMPLE 8.7
An overhead fan with a vertical shaft is used to draw air through a small cooling tower from its top. The
rotor blades have the tip and hub diameters of 2.0 and 0.5 m, respectively. The speed is 500 rpm. The
blades are so designed that the blade loading is uniform through its length (i.e., the specific work is the
same at any section of the blade). At the tip, the blade outlet angle is 12o. The flow velocity is constant
through the rotor, at 10.5 m/s. Calculate (a) the blade inlet angle at the tip, (b) blade inlet and outlet
angles at the hub, (c) the rise in total pressure, (d) mass flow rate, and (e) power required to run the rotor.
The total-to-total efficiency may be taken as 0.85 and mechanical efficiency as 0.9. The inlet to rotor is
at 288 K and 1 bar.
Solution: This is an axial flow type induced draft fan, at the top of the cooling tower. We have Dtip
2.0 m, Dhub 0.5 m, N 500 rpm, (A2)tip 12o, Vf1 Vf2 10.5 m/s, (Hc )t-t 0.85, Gm 0.9, T01
288, p01 1 bar. Now
Blade velocity at tip
P Dt N P s 2 s 500
(U1 )tip (U 2 )tip 52.36 m /s
60 60
Blade velocity at hub
P Dh N P s 0.5 s 500
(U1 )hub (U 2 )hub 13.09 m /s
60 60
(a) Inlet blade angle at the tip is
1 10.5
(B1 )t tan 11.34o
52.36
(b) Inlet blade angle at the hub is
1 10.5
(B1 )h tan 38.73o
13.09
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 331
There are totally four velocity triangles, at inlet and outlet at tip; and at inlet and outlet at hub. These
are shown in Fig. 8.18. Also, the blade profiles are shown at both tip and hub.
Blade hub end
83.2°
Rotation
38.73°
Flow
Vr1 Vr2 Blade tipend
V1
b1 = 11.34°
=Vf1 V2
b2 = 12°
=Vf2
Ut = 52.36
Velocity triangles at the tip
V2
V1 Vr2 b = 38.73°
1
=Vf1
=Vf2 b1 b 2 = 83.2°
Uh = 13.09
Velocity triangles at the hub
Figure 8.18 Velocity triangles and blade profile for Example 8.7.
At the tip, we have the whirl components Vu1 0; and Vu2 given by
Vf 2
Vu2 U 2
tan B2
10.5
52.36
tan 12o
2.96 m /s
Therefore the specific work is
W U 2Vu2 52.36 s 2.96 155 J/kg
The specific work remains the same through the length of the blade. Therefore, at the hub
(U 2Vu2 )hub 155 J/ kg
EXAMPLE 8.8
An AFC draws air from atmosphere at 1 bar and 15oC at the rate of 20 kg/s. The tip diameter of the
rotor is 60 cm and the speed is 12000 rpm. The blade angles at the inlet and outlet are 40o and 70o,
respectively. The air enters the rotor axially without any whirl component. The axial flow component of
the velocity of air remains constant through the rotor and stator blades. The diffuser blades, following the
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 333
rotor, make the flow again axial for the next stage. The total-to-total efficiency for the rotor is 85% and
the mechanical efficiency of the drive is 98%. The work-done factor is 0.88 and the diffusion efficiency
is 80%. Calculate the following:
(a) The static pressure ratio across the rotor.
(b) The static pressure ratio across the stage.
(c) The degree of reaction.
(d) The power input.
Solution: We have p01 1 bar, T01 15oC 288 K, m 20 kg/s, D 0.6 m, N 12000 rpm, A1
40o, A2 70o, V1 Vf1 Vf2 V3, (Hc )t-t 0.85, Gm 0.98, 7 0.88, Gd 0.8. Calculate (a) p2/p1, (b)
p3/p1, (c) R, and (d) P.
The problem is worked out, with reference to the tip of the rotor. We know, the blade velocity is,
P DN P s 0.6 s 12000
U1 U 2 U 377 m /s
60 60
Now, because Vu1 0, we have
V1
tan B1
U
Therefore inlet velocity is
V1 U tan B1 377 tan 40o
316 . 34 m /s Vf1 Vf2 V3
40°
a 2 Vu2 = 261.86 40° 70° = b 2
a 2 = 50.38° U = 377
Velocity triangles for rotor
Figure 8.19 Velocity triangles for the rotor. (There is no velocity triangle for the stator.)
From the outlet velocity triangle, we have, for the whirl component at outlet, Vu2:
Vf 2
Vu2 U 2
tan B2
316.34
377
tan 70o
261.86 m /s
334 Turbomachines
Therefore
p02 p01 s 2.88 2.88 bar p03
From outlet velocity triangle, we have
Exit velocity at the outlet of rotor is V2 Vu22 Vf22 261.862 316.342 410.66 m /s
Static temperature at rotor exit is
V 22
T2 T02
2c p
410.662
389.8
2 s 1004
305.82 K
Static temperature at the stage exit is 2
V 3
T3 T03
2c p
316.342
389.8
2 s 1004
339.96 K
Diffuser efficiency is Gd 0.86 (T3a – T2) / (T3 – T2), where state 2 is rotor exit; state 3 is actual stage exit
and state 3a is isentropic stage exit, corresponding to actual stage exit. (Fig. 8.6 may be referred). Now
(T3a 305.82)
Hd
(339.96 305.82 )
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 335
Therefore
T3a 335.18 K
Now, the temperatures T2, T3, T3¾,T01, T03 are all determined; the isentropic relations can be used to find
the corresponding pressures. Thus,
G /(G 1) 3.5
p3 ¥T ´ ¥ 339.96 ´
¦ 3 µ ¦ 0.62
p03 § T03 ¶ § 389.8 µ¶
Therefore
p3 p03 s 0.62 2.88 s 0.62 1.7856 bar
Again,
G /(G 1) 3.5
p2 ¥T ´ ¥ 305.82 ´
¦ 2µ ¦ 0.7255
p3aa § T3a ¶ § 335.18 µ¶
Hence
p2 p3aa s 0.7255 1.295 bar
In a similar way as above, at the inlet to the rotor also, T1 and p1 are determined as follows:
V 12 316.342
T1 T01 288 238.16 K
2c p 2 s 1004
G /(G 1) 3.5
p1 ¥T ´ ¥ 238.16 ´
¦ 1 µ ¦ 0.51427
p01 § T01 ¶ § 288 µ¶
Therefore
p1 p01 s 0.51427 0.51427 bar
(a) The static pressure ratio across the rotor is
p2 1.295
2.518
p1 0.51427
Comments:
1. A step-by-step procedure is adopted, instead of using combined (and complex) equations, to find the
pressures and temperatures. The process equations are only the isentropic relations and definitions of
efficiencies or work-done factors.
2. The “next stage” is very much the same as the present stage because the exit velocity from the stage
is equal in magnitude and direction (V3 y V1) to the inlet velocity to the next stage.
3. As the pressure is more at the exit of the present stage (i.e., entry to the next stage), the specific
volume of air is reduced, the volume flow rate is less and therefore the area of flow has to be reduced.
The area is reduced by decreasing the height of the blades.
4. The degree of reaction is 0.6527. This means 65% pressure generation is in the rotor. In the stator,
therefore, the conversion is of kinetic component only. The design can be accepted as such. However,
the design can be modified to have 50% reaction also.
CL
CL
CD
CD Stall
−i O +i
Incidence i
This is obvious because as incidence becomes positive, the tendency for separation on the backside of the
blade (convex side) increases. The drag increases and the blade stalls.
This situation where the smooth function of blade ceases and the flow disturbance occurs is the stall situ-
ation. When this happens to the blades on the periphery of the rotor, the blades of the compressor are said
to have stalled. Even when the rotor rotates, the fluid flow or the compression of the fluid or pressure rise
does not occur.
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 337
BOX 8.1 Some Preliminary Terms With Respect to a Blade in a Fluid Stream
/LIWIRUFH)RUFHRQDEODGHLQDGLUHFWLRQSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHÁXLGÁRZGLUHFWLRQ
'UDJIRUFH)RUFHRQDEODGHLQDGLUHFWLRQSDUDOOHOWRWKHÁXLGÁRZGLUHFWLRQ
P9/JF 5HIHUHQFHSUHVVXUH
$5HIHUHQFHDUHD
Lift force
Drag force
V : Velocity
r : Density
Figure 8.21 An airfoil in a uniform flow field, with lift and drag forces.
1RZFRQVLGHUDQDVVHPEO\RIEODGHVRUD´FDVFDGHµRIEODGHVDVVKRZQLQ)LJ$OVRFRQVLGHURQH
EODGH RXWRIWKHVHULHVRIEODGHV UHSUHVHQWHGE\LWVPHDQOLQHRU´FDPEHUOLQHµ/LQH$$LVWDQJHQWWRWKH
FDPEHUOLQHDWWKHOHDGLQJHGJHRUQRVHRIWKHDLUIRLO1RZFRQVLGHUWKHVWUHDPOLQHVRIWKHPRYLQJÁXLG
7KHPRYHPHQWLVUHODWLYHWKHÁXLGPD\PRYHEODGHPD\EHVWDWLRQDU\RUWKHEODGHPD\PRYHLQWKH
VWDJQDQWÁXLG ,IWKHVWUHDPOLQHVKLWWKHFRQFDYHVLGHRIWKHEODGHDVVKRZQLQWKHÀJXUHWKHDQJOHRI
LQFLGHQFHLLVWDNHQDVSRVLWLYH,IWKHVWUHDPOLQHVKLWWKHFRQYH[VLGHWKHDQJOHRILQFLGHQFHLVQHJDWLYH
7KHDQJOHRILQFLGHQFHDQGLWVPHDVXUHPHQWDUHVKRZQLQWKH)LJ
−i
A
+i
K eywords
Axial flow compressor Power input factor
Comparison of radial and axial flow compressors Pressure coefficient
Diffuser blades Pressure ratios
Diffuser efficiency Radial flow compressors
Effect of A2 on R Slip
Effect of A2 on W Stage efficiency
Fans, blowers, compressors Stage performance
H–Q relationship Stage velocity triangles
Inducer section Stage work, stage efficiency
Isentropic compression Stalling of blades
Lift and drag Surging and choking
Losses Vaneless diffuser
Performance WE, Wi, Wis, W
S ummary
1. A brief distinction is made between the fans, 9. Wis Wi WE W.
blowers, and compressors, along with their 10. Compression efficiency, Gc Wis/W; Gc has val-
applications. ues of the order of 0.8.
2. Pressure ratio is of the order of 1.07 for fans, 11. Coefficient of slip, L Wi /WE ; L has values of
1.5 for blowers and 2 – 2.5 for compressors. the order of 0.9.
3. Fans are generally single stage, axial flow 12. Work done factor, 7 W/Wi; 7 has values of
machines, without the stator, for ventilation the order of 1.04 for RFC and 0.8 for AFC.
only. 13. Coefficient of pressure, Xp Wis/WE; Xp
4. Blowers and compressors are: Gc7L; Xp has values of the order of 0.75 for
(a) Radial flow compressors (RFC), for RFC and 0.6 for AFC.
ventilation and circulation. 14. The process of diffusion of velocity into pres-
(b) Axial flow compressors (AFC), for sure, in the diffuser, and the diffuser efficiency
combustion chambers, fluidization, etc. are studied in detail. Because of diffusion, p03
(multi-stages) p02. The stage work, stage efficiency, and pres-
5. A schematic layout of an RFC is studied and sure developed are also detailed.
the representative velocity triangles are shown. 15. The performance of the radial flow compressor
6. RFCs have radial blades (with inducer sec- is mapped.
tions) for ease of fabrication and lower costs. 16. The phenomena of surging and choking are
7. AFCs are high-end machines, for gas turbine explained with their causes, effects, and the
power plants and air-craft engines. limitations they impose on the working of the
8. The compression process, as it occurs in the radial flow compressor.
RFCs, is studied in detail, including the slip, 17. Surging is a phenomenon in which the flow
the isentropic efficiency, the pressure coeffi- fluctuates between zero and full capacity in
cient, and the work-done factor. The various an RFC; it is likely to occur due to positive
works are identified and quantified and are slope of the characteristic. Choking is a phe-
related to each other. nomenon in which the flow is too much that
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 339
cannot be handled by the machine; and hence axial flow compressors, especially with respect
the pressure ratio falls steeply. to their working and useful stretch of perfor-
18. Surging imposes the limitation on the lower mance.
flow-limit of characteristic; choking imposes 22. The mechanism of stalling of the blades is ex-
the upper flow-limit of characteristic. In AFCs, plained with the causes and effects.
this stretch is very narrow; in RFCs, the toler- 23. Stalling is the loss of performance of blades;
able stretch is comparatively wider. it occurs due to flow separation taking place
19. With a schematic layout of an AFC,, its con- at higher angles of incidence. Stall depends on
struction and working are studied. the blade geometry, operating speed, fluid ve-
20. The stage work, stage efficiency, and perfor- locity, mass flow rate and so on.
mance of AFC are discussed in parallel with
those of radial flow compressor.
21. A distinction is drawn between the radial and
I mportant E quations
U 2Vu2 U 22 ¨¥ p ´ (G 1)/G ·
1. WE c pT2 ©¦ 3 µ 1¸
gc gc
©§ p2 ¶ ¸
8. Hd ª ¹
2. Coefficient of slip
¨ ¥ A ´2·
Wi ©1 ¦ 2 µ ¸V 22
M © § A3 ¶ ¸
WE ª ¹
3. Isentropic compression efficiency 2 gc
W
Hc is
W (G 1)/G
c pT01 ¨¥ p02 ´ ·
4. Pressure coefficient/loading coefficient 9. W © 1¸
Hc ©¦§ p01 µ¶ ¸
W ª ¹
Y p is
WE
5. Work-done factor (G 1)/G ·
c pT01 ¨¥ p02 ´
W 10. Hc © 1¸
7 W ©¦§ p01 µ¶ ¸
Wi ª ¹
6. Xp Gc7L
7. Diffuser efficiency G /(G 1)
p02 ¥W s H ´
11. c
( p3 p2 )2 g c ¦ 1µ
Hd p01 § c pT01 ¶
¨ ¥ A ´2·
©1 ¦ 2 µ ¸ RV 22
© § A3 ¶ ¸
ª ¹
340 Turbomachines
R eview Q uestions
1. Distinguish between fans, blowers, and com- 4. Describe the various losses in the impellers of
pressors. (Refer Section 8.1) RFCs and AFCs. (Refer Section 4.3.5)
2. Explain the working of an RFC. What is the 5. With respect to a compression process, define
purpose of the inducer section in RFCs? the following: Slip, isentropic compression
(Refer Section 8.2) efficiency, pressure coefficient or loading
3. Draw a typical set of velocity triangles of an coefficient, and power input factor. Establish
RFC and state the expression for the specific a relation between them.
work. (Refer Section 8.2.1) (Refer Section 8.3)
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 341
6. With an enthalpy–entropy diagram, describe 10. Discuss surging and choking in an RFC. How
the diffusion process. Derive an expression for do these phenomena affect the working of an
the diffuser efficiency when the change in den- RFC? (Discuss with respect to Fig. 8.11)
sity is limited. (Refer Section 8.3.5) 11. With a neat sketch, explain the working of an
7. Derive an expression for the stage efficiency in AFC. (Refer Section 8.5)
terms of initial temperature and pressure ratio. 12. Draw a typical set of velocity triangles and cor-
(Refer Section 8.3.6) responding blade shapes for an AFC.
8. What are the performance curves of RFCs? (Refer Section 8.5.1)
Illustrate and explain. (Refer Section 8.3.8) 13. Explain the features of reaction in an AFC.
9. What is surging? When is it likely to occur Why the degree of reaction is limited to 50%?
during the operation of RFCs? (Refer Section 8.5.1)
(Refer Section 8.3) 14. Explain the phenomenon of stalling of the
blades. (Refer Section 8.6)
E xercises
1. A centrifugal blower has an impeller of outer speed is changed to 490 rpm. Calculate the exit
diameter of 60 cm. The speed is 6000 rpm. static pressure, the flow rate, and the power.
The air at 100 kPa and 27°C enters the impel- 4. In a centrifugal compressor running at 7200
ler without any whirl component. The radial rpm, the impeller tip diameter is 90 cm and
component of velocity remains constant at the mass flow rate is 40 kg/s. The suction is
95 m/s. If the degree of reaction is required to from still atmosphere, at 100 kPa, 300 K. A
be 0.6, calculate the outlet blade angle, the exit slip factor of 92% is to be accounted. For a
pressure, and the power input. Take the total- static pressure ratio of 2.4, calculate the exit air
to-total efficiency as 70%. temperature, the total-to-total efficiency, the
2. The stagnation pressure ratio of a centrifugal pressure coefficient, and the power.
compressor is 2.5 between the inlet and outlet 5. A compressor draws air from still atmosphere
of its impeller when the speed is 8000 rpm. at 100 kPa, 310 K, at a velocity of 120 m/s. The
The intake may be taken as still air from atmo- isentropic efficiency of compression is 70%.
sphere at 100 kPa and 27oC. The entry of air The stagnation pressure ratio is 2.5. Find the
is radial. At the exit of the impeller, the blades stagnation pressure at the exit and the power of
are radial. The total-to-total efficiency is 80%. the driving motor. Assume a mechanical effi-
If the impeller diameter at the outlet is 85 cm ciency of 92% and a flow rate of 1 kg/s.
and if the flow component of velocity is con- 6. The overall pressure ratio of a six-stage AFC
stant at 160 m/s, calculate the specific work, is 6. Its isentropic efficiency is 0.92. The mass
power, and the slip factor. flow rate is 4.5 kg/s and the suction is from
3. A centrifugal fan draws air from still atmo- free air at 100 kPa and 302 K. All the stages are
sphere at 100 kPa, 20°C while the speed is 580 similar. The degree of reaction is 0.5 in all the
rpm. The rise in the static pressure is 2 kPa and stages. The axial flow velocity remains constant
the power consumed is 44 kW for a flow rate at 120 m/s and the mean blade speed is 275
of 3 kg/s. Suppose that the suction side condi- m/s. Calculate the polytropic efficiency, power,
tions are changed to 98 kPa and 200oC and the and the blade angles at the inlet and outlet.
342 Turbomachines
7. The overall stagnation pressure ratio in a multi- 8. Air at 100 kPa and 310 K enters a 50%
stage AFC is 6. The inlet is from atmosphere at reaction AFC that has a flow coefficient of 0.6.
100 kPa and 290 K. The isentropic efficiency The total-to-total efficiency is 82%. The total-
is 84%. The blade angles are 40o and 80o at to-total pressure ratio is 1.7. If the coefficient
the inlet and outlet, respectively. The degree of of pressure is 0.6 and the work-done factor is
reaction is 0.5. The mean blade speed is 180 0.85, calculate the mean blade speed, and rotor
m/s and the velocity of flow remains constant. blade angles at the inlet and outlet. Also find
Calculate the polytropic efficiency and the the power input for a flow rate of 10 kg/s.
number of stages.
A nswers
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. (c) 6. (d)
2. (d) 7. (c)
3. (a) 8. (c)
4. (b) 9. (d)
5. (c) 10. (c)
Exercises
1. 68.35o, 125.1 kPa, 28.426 kW/(kg/s) 5. 270.834 kPa, 136.8 kW
2. 112.67 kJ/kg, 112.67 kW/(kg/s), 0.889 6. 93.73%, 980.4 kW, 30.54o, 59.25o
3. 98.8668 kPa, 1.539 kg/s, 16.11 kW 7. 87.44%, 10
4. 405.5 K, 80.82%, 0.743, 4236 kW 8. 439.3 m/s, 41.57o, 61.65o, 579 kW
9 Power-Transmitting
Turbomachines
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
v Study the constructional features of a power- v Understand the advantages of a power-transmit-
transmitting device and be familiar with the ting device over other conventional mechanical
terminology associated with it. devices.
v Analyze the working of a power-transmitting v Study the suitability of a power-transmitting
device. device and its applications.
v Study the characteristics of a power-transmit-
ting device.
9.1 Introduction
It may be recalled from the basic classification of fluid machines that under the category of
turbomachines, there are the three types, namely, power-producing, power-absorbing, and power-
transmitting machines The power-transmitting types of turbomachines are those in which there are
two separate shafts, one at the input end and the other at the output end. It is like a coupling, a
clutch, or a gear box, but without the positive drive between the input and output shafts. The drive is
through a fluid, some type of oil, which circulates continuously between the suitably shaped rotors of
the inlet and outlet ends of the shaft. The oil receives the energy from the rotor of the input shaft, then
moves over to the output end, and imparts the energy to the rotor of the output shaft. This chapter is
an attempt to study such a device.
Blower Turbine
The whole assembly of Fig. 9.1 is a “coupling.” The capacity of this coupling is very small and the efficiency
of the transmission is perhaps too small due to the dispersal of air in all directions and losses. One simple
conduit, a cylindrical enclosure between the two rotors as shown in Fig. 9.2, can increase the efficiency of
the transmission very much, but still the capacity of the system remains very low. If instead of air the fluid
is some liquid or oil (the blower is now a pump), the capacity can also be increased. Naturally, the oil has
to be recirculated.
Cylindrical
conduit
(no dispersal
of air)
P T
P2 T1
P T
P1 T2
S1 S2
S1 S2
(a) (b)
Figure 9.3 Schematic diagram of a power-transmitting turbomachine (a) with stator blades and
(b) without stator blades.
In order to get a clear and better idea of the device, impeller P is shaped like the impeller of a centrifugal
pump and turbine unit T is shown like a Francis runner in Fig. 9.3(a). The purpose of the blades in the
casing may be stated as directing the oil from the outlet of the impeller of the pump to the turbine runner.
Different orientations of these casing blades (stator blades) can vary the speed of the driven shaft, resulting in
different values of the output torques. Alternately, for equal torques, the stator blades can be totally absent,
and the blades of the impeller and runner can be so shaped as to make the flow of the fluid from the impeller
directly to the inlet of the turbine blades. This is shown in Fig. 9.3(b).
The input torque is negative and therefore the value of the torque ratio becomes positive. The following
cases arise:
1. Sr , that is, So |Si|: This is the case of a simple fluid coupling, as shown in Fig. 9.3(b).
2. Sr 1, that is, So |Si|: This is the case of a torque multiplier.
3. Sr 1, that is, So |Si|: This is the case of a torque divider.
4. S 0, that is, So 0: The output torque is zero and this is the case of a stalled output shaft.
The efficiency of a power-transmitting turbomachine is the ratio of the output power to the input power,
as stated by
2P N oT o
H Nr s Tr (9.3)
2P N iT i
The efficiency of any device is always less than 1. Hence, one can conclude the following:
1. If Sr is equal to 1, then Nr has to be less than 1.
2. If Nr is equal to 1, then Sr has to be less than 1.
The above conclusions are the results of the assumption that there are the losses, and therefore, the efficiency
is less than 1, with a consequent reduction of either the speed or the torque in the output shaft. The losses
can be visualized as the power losses (or the energy losses). A simple energy balance can be stated as follows
Energy input Energy loss in dissipation Energy output
or in the rate form as
Power input Power losses Power output
That is
2ONiSi Power losses 2O NoSo
The “power losses” in the above equation can also be written in the same form as other terms, so that one
can write
2P N iT i 2P N T 2P N oT o
or N iT i N T N oT o (9.4)
where S is the loss of torque. This torque S can be associated with a speed that may be either the input speed
Ni or the output speed No. Suppose that N in Eq. (9.4) is Ni that is, input speed. Then one can write
N iT i N i T N oT o
we get, efficiency as
N iT i N iT Ti T
H (9.5)
N iT i Ti
Power-Transmitting Turbomachines 347
Suppose that N in Eq. (9.4) is No that is, output speed. Then one can write
N iT i N oT N oT o
or N iT i N o (T To )
is at a smaller radius. The velocity triangles can be drawn corresponding to the two elements, in order to
determine the interaction of the torques/energy/power. As the flow is parallel to the axis, the velocity tri-
angles are on a plane that is parallel to the axis. For the case of the fluid coupling, Sr is equal to 1 and Nr is
less than 1. The blade velocities of the turbine blades are, therefore, less than those of the pump blades.
It has to be remembered now that the analysis is with respect to the flow of fluid in the two (or three)
elements of the whole device, that is, the pumping unit (the stator unit) and the turbine unit. Naturally, the
velocity triangles become the reference for analysis. Also, the velocity triangles are as practiced with refer-
ence to the respective machines. It is quite possible that the outlet of the pump impeller and the inlet of the
turbine runner may be in the radial direction [as in Fig. 9.3(a)], or in the axial direction [as in Fig. 9.3(b)].
But these possibilities do not alter the analysis because the torque interactions depend on the tangential
components of the fluid velocities.
The notations U, V, and Vr continue with their meanings, that is, the blade velocity, absolute velocity of fluid,
and the velocity of fluid relative to the blade, respectively. Subscripts 1 and 2 continue to mean the inlet and
outlet conditions, respectively. The additional subscripts p and t signify the pump and the turbine, respectively.
Just as there are different designs of the pumps or the turbines with varying parameters (D1, D2, A1, A2,
@1, @2, etc.), there are various designs of fluid coupling and torque converters. Apart from that, the power
input at the pumping unit must essentially be higher than the power output at the turbine unit.
C F
b2p Vr2p b1t Vr1t
B E
The general velocity triangles for a fluid coupling are shown in Fig. 9.4. It is to be noted that:
1. The speed of the turbine shaft is less than the speed of the pumping shaft. Therefore, U1t is less than
U2p at the same radius, that is, the mean radius at the outlet of the pump or the inlet of the turbine
(r2 p r1t ).
2. Both U1t and U2p are at a larger radius compared to the velocities at the other ends, that is, at a
smaller radius (r1p r2 t ).
Power-Transmitting Turbomachines 349
Suppose that at the exit of the pump, the blades are radial, that is, A2p 90o. Then, Vu 2 p U 2 p .
From the velocity triangles, the pump torque is given by
The magnitudes of the two torques are the same. St is the negative of Sp. Now
U 2t 2P r2 t N t r1p N o r1p
s Nr
U 2p 2P r2 p N p r2 p N i r2 p
Hence
¨ 2 ·
¥ r1p ´
T p T t m r 22p(2P N p ) ©1
© ¦ µ N r ¸¸ (9.8)
§ r2 p ¶
ª ¹
A “slip” is defined as (Np Nt)/Np. Until the pump speed is Nc, the slip is 1, and as the turbine starts, the
slip decreases. When the slip is down to about 5%, the torque ratio becomes unity.
Output torque
100%
tr = 1.0
95%
Slip = 1.0
Pump torque, Tp
1.0
Efficiency
Efficiency
Slip
5% Slip
Nc
0
0 0 Np = Ni
0.95
0 1.0
Nr Operating point
A feature to be noted is that the whole stretch of the x-axis of Fig. 9.5 represents the acceleration process of
the turbine or the output shaft, and therefore, it represents the unsteady-state condition. A steady-state con-
dition is reached only when the slip stabilizes at 4%–5%. A fluid coupling is designed with all its parameters
( B1p , B2p , B1t , B2t , N, D1, D2, etc.) for a particular capacity of the coupled power. This means that at other
operating conditions, the efficiency of the coupling is very low. An efficiency line is also drawn in Fig. 9.5.
The efficiency starts at a value of zero at the critical speed Nc of the impeller and rises to a peak value at the
rated conditions (the value of peak efficiency depends on various parameters: Viscosity, density, and flow
rate of the fluid, speed, radius, etc.). But after reaching the maximum value, the efficiency falls sharply if the
speed ratio were to further increase and reach unity.
EXAMPLE 9.1
The output of a car engine is 80 kW at 6000 rpm. This engine drives the primary side (input shaft) of a
fluid coupling. The secondary side (output shaft) of the coupling runs at 5700 rpm, at steady-state cruis-
ing. Calculate the output power and efficiency of the coupling.
Solution: In a fluid coupling, the torques at the input and output sides are equal.
Torque at the input shaft is
Power
Ti
¥ 2P N ´
¦§ µ
60 ¶
80000
¥ 2P s 6000 ´
¦§ µ¶
60
127.324 N m
Torque at the output shaft So 127.324 N m.
Power-Transmitting Turbomachines 351
T T 1 P2 P
T2 P1
Input Output
end end
S1 S2
Fixed
stator
Consider the device shown in Fig. 9.3(a). The velocity triangles corresponding to this torque converter
are shown in Fig. 9.7. Two separate situations are illustrated: (a) One with fixed blades giving rise to
torque multiplication and (b) the other with fixed blades giving rise to torque reduction. The orienta-
tion of the fixed blades is different for the two cases. Only for the sake of comparison and to show the
difference, the same figure (Fig. 9.7) is used.
352 Turbomachines
Suppose that the load on the turbine is more. The turbine is required to overcome more torque. When the
torque is required to be increased, the speed gets reduced. The fixed blades are so oriented that the velocity
of fluid is now DF1, and the blade velocity is DE1. The area of flow is now more, and mass flow rates are also
more. The fixed blades have an effect of adding the reaction torque, and the net torque on the turbine is also
increased.
Vr1p b e
e1
C U1p f U2t
If the torque on the turbine is reduced (that is, when the device is torque divider), the process goes on with
the blade speed increased to DE2, the fluid velocity being DF2, and the stator exerting torque in the opposite
direction to that of the pump impeller.
Instead of a single unit, it is possible to have multiple units of the impellers, turbines, and stator rings, so
that the multiplication of torque can be even to five times. In a single unit, the multiplication may not be
more than about 1.5–1.8.
There is always a transition zone with unsteady-state operation of the device. But once this is stabilized
(as in automobiles), the input–output elements can be mechanically locked, so that the entire device
can be bypassed to avoid the losses in the device. The characteristics of a torque converter are shown in
Fig. 9.8. This torque converter is rated for the multiplication of the input torque three times. The nature
of the characteristics remains the same, even when the multiplication factor is different, such as 2 or 2.5;
the scale of Sr on the right of the figure may get altered. The fluid coupling has its efficiency increasing,
starting from zero at a critical speed of the impeller. But torque converters have better efficiencies in the
lower speed regions. Hence, it is a practice to retain the device as a torque converter in the initial working
conditions (higher efficiency, higher torque) and then shift the conditions of working as a fluid coupling
to take the advantage of higher efficiencies of the coupling at higher loads. Such combined characteristics
are shown in Fig. 9.9.
Power-Transmitting Turbomachines 353
1.0 3.0
0.8
h
tr
h
tr
0
0 0.65 0.95
Nr
3.0
TC, tr
FC, h
2.0
tr
h
FC, tr
1.0
TC, h
TC FC
0 0.95
Nr
EXAMPLE 9.2
A torque converter has an input torque of magnitude 200 Nm. The stator exerts a torque equal to 80 Nm
in the same direction as the input side. The speeds of the input and output shafts are 3000 rpm and 1800
rpm, respectively. Calculate the output torque and the ratio of power output to power input.
Solution: We have
Torque output Torque input Stator torque
200 80
280 N m
Ratio of output power to input power is
2P N oT o (1800 s 280)
84%
2P N iT i (3000 s 200)
354 Turbomachines
EXAMPLE 9.3
The pumping element of a fluid coupling has a mean outlet diameter of 25 cm and a mean inlet diameter of
18 cm. The blade width is 1.5 cm at the outlet. The blades are at 90o to the blade velocity at the outlet. The
inlet blade angle is 45o. The speeds of the input and output shafts are 1440 rpm and 1350 rpm, respectively.
The oil in the system has a specific gravity of 0.8. The oil enters the impeller without any whirl component.
The areas of flow remain constant throughout. Calculate (a) the angles of the turbine blades at the inlet and
outlet, (b) mass flow rate of the oil, (c) the torque transmitted, and (d) the efficiency of the coupling. Also
find (e) the absolute velocity of fluid from the pump to the turbine and its angle.
P
T B1p
= 2.08 cm
P s 0.25 s 1440
U 2p 18.85 m /s
60
The velocity of fluid at the pump inlet is
m R A1pVf1p
(0.8 s 1000) s 0.01178 s 13.57
127.88 kg /s
The velocity triangles of pump element and turbine element are shown in Fig. 9.11.
Vr1t
U1p U2t
= 13.57 = 12.7
¥ 0.25 ´
T p 2410.6 s ¦ 301.326 N m
§ 2 µ¶
Power input is
2P N pT p
Pp
60
2P s 1440 s 301.326
Nm /s
60
45439 W
T t T p 301.326 Nm
Power output is
2P N tT t
Pt
60
2P s 1350 s 301.326
60
42600 W
The loss in the power (45439 42600) W, that is, 2839 W, is lost to the oil in the system, which in turn
gets heated up. This heat is required to be dissipated by some cooling arrangement.
Blade velocity at the turbine inlet is
P s 0.25 s 1350
U1t 17.67 m /s
60
P s 0.18 s 1350
U 2t 12.7 m /s
60
Turbine torque (output) is
Therefore
Power-Transmitting Turbomachines 357
301.326
Vu1t (&Vu 2 t 0)
m s r1t
301.326
¥ 127 .88 s 0.25 ´
¦§ µ¶
2
18.85 m /s
(a) From the velocity triangles, inlet blade angle of turbine blades is
¨ 13.57 ·
B1t tan 1 © ¸ 85o
ª (18.85 17.67 ) ¹
and, outlet blade angle of turbine blades is
¥ 13.57 ´
B2t tan 1 ¦ 46.9o
§ 12.7 µ¶
(b) The mass flow rate of fluid is 127.88 kg/s.
(c) The torque transmitted is 301.326 N-m.
(d) The efficiency of transmission is 93.75%.
(e) Absolute velocity of oil at the outlet of pump, inlet of turbine is
V2p V1t (18.852 13.57 2 )1/2 23.23 m /s
Fluid angle at the outlet of pump, inlet of turbine is
¥ 13.57 ´
A 2p A1t tan 1 ¦ 35.75o
§ 18.85 µ¶
(The detailed calculations are required for the complete design. But if only efficiency is required, then it
can be obtained as Nt/Np, that is, 1350/1440, equal to 93.75%.)
EXAMPLE 9.4
The fluid coupling of Example 9.3 is required to be converted into a torque converter so that the torque
is increased to 1.25 times the input torque by introducing fixed blades (stator blades) between the outlet
of the pump and the inlet of the turbine. The diameters at the pump outlet and turbine inlet continue to
be 25 cm as earlier. The other diameter at the inlet to pump or outlet from turbine also remains the same
at 18 cm. The entry and exit of fixed blades are radial. Assume that the efficiency is now 90%. Calculate
(a) the fixed-blade angles at the inlet and outlet, (b) the turbine blade angles at the inlet and outlet, and
(c) the speed of the output shaft. Also determine (d) the ratio of outlet to inlet velocity of oil in the fixed
blades.
Solution: The data of the pump element of Example 9.3 are not altered, except that the outlet is now
in the radially outward direction instead of axial direction. Hence, the following results of Example 9.3
hold good.
Torque input Sp 301.326 N m
358 Turbomachines
At the turbine
2P N tT t
Pt
60
2P s N t s 376.66
40900
60
Therefore
40900 s 60
Nt 1036.9 rpm
(2P s 376.66 )
With this, it is possible to draw the velocity triangles of the turbine (inlet and outlet), as shown in Fig. 9.12.
Power-Transmitting Turbomachines 359
Vf1t = 13.57
53.64°
b1t
Turbine blade angle at the outlet is (refer Fig. 9.12, outlet velocity triangle)
¥ 13.57 ´
B2 t tan 1 ¦ 54.25o
§ 9.77 µ¶
Ratio of outlet velocity to inlet velocity in the fixed blades is
V2f V1t 27.19
1.17
V1f V2p 23.23
360 Turbomachines
Thus, we have:
(a) Fixed blade angles: inlet, 35.75o; outlet, 29.94o;
(b) Turbine blade angles: inlet, 53.64o; outlet, 54.25o;
(c) Speed of turbine shaft: 1036.9 rpm; and
(d) Ratio of outlet velocity to inlet velocity in the fixed blades: 1.17.
(Note that the velocity of oil in the fixed blades is increased by 17% by area adjustments, and the inlet
and outlet angles of fixed blades are 35.75o and 29.94o, respectively. The fixed blades can exert reaction
torques only when the angles and velocities are different at the inlet and outlet.)
The number of components, their manufacturing accuracies, their costs, etc. are more or less comparable
for both mechanical and fluid systems. There is not much difference between the two systems in this
regard.
9.5.1 Applications
Automotive transmission systems make up the largest field of applications of fluid coupling and torque
converters. It may even be said that the evolution of power-transmitting turbomachines is an outcome of
the research in the automotive field.
In addition, the applications include the sectors of large power requirements, such as locomotives, marine,
earth-moving equipment, belt conveyors, and so on. Torque multiplication is almost an integral part of the
design of such equipment.
EXAMPLE 9.5
A torque converter has the following details:
Pump: Speed is 1500 rpm.
Inlet is axial.
Pitch-line diameter or mean diameter is 30 cm.
Blade width at the inlet is 2 cm.
Blade inlet angle A1p is 50o.
Outlet is radial.
Outlet diameter is 40 cm.
Blade outlet angle A2p is 80o (backward bent).
Oil enters the blades without any whirl component.
Turbine: Inlet is radially inward; inlet diameter is 40 cm.
Inlet blade angle A1t is 75o.
Outlet is axial.
Pitch-line diameter or mean diameter is 30 cm.
Fixed blades guide the oil from the pump outlet to the turbine inlet. The velocity of oil in the fixed blades
is increased by 10% by designing the areas. The specific gravity of oil is 0.82. The flow components of the
velocity of oil remain the same throughout.
Calculate:
(a) The mass flow rate of oil.
(b) Fixed-blade angle at the inlet.
(c) Fixed-blade angle at the outlet.
(d) Turbine blade outlet angle A2t.
(e) Input torque Sp.
(f ) Input power Pp.
(g) Output torque St.
(h) Output power Pt.
(i) Efficiency.
( j) Torque ratio Sr.
362 Turbomachines
Solution:
Pump inlet:
Blade velocity is
P s 0.3 s 1500
U1p 23.56 m /s
60
Flow component is
Vf1p U1p tan B1p 23.56 s tan 50o 28.1 m /s
Flow area is
A1p P s 0.3 s 0.02 0.01885 m 2
b1p = 50°
U1p
23.56
Pump outlet:
Flow velocity is
Vf2p Vf1p 28.1 m /s
Blade velocity is
P s 0.4 s 1500
U 2p 31.416 m /s
60
Whirl component of velocity is
Vf2p
Vu2p U 2p
tan B2p
28.1
31.416
tan 80o
26.46 m /s
Power-Transmitting Turbomachines 363
Vf2p = 28.1
Vr2p
U2p 80°
Vu2p
V2p
Vf1t = 28.1
75°
Vu1t
= 31.83
V1t
U1t
24.3
a1t
Turbine inlet:
Fluid inlet velocity is
V1t V2f 42.46 m /s
364 Turbomachines
Flow velocity is
Vf1t Vf2p 28.1 m /s
Fluid angle is
¥V ´ ¥ 28.1 ´
A1t sin 1 ¦ f1t µ sin 1 ¦ 41.44o
§ V1t ¶ § 42.46 µ¶
b2t = 57°
U2t
= 18.22
V2t = 28.1
Turbine outlet:
Blade velocity is
P s 0.3 s 1160
U 2t 18.22 m /s
60
Flow velocity is
Vf2t Vf1t 28.1 m /s
It is possible to draw velocity triangle at turbine outlet, as shown in Fig. 9.16.
(d) Turbine outlet blade angle is
¥ 28.1 ´
B2t tan 1 ¦ 57o
§ 18.22 µ¶
(e) Input torque is
T p mr
2pVu2p
434.3417 s 0.2 s 26.46
2298.5 N m
Power-Transmitting Turbomachines 365
(f ) Input power is
Pp 2P N pT p
2 s P s 1500 s 2298.5
361.05 kW
(g) Output torque is
T t mr
1tVu1t
434.3417 s 0.2 s 31.83
2765 N m
(h) Output power is
Pt 2P N tT t
2 s P s 1160 s 2765
335.88 kW
(i) Efficiency is
Pt 335.88
H 93%
Pp 361.05
Tt 2765
1.2
T p 2298.5
S ummary
1. The basic features of power-transmitting tur- 5. Energy-flow (or power-flow) is from input
bomachines are studied in detail. shaft to impeller, to fluid, to turbine blades, to
2. The components are: input shaft, impeller- output shaft.
blades, turbine blades and output shaft in a 6. Fluid coupling: torque remains same, speed is
fluid coupling. In a torque converter, the stator reduced.
blades are designed to increase or decrease the 7. Torque converter: torque can be increased
torque. or decreased (respectively with decrease or
3. The fluid is non-corrosive, non-foaming, non- increase of speed).
toxic, chemically stable oil, with high density, 8. The characteristics of the machines are stud-
low viscosity and lubricating properties. ied, so as to know how the component perfor-
4. The working principles and the constructional mances are matched.
details are studied, including some quantitative 9. There is a critical speed of impeller, at which
details. the turbine just starts running.
366 Turbomachines
10. At lower speeds, the device is designed to run as a 12. A brief comparison of power-transmitting
torque converter; then near design speeds, to run devices with the mechanical systems is
as a coupling, in a combined mode of operation. made.
11. The design of the components (blade angles, 13. Except in the reliability of sudden acceleration,
radii etc) is for full load conditions; at other the fluid systems score over the mechanical sys-
speeds, the performance is transient or unsteady tems with respect to all other factors.
in nature.
(a) the efficiency starts from zero and increases (c) the efficiency starts from 1 and then
continuously decreases continuously
(b) the efficiency starts from zero, increases, (d) none of these
and then decreases
R eview Q uestions
1. Define a power-transmitting turbomachine. 6. Explain how the fixed blades give rise to increase
(Refer Section 9.2) (or decrease) the torque at the output shaft.
2. Explain the working principle of a power- (Refer Section 9.4; Start from the internal balance
transmitting turbomachine. of torques)
(Refer Section 9.2) 7. Discuss the characteristics of a torque
3. Enlist the desirable properties of a fluid medium converter.
in power-transmitting turbomachines. (Refer Fig. 9.8, with related explanation)
(Refer Section 9.2) 8. Explain how the characteristics of a fluid sys-
4. Explain the working of a power-transmitting tem (fluid coupling and torque converter) can
turbomachine. be integrated for higher efficiencies.
(Refer Section 9.2; use (Refer Fig. 9.9 with related explanations)
any one figure out of Figs. 9.3(a), 9.3(b), or 9.6, 9. Compare fluid transmission systems with
use corresponding explanation) mechanical transmission systems.
5. Draw the characteristics of a fluid coupling (Refer Section 9.5)
and explain. 10. State the applications of torque converters.
(Refer Fig. 9.5 with related explanation) (Refer Section 9.6)
E xercises
1. A fluid coupling is required to be designed to oil in the coupling has a specific gravity of 0.85.
drive a conveyor belt. The input shaft is driven The fluid velocity at the inlet to the pump is at
at a speed of 600 rpm by a motor. Speed of the 75o to the plane of rotation of impeller. Draw
output shaft is required to be 510 rpm. The the velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet of
power output of the motor is 48 kW. For the the pump impeller and at the inlet and out-
coupling, calculate (a) input torque, (b) output let of the turbine rotor. Calculate (a) Turbine
power, and (c) efficiency. blade angles at inlet and outlet, (b) mass flow
2. It is proposed to fabricate a small fluid coupling rate, (c) torque transmitted, (d) power at inlet,
(which is like the one shown in Fig. 9.10). The (e) power at outlet, and (f ) efficiency.
pumping element has a mean inlet diameter of 3. The inlet blade angle of the pump element of a
7.5 cm, a mean outlet diameter of 11 cm, and torque converter is 40o, the outlet blade angle
the blades have inlet and outlet angles of 60o is 50o, and the blade is bent backward. The
and 75o (backward bent), respectively. The mean radius at inlet is 12 cm and that at outlet
speeds of the input and output shafts are to is 16 cm. The blade width at inlet is 2 cm. The
be 1000 and 900 rpm, respectively. The blade pump speed is 3000 rpm. The flow component
width at the inlet is 1.0 cm. The velocity of flow of fluid velocity at inlet is 25 m/s that remains
of fluid remains constant at inlet and outlet. The constant throughout the system. The stator
368 Turbomachines
blades alter the flow path of fluid by an angle angle of 10o so as to decelerate the flow. Draw
of 15o so as to accelerate the fluid. The fluid the velocity triangles. Determine: (a) mass flow
is oil with a specific gravity of 0.85. The effi- rate, (b) input torque, (c) input power, (d) out-
ciency of the device is 85%. Draw the velocity put power, (e) output speed, (f ) output torque,
triangles. Determine (a) mass flow rate of fluid, and (g) torque ratio.
(b) torque at input shaft, (c) input power, (d) 5. The input power to a torque converter is 30
output power, (e) speed of the output shaft, (f ) kW, at a speed of 4500 rpm. Let the flow of
output torque, and (g) ratio of output torque fluid from the turbine outlet to the pump
to input torque. inlet be “axial, without whirl component”.
4. The pump of a torque converter has its inlet Design the torque converter so that the out-
blade angle of 40o, outlet blade angle of 65o put torque is twice the input torque. (Hint:
bent backward. The mean radius at inlet is The data and solutions of the examples/exer-
10 cm, that at outlet is 15 cm, and the blade cise problems can be tabulated for an overall
width at inlet is 2 cm. The pump speed is 3000 assessment/evaluation, so that the inlet and
rpm and the flow component of fluid velocity outlet diameters of the pumping unit can be
is 20 m/s. The efficiency of the device is 85%. assumed as a starting point for this problem.
Fluid is oil with a specific gravity of 0.85. The All other dimensions and angles can then be
stator blades alter the flow path of fluid by an calculated.)
A nswers
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. (d) 6. (b)
2. (c) 7. (c)
3. (b) 8. (a)
4. (c) 9. (c)
5. (d) 10. (a)
Exercises
1. 764 N-m; 40.8 kW; 85% 4. 213.63 kg/s; 1049.32 N-m; 329.654 kW;
2. 81.85o,63.81o; 9.3 kg/s; 0.9378 N-m; 98.2 W; 280.2 kW; 4044 rpm; 661.6 N-m; 0.63
88.38 W; 90%
3. 320.45 kg/s; 1198 N-m; 376.36 kW; 319.9
kW; 1703 rpm; 1793.8 N-m; 1.497
Glossary
[The Glossary terms listed below are intended to provide a second revision (after Summary in each chapter) for the
students. For their university examinations, students should go through the exhaustive list.]
Absolute velocity: It is the velocity of the fluid and is considered independent of blade movement. The
momentums of fluid and the components of fluid velocity are all calculated with respect to the absolute velocity
of the fluid. It may be considered that the inlet absolute fluid velocity is just before the actual entry of fluid into
the rotor and the absolute outlet fluid velocity is just after the fluid exits the rotor.
Blade angles: These are the angles between the blade velocity vector and the tangent to the mean line of the
blade. Blade angles are identified at inlet (A1) and outlet (A2).
Blade velocity: It is tangential to the circular path of the blade, as the blade rotates about the axis of the
shaft. Any point on the circular path can be chosen for the tangent, but a convenient point is that which
has a horizontal tangent. For the purpose of analysis, blade velocities are required at the inlet to the blade
(entry of fluid) and outlet from the blade (exit of fluid). In an axial flow machine, at both inlet and outlet,
the blade velocities are equal.
Blades or vanes: These are the parts that interact with the fluid. Blades are generally of airfoil shapes. Their
design is guided by the requirement of area changes of passages between them. In impulse machines, the
flow area is required to be constant and therefore blade shapes are not like airfoils.
Blowers: These are the machines that create a pressure ratio of the order of 1.5–2.0. Volume flow rates of
blowers are higher than fans. Blowers also supply air for ventilation of large areas, air for combustion cham-
bers, for fluidizing reaction beds, and so on.
Camber: It is the mean line of the blade.
Cavitation: In brief, it is the formation of cavities on a surface due to a sequence of events. These events are
as follows:
1. Reduction of pressure in a body of water, adjacent to a surface, at the discharge end of a reaction
turbine, or at the suction end of a centrifugal pump. Both occurrences are on the surface of rotor
blades because of the installation of the machine above tailrace (in case of turbine) or sump (in case
of pump).
2. The reduction of pressure is to the level of “below the vapor pressure” of the water.
3. The water vaporizes and forms bubbles of vapor on the surface of rotor blades.
4. Due to eddies, water at slightly higher pressure, from other regions, comes in contact with the vapor
bubbles.
5. The bubbles collapse due to pressure impressed and condensation of vapor.
6. Water from all around rushes into the space of vapor.
7. The force is so much that it can chip off the metal particles from the solid surface, causing cavities.
370 Turbomachines
Cavitation can be prevented by not allowing the pressure to go below the level of vapor pressure of the water.
This is by installing the machines as near to the tailrace or sump as possible. High-strength materials can also
be used to resist the cavitation damage.
Choking: It is a sharp fall in the pressure created in a compressor due to increased flow rate and consequent
increased losses. The flow passages get practically choked and the flow rate almost drops to zero in such a
case.
Compounding of steam turbines: It is the splitting of the process of transfer of energy, from steam to the
rotor, between multiple rows of rotor blades. The purpose is to avoid the sources of inefficiency of single
expansion, which are as follows:
1. Convergent–divergent nozzles, employed for single expansion are less efficient.
2. Process of energy transfer is less efficient due to exit losses.
3. Frictional loss in single expansion is more.
4. Very high speed of rotor, associated with single expansion, causes more losses and is less efficient;
materials of blades also have to be of superior strength.
5. High speeds of single expansion require speed reduction (with losses) even at utility end.
Pressure compounding and velocity compounding are two separate methods of compounding.
Compressors: These are the machines that generate pressure ratio of the order of 2.5 and more. Multistage
compressors can have a pressure ratio as high as 10. Axial flow compressors are multistage units with higher
efficiencies.
Degree of reaction: It is the ratio of energy transferred due to the change of pressure in the rotor to the total
energy transferred in the rotor. The total energy transferred has two parts: one part is due to the change in
pressure, which is the reaction component, and the other part is due to the change in velocity, which is the
kinetic component.
DeLaval turbine: It is an impulse-type steam turbine where the expansion of steam takes place in a single
row of nozzles and the resulting kinetic energy of steam is absorbed in a single row of rotor blades. Since it is
not possible for a single row of rotor blades to absorb the kinetic energy to a reasonable extent, the utilization
factor of DeLaval turbine is low, compared to other types of turbines.
Delivery head of a centrifugal pump: It is the vertical distance between the centerline of the pump and the
end of the delivery pipe, plus the frictional head in the delivery pipe and losses in the delivery valve.
Delivery valve in a centrifugal pump setup: It is a control valve to regulate the flow. It is also used to isolate
the pump, that is, to disconnect the pump for maintenance or repair.
Diffuser blades: These are fixed to the stator in a compressor and convert the kinetic energy of fluid into
pressure energy. The flow area between the blades increases, thereby reducing the velocity of air (see also
diffuser).
Diffuser: It is a flow passage in which the fluid decelerates. Gain in pressure is due to the reduction in kinetic
energy. Flow passage between blades can act like diffusers, as in the compressor.
Draft tube: It is a flow passage employed for the purpose of recovering some head, which otherwise would
be lost due to installation of a turbine above the tailrace. Draft tube is fitted at the discharge end of the tur-
bine and the other end is invariably submerged under the tailrace level. Draft tube is a divergent tube with
half-cone angle of about 4o–5o, which decreases the exit velocity and also saves some exit loss. Different
types of draft tubes are Moody’s, Elbow type, Split exit type, etc.
Glossary 371
Drag: It is the force experienced by airfoil in the direction of the fluid flow.
Dynamic action: It is the interaction between the fluid and the blades of rotor, when the fluid is in motion
and is not confined in a space. The fluid gives the energy (or gains the energy) as it moves.
Dynamic head: It is the head that is equivalent to the velocity of the flow.
Energy flow diagram: It is a diagrammatic representation of the flow of energy in a turbomachine, including
the components of energy and losses. The rate process of energy is the power flow; hence, energy flow dia-
gram can also be considered as power flow diagram.
Euler head: It is the theoretical head, as calculated by the Euler equation, depending on the geometrical and
operating features of the machine or blades. Euler head is calculated with one main assumption that fluid
flow in the impeller is “Vane congruent.”
Fans: These are the axial flow machines to impart only velocity (kinetic energy) to the air. The pressure
created is only a few centimeters of water, that is, the pressure ratio is hardly 1.05–1.07, and so on. The
purpose of fans is only circulation of air or exhaust of used air. Usually, fans do not have a casing at all.
Flow coefficient: It is proportionality constant and is used to correlate the flow of fluid to the operating and
geometrical parameters of a machine. (O1 Q/ND3.)
Fluid coupling: It is one type of power-transmitting turbomachine in which the input and output torques
are equal, with output speed less than the input speed. This is a substitute for mechanical clutch. Hence,
fluid coupling can be used to couple or decouple the shafts, just like the clutch. However, the operation of
fluid coupling is much smoother than the clutch.
Fluid parameters: These are pressure, head, enthalpy, fluid angle, etc.
Foot valve: It is a non-return valve in a centrifugal pump installation, fixed at the inlet end of the suction
pipe. Its function is to hold the water in the body of the pump, including the suction pipe, during the pro-
cess of priming and after the pump is shut down. A second function of foot valve is to prevent the entry of
debris or solids into the suction pipe.
Francis turbine: It is a reaction-type hydraulic turbine suitable for medium heads (50 250 m) and medium
specific speeds (60–300). The main components of Francis turbine are the volute casing, guide vanes, rotor,
and draft tube. Speed control is by regulating the flow, which is done by guide-vane control. The draft tube
creates a sub-atmospheric pressure at the discharge side of the rotor, thereby increasing the effective head
acting on the turbine.
Friction head: It is the loss of head due to friction when the fluid flows in a pipe. In a turbine installation,
friction head of penstock pipes is deducted from the available gross head. In a pump installation, friction
head is added to the geometrical head (to get the total head, which is to be overcome by the pump).
Governing of turbines: It is a process by which the speed of the turbine is maintained constant for the
purpose of generating electrical power (in the coupled generator) at constant frequency. Governing is done
by adjusting the input to a turbine (flow rate of water) to suit the output. In Pelton turbine, this is done by
working on the spear in the nozzle, and in Francis or Kaplan turbines, this is done by adjusting the guide
vanes. In steam turbines, the governing process is either by nozzle control or by throttle valve control.
Guide vanes: These are the blades that direct the flow of fluid in a designed direction. Guide vanes are
fixed to the stator. Guide vanes can also be anchored to the stator so that their orientation can be altered
as required, as in Francis or Kaplan turbines, where generating velocity is also a part of their function. In
compressors, the inlet guide vanes impart a prewhirl to the inlet fluid stream.
372 Turbomachines
Head coefficient: This is the proportionality constant and is used to correlate the head of the fluid to the
operating and geometrical parameters of a machine (O2 H/N 2D2).
Head of water: It is the height of the water available for a turbine or height to which water is required to
be pumped by a pump.
Impeller: It is the rotor of a work-absorbing turbomachine, such as pump or compressor. Impeller has
blades on it and it also transfers energy from shaft to the fluid.
Impulse: It is action solely due to the velocity. In impulse turbine, the rotor gets energy from fluid due to the
change in velocity only. There is no change in the pressure of the fluid, as it flows through the blade passages
of the rotor. DeLaval steam turbine and Pelton turbine are examples of impulse turbines.
Inducer section: It is that portion of the blade of a centrifugal blower which is slightly curved so as to pre-
vent entry shock to air at the inlet. While the entire blade is radial, a small portion is given a curvature so
that the air enters the impeller smoothly.
Infinitesimal stage or small-stage efficiency or polytropic efficiency: This efficiency is found out by assum-
ing that there is a stage in which the increase (or decrease) of pressure is very small ( dp). This hypothetical
stage has an expression for efficiency, which is independent of the pressure ratio, initial/final temperature,
and such other parameters; the efficiency is totally in terms of index of compression (expansion) and ratio of
specific heats. Hence, this efficiency characterizes the process of compression (or expansion).
Kaplan turbine: It is a reaction-type hydraulic turbine, suitable for low heads (5–75 m) or high specific
speeds (300 and above). The main components of Kaplan turbine are the volute casing, guide vanes, rotor,
and draft tube. One main feature of Kaplan turbine is that its rotor blades can swing, about their own axes
(duly acted upon by governing mechanism) even when the turbine is running. The turbine, with blades that
are integral with hub, is known as propeller turbine. Speed control of Kaplan turbine is by regulating the
flow, by guide vane control along with rotor blade control.
Lift: It is the force experienced by airfoil in a direction perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow.
Loading coefficient or pressure coefficient: It is the ratio of isentropic work at a given tip speed to Euler
work at the same tip speed in a compressor.
Machine parameters: They are the physical dimensions and ratios between such dimensions, angles of
blades, etc. (e.g., D1, D2, A1, A2, d, B1, B2, {).
Manometric head of a centrifugal pump: It is the head measured across the inlet and outlet flanges of the
pump. Manometric head represents the output head of the pump.
Maximum suction lift (MSL): It is the maximum possible height of installation of a centrifugal pump,
above the sump level, so that the cavitation is just prevented, or the pressure at the suction end of impeller
is just the vapor pressure of water. This depends on the local ambient pressure, temperature, suction pipe
losses, and velocity in the suction pipe.
Model studies: This is a method of evaluating the performance of a designed prototype machine, by first
having a scaled-down model, then conducting tests on the model, and finally extrapolating the performance
of the model to that of prototype machine.
Multijet Pelton turbine: When the flow rate available is more, giving rise to specific speeds in the range of
30–70, multiple jets on the same Pelton wheel can be arranged, so as to share the flow between them. Thus,
the cost of multiple units of Pelton wheels (and generators) can be saved by employing multiple jets, on the
same wheel.
Glossary 373
Multistage pumps: They are pumps-in-series or impellers-in-series. The same flow rate passes through all
the impellers. All the impellers are keyed onto same shaft. The heads created in each stage add up to the
total head of the multistage pump. These are sometimes known as the “deep-well pumps.”
Net positive suction head (NPSH): It is the difference between the maximum possible suction height (MSL)
and the actual height of installation of the pump above the sump level (hs). (Thus, NPSH MSL hs).
Higher the value of NPSH, lower is the height of installation of pump and safer is the pump from cavitation
troubles.
Nozzle: It is a flow passage in which the fluid accelerates. The gain in the kinetic energy of fluid is because
of conversion of pressure energy (of fluids) or enthalpy (of gases or steam). Convergent nozzles generate
subsonic velocities. Convergent–divergent nozzles generate supersonic velocities. Nozzles are a part of
stator in the impulse machines. Flow passages between blades also act as nozzles.
Operating parameters: Operating parameters of a turbomachine are the rotor speed, velocities of blades,
changes in pressures, head generated, flow rates, losses, efficiencies, and so on.
Parallel operation of pumps: Parallel operation of pumps is done to meet the requirement of higher flow
rates. The delivery pressures or heads must be same for all the pumps; and the flow rates are additive. Any
time, for any maintenance work, a pump can be isolated and removed with the flow rate of that pump
reduced in the total flow; other pumps can continue to work.
Parsons turbine: It is a reaction-type steam turbine, where the degree of reaction is 0.5. Steam first expands
in stator blade and, then with the resultant velocity, enters the rotor blades. In the rotor blades, the steam
again expands. But the velocity so generated is absorbed by the rotor blades, along with the velocity at
the inlet. Therefore, the velocity of steam at the exit of rotor blades is equal to the velocity at the entry
to the stator blades. The two rows (stator rotor) together form a stage. Depending on the total pressure
drop available between supply pressure and exit pressure (boiler to condenser), there can be many stages of
Parsons turbine in succession.
Pelton turbine: It is an impulse-type hydraulic turbine suitable for high heads (150 m and above) and low
specific speeds (5–35). The main components are the nozzle (to generate a high speed jet) and a rotor with
Pelton double cups. A spear in the nozzle is used to regulate the flow. A deflector helps in diverting the jet
in opposite direction, when the turbine is required to be stopped.
Positive displacement machines (PDMs): They are those in which the fluid is confined in spaces such as
cylinder–piston assemblies. The process of compression or expansion is due to the movement of boundary
(i.e., piston).
Power coefficient: It is the proportionality constant used to correlate the power of the fluid to the operating
and geometrical parameters of a machine. (O3 P/N 3D5).
Power flow diagram: See energy flow diagram.
Power input factor or workdone factor: It is the ratio of actual work supplied to the theoretical work
supplied in a compressor.
Power-transmitting turbomachine: It is a device, which transfers power from an input shaft to an output
shaft through a fluid medium, without any mechanical coupling. It can be a fluid coupling with output
torque equal to input torque, but at slightly reduced speed. It can also be a torque converter, either increas-
ing the torque (at reduced speed) or decreasing the torque (at increased speed). However, in all cases, there
are losses involved; and the output power is always less than the input power.
374 Turbomachines
Preheat in multistage compressors: When the fluid is compressed in multiple stages, the entry of fluid to
a subsequent stage from the previous stage is at a slightly higher temperature, due to the actual compression
process. The isentropic compression in the subsequent process requires more work input, due to the divergent
constant pressure lines. Hence, when there are two or more stages, the sum of isentropic works (for each stage)
is more than the isentropic work of compression of single stage (through the same initial and final pressure).
This increased input is said to be due to preheat effect.
Pressure coefficient or loading coefficient: It is the ratio of isentropic work at a given tip speed to Euler
work at the same tip speed in a compressor.
Pre-whirl: It is a designed whirl component imparted to the fluid at the inlet to a compressor, in order to
restrict the relative velocity to subsonic values, to avoid occurrence of shocks.
Priming of pumps: It is the process of filling up of impeller casing and suction pipe of a pump setup, by
the liquid to be pumped, before starting the pump. If the pump is not primed, the impeller is not able to
create the suction; and the pump runs dry. When the foot valve is leakproof, it is sufficient to prime the
pump once, after the installation; and it is not necessary to prime it again and again. If the pump is installed
at a level lower than the sump level, the priming is automatic; and there is no need of any special steps to
prime the pump.
Rateau turbine: It is an impulse-type steam turbine. Expansion of steam is only in stator blades, with the
passage between the stator blades acting as nozzles. There is no expansion of steam in the rotor blades. The
difference between DeLaval and Rateau turbines is that the pressure ratio (of expansion) in the Rateau
turbine is far less than in the DeLaval turbine; as a result, the velocity generated is less, losses are also less.
The total expansion of steam (boiler pressure to condenser pressure) is shared in multiple stages of Rateau
turbines.
Reaction: It is an action, solely due to the expansion of fluid in rotor passages. The velocity is generated in
the blade passages of rotor and is simultaneously absorbed by the rotor. Pressure of fluid drops as the fluid
flows through the reaction blades. The reaction blades are so shaped that the passages between them act like
nozzles. Parsons turbine is an example of reaction turbine.
Reheat and reheat factor (RF) in multistage turbines: When the fluid is expanded in multiple
stages, the entry of fluid to a subsequent stage from the previous stage is at a slightly higher tempera-
ture due to actual expansion process, that is, due to irreversibilities, eddies, turbulence, and such other
dissipative processes. However, due to the higher temperature at the entry (to the subsequent stage),
the fluid is able to give out more expansion work. When there are two or more stages of expansion, the
sum of isentropic works (from each stage) is more than the isentropic work of a single-stage expansion
(through the same initial and final pressure limits). This increased output is said to be due to reheat
effect. The reheat effect is quantified by a “reheat factor”, defined as the ratio of sum of the isentropic
works to the single-stage work. RF is about 1.04, 1.05. Factors affecting RF are no. of stages, initial
state, and stage efficiency.
Relative velocity: Relative velocity of a fluid with respect to the blade is tangential to the blade profile. For
the purpose of analysis, the relative velocities are required at the inlet and outlet of the rotor. Hence, the
relative velocities at the inlet and outlet are tangential to the blade profile at the inlet and outlet, respectively.
In ideal case, that is, vane congruent flow, the relative velocity, is tangential to the stream lines of fluid in
the rotor.
Runner: It is the rotor of a work-producing turbomachine such as turbine. Runner has blades on it. Runner
transfers energy from fluid to shaft.
Glossary 375
“impinges” on the blades or “separates” from the blades, because the three velocities (of the triangle) do not
form the triangle. The more the point of operation shifts from the design point, more is this form of loss.
Utilization factor: Utilization factor of a turbine is the ratio of actual specific work to the specific work inclu-
sive of exit losses: W/(W V22 /2). The exit velocity and exit losses are a necessary part of the working of a
turbine, which cannot be avoided. Well-designed turbines can have utilization factors as high as 0.85.
Vane congruent flow: It is a theoretical fluid flow, in which the stream lines are identical with the shape of
the blades (without the effects of eddies, turbulence, friction, boundary layer, etc.).
Velocity triangle: This represents a perfect balance between the blade velocity, absolute fluid velocity, and
the relative fluid velocity (with respect to blade). During such a balance, the fluid smoothly glides over the
surface of the blade without any shock. The analysis is with respect to such a perfect balance and therefore
with respect to the velocity triangles. When the balance is disturbed, the losses take place, as in the case of
off-design performance.
Work done factor or power input factor: It is the ratio of actual work supplied to the theoretical work
supplied in a compressor.
Zero-work impeller: It is a particular combination of diameter ratio of rotor, angles of blades, and the
operating speed, when there is no energy transfer between the fluid and the blades, even when the rotor runs.
The same impeller, when run at other speeds, can have the energy transfer (either positive or negative).
Bibliography