RADIATION

In Physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles
through space or through a material medium. This medium includes

1. Electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared x-rays etc.

2. Particle radiation such as alpha radiation, beta radiation etc.
3. Acoustic radiation such as ultrasound, seismic waves etc.
4. Gravitational radiation

Environmental radiation exists in our environment from naturally occurring and manmade
radiation sources. Often, environmental radiation is termed "background radiation." On average,
Iowans receive an annual radiation dose of 300 millirem from natural radiation sources and 60
millirem from manmade radiation sources. Any one person's annual envrironmental radiation
dose will vary depending upon their activities and location. Radiation has always been a natural
part of our environment. Natural radioactive sources in the soil, water and air contribute to our
exposure to ionizing radiation, as well as man-made sources resulting from mining and use of
naturally radioactive materials in power generation, nuclear medicine, consumer products,
military and industrial applications.

Radiation from both natural and artificial sources is in the environment – in the air we breathe,
the food and drink we consume, and even in our own bodies. We are all exposed to a level of
radiation every day.

Natural Background Sources

Cosmic Radiation

The sun and stars send a constant stream of cosmic radiation to Earth, much like a steady drizzle
of rain. Differences in elevation, atmospheric conditions, and the Earth's magnetic field can
change the amount (or dose) of cosmic radiation that we receive.
Terrestrial Radiation

The Earth itself is a source of terrestrial radiation. Radioactive materials (including uranium,
thorium, and radium) exist naturally in soil and rock. Essentially all air contains radon, which is
responsible for most of the dose that Americans receive each year from natural background
sources. In addition, water contains small amounts of dissolved uranium and thorium, and all
organic matter (both plant and animal) contains radioactive carbon and potassium. Some of these
materials are ingested with food and water, while others (such as radon) are inhaled. The dose
from terrestrial sources varies in different parts of the world, but locations with higher soil
concentrations of uranium and thorium generally have higher doses.

Note: Radon gas contributes nearly two-thirds of our natural background radiation exposure.

Internal Radiation

All people have internal radiation, mainly from radioactive potassium-40 and carbon-14 inside
their bodies from birth and, therefore, are sources of exposure to others. The variation in dose
from one person to another is not as great as that associated with cosmic and terrestrial sources.

Manmade Sources

In general, the following man-made sources expose the public to radiation (the significant
radioactive isotopes are indicated in parentheses):

 Medical sources (by far, the most significant man-made source) in Diagnostic x-rays,
Nuclear medicine procedures (iodine-131, cesium-137, and others)
 Consumer products
 Building and road construction materials
 Combustible fuels, including gas and coal
 X-ray security systems
 Televisions
 Fluorescent lamp starters
 Smoke detectors (americium)
 Luminous watches (tritium)
  Lantern mantles (thorium)
 Tobacco (polonium-210)
 Ophthalmic glass used in eyeglasses
 Some ceramics

Radiation Health Effects

Ionizing radiation has sufficient energy to affect the atoms in living cells and thereby damage
their genetic material (DNA). Fortunately, the cells in our bodies are extremely efficient at
repairing this damage. However, if the damage is not repaired correctly, a cell may die or
eventually become cancerous.

Exposure to very high levels of radiation, such as being close to an atomic blast, can cause acute
health effects such as skin burns and acute radiation syndrome (“radiation sickness"). It can also
result in long-term health effects such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. Exposure to low
levels of radiation encountered in the environment does not cause immediate health effects, but
is a minor contributor to our overall cancer risk.

Acute Radiation Syndrome from Large Exposures

A very high level of radiation exposure delivered over a short period of time can cause
symptoms such as nausea and vomiting within hours and can sometimes result in death over the
following days or weeks. This is known as acute radiation syndrome, commonly known as
“radiation sickness.”

It takes a very high radiation exposure to cause acute radiation syndrome—more than
0.75 gray (75 rad) in a short time span (minutes to hours). This level of radiation would be like
getting the radiation from 18,000 chest x-rays distributed over your entire body in this short
period. Acute radiation syndrome is rare, and comes from extreme events like a nuclear
explosion or accidental handling or rupture of a highly radioactive source.

Radiation Exposure and Cancer Risk

Exposure to low-levels of radiation does not cause immediate health effects, but can cause a
small increase in the risk of cancer over a lifetime. There are studies that keep track of groups of
people who have been exposed to radiation, including atomic bomb survivors and radiation
industry workers. These studies show that radiation exposure increases the chance of getting
cancer, and the risk increases as the dose increases: the higher the dose, the greater the risk.
Conversely, cancer risk from radiation exposure declines as the dose falls: the lower the dose, the
lower the risk.

Radiation doses are commonly expressed in millisieverts (international units) or rem (U.S. units).
A dose can be determined from a one-time radiation exposure, or from accumulated exposures
over time. About 99 percent of individuals would not get cancer as a result of a one-time uniform
whole-body exposure of 100 millisieverts (10 rem) or lower.

Control and Prevention

Engineering Controls

Employers should use engineering controls to maintain occupational radiation doses and doses to
the public ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) is applied after determining that
radiation dose will not exceed applicable regulatory dose limits. To the greatest extent
possible, administrative controls should not be used as substitutes for engineering controls.
Engineering controls, in some cases, may be incorporated into facility design.

Some examples of engineering controls are discussed below, including shielding and interlock
systems. In addition, radioactive material containment is sometimes incorporated into shielding,
such as in gamma cameras used for nuclear medicine or industrial radiography devices
containing a radioactive source.

Shielding

The need for shielding depends on the type and activity of the radiation source. Uses in adjacent
areas, including the areas above and below the room or facility, should also be considered.
For shielding of rooms containing medical X-ray equipment or rooms with other medical X-ray
imaging devices, the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP)
recommends that the shielding design goal be 500 mrad (5 mGy) in a year to any person in
controlled (restricted) areas. For uncontrolled (unrestricted) areas, NCRP recommends that the
shielding design goal be a maximum of 100 mrad (1 mGy) to any person in a year (~0.02 mGy
per week).

Shielding design requires a qualified expert (e.g., health physicist). Before using any new or
remodeled rooms or facilities or any new or relocated X-ray equipment, a qualified expert should
conduct an area survey and evaluate shielding to verify radiation protection behind shielding
materials. Before performing any room modifications or if any changes occur to a facility that
may change radiation exposure levels (e.g., new equipment, increased workload, altered use of
adjacent spaces), a qualified expert should review the shielding design.

In general, the floors, walls, ceilings, and doors should be built with materials that provide
shielding for the desired radiation protection. Lead shielding may be installed, if appropriate,
including leaded glass, sheet lead (e.g., built into walls), pre-fabricated lead-lined drywall or
lead-lined plywood, pre-fabricated lead-lined doors and door frames, lead plates, and lead bricks.
Sometimes it may be sufficient to construct a wall of a suitable thickness of normal building
materials (e.g., dense concrete). The shielding design may include a control booth or load/lead-
equivalent drapes provided for protection of workers operating equipment or devices that emit
ionizing radiation.

Interlock Systems

A radiation safety interlock system is a device that automatically shuts off or reduces the
radiation emission rate from radiation-producing equipment (gamma or X-ray
equipment or accelerator). The purpose of a radiation safety interlock system is to prevent
worker exposure and injury from high radiation levels. Typically, interlock systems are required
by state or federal (e.g., NRC, FDA (U.S. Food and Drug Administration)) regulations
for equipment registration/licensing and performance/safety standards.
In most applications, interlock systems to stop X-ray or particle beam production can be
activated by the opening of a worker access point (e.g., door) into a controlled (restricted) area.
Interlock safety systems may also include door pressure sensors or motion detectors.

For applications involving high-energy radiation sources, a system with interlock keys can
control access or prevent entry into a radiation treatment room or during accelerator operations.
Because removal of interlock keys will stop X-ray or particle beam production, such interlock
systems rely on constant monitoring of all interlock keys and appropriate worker training for
controlled access to high radiation areas.

In addition to worker safety, patient safety is a concern for interlock systems for medical X-ray
equipment or accelerators. NCRP recommends that interlock systems that stop X-ray or particle
beam production should not be placed on doors to any diagnostic or interventional X-ray room to
prevent inadvertent patient injury or the need to repeat exposures to patients.1 As an alternative,
appropriate access control measures could be implemented at such facilities for both worker and
patient radiation safety.

When used, interlock systems should be inspected regularly by a qualified expert.

Administrative Controls

Administrative controls generally supplement engineering controls. Examples of administrative

controls include signage, warning systems, and written operating procedures to prevent, reduce,
or eliminate radiation exposure. Operating procedures typically include both normal operating
procedures and emergency procedures (i.e., those for spills, leaks, and emergency evacuation).

Warning Systems

Warning systems can be integrated into the design of radiation-producing equipment or devices
and can also be used with radioactive materials. Such warning systems will set off an audible
(easy to hear) alarm (e.g., to warn workers that a radiation hazard exists) or a visible (lighted)
warning signal whenever ionizing radiation is being emitted.

As an example, industrial radiography equipment located in a fixed facility or room (e.g.,

industrial radiography room for conducting materials testing for quality control at a
manufacturing facility) may include visible warning signals with colored or flashing lights or
audible alarms with a distinct sound, which are located inside and outside the shielded enclosure
for conducting industrial radiography. In this example, the visible alarm would activate when the
radiation source is exposed or when X-rays or gamma rays are generated during industrial
radiography operations. The audible alarm would sound if the door is opened to the shielded
enclosure for the industrial radiography equipment. Other facilities, such as gamma irradiation
facilities, also use warning systems. Warning systems should be checked regularly for proper
function.

Warning systems should be checked regularly for proper function.

PPE will not protect workers from direct, external radiation exposure (e.g., standing in an X-ray
field), unless the PPE contains shielding material. For example, a leaded apron will reduce X-ray
doses to covered areas.