Brief history and development of microbiology

Beginings of Microbiology

Many of the ancient Mosaic laws found in the Bible about basic
sanitation have been used through the centuries and still
contribute to our practices of preventive medicine. The Bible
also refers to leprosy and to the isolation of lepers. Although in
those days the term leprosy probably included other infectious
and noninfectious diseases, isolation did limit the spread of the
infectious diseases.
Greeks anticipated microbiology
The Greeks anticipated microbiology, as they did so many
things.
The Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived around 400 B.C., set
forth ethical standards for the practice of medicine that are still
in use today. Hippocrates was wise in human relations and also a
shrewd (cunned) observer. He associated particular signs and
symptoms with certain illnesses and realized that diseases could
be transmitted from one to another by clothing or other objects.
Romans
The Romans also contributed to microbiology, as early as the first century B.C.
The scholar and writer Varro proposed that tiny invisible animals entered the
body through the mouth and nose to cause disease.
Lucretius, a philosophical poet, cited ‘‘seeds’’of disease in his book De
Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things).
Thucydides
At about the same time, the Greek historian Thucydides observed
that people who had recovered from the plague could take care of
plague victims without danger of getting the disease again.
Bubonic plague
Bubonic plague, also called the Black Death, appeared in the
Mediterranean region around 542 A.D., where it reached
epidemic proportions and killed millions. The Black Death was a
great leveler—it killed rich and poor alike.
Plague:
In 1347, the plague invaded Europe along the caravan routes and sea
lanes from central Asia, affecting Italy first, then France, England,
and finally northern Europe. Although no accurate records were kept
at that time, it is estimated that tens of millions of people in Europe
died during this and successive waves of plague over the next 300
years. The wealthy fled to isolated summer homes but carried plague-
infected fleas with them in unwashed hair and clothing.

In the mid-fourteenth century (1347–1351) plague alone wiped out

25 million people—one-fourth of the population of Europe and
neighboring regions— in just 5 years. Their bones are now displayed
in an ossuary
Classical Golden Age Of Microbiology
Robert Hooke:
Until the seventeenth century, the advance of microbiology was
hampered by the lack of appropriate tools to observe microbes.
Around 1665, the English scientist Robert Hooke built a
compound microscope (one in which light passes through two
lenses) and used it to observe thin slices of cork. He coined the
term “cell” to describe the orderly arrangement of small boxes
that he saw because they reminded him of the cells (small, bare
rooms) of monks(one who lived in montesary).
In 1665 Robert Hooke reported to the world that life’s smallest structural units were ‘little boxes’ or ‘cells’.

Using his improved version of a compound microscope (one that uses two sets of lenses), Hooke was able to see individual cells.

Hooke's discovery marked the beginning of the cell theory ‘the theory that all living things are composed of cells.’

Subsequent investigations into the structure and functions of cells were based on this theory.
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek:
However, it was Anton van Leeuwenhoek (Figure 1.6), a Dutch
cloth merchant and amateur (fond of something) lens grinder, who
first made and used lenses to observe living microorganisms.
The First Microscope
Microbes were
first observedby
Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek
using a simple
microscope (ca.
1676)
Reported his
“animalcules” to
the Royal Society
of London
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek

He carefully recorded his observations in a series of letters to the

British Royal Society.

Describing ‘‘animalcules’’ in rainwater, faces and material scraped

from teeth….these drawing were identified as representations of
bacteria and protozoa

His letters were read in the British Royal Society but its significance
was not understood until Pasteur told that microorganisms are
responsible for different diseases and processes.
The Second Golden Age of Microbiology
 1857-1914
 Spontaneous Generation
 Beginning with Pasteur’s work, discoveries included the
relationship between microbes , Fermentation and
pasteurization
Redi’s Experiments
Until the second half of the nineteenth century, many
scientists and philosophers believed that some forms of life
could arise spontaneously from nonliving matter.
Early belief that some forms of life
could arise from “vital forces” present
in nonliving or decomposing matter,
abiogenesis. In other words, organisms
can arise form non- living matter.
When decaying meat was kept isolated from flies,
maggots never developed
Meat exposed to flies was soon infested
As a result, scientists began to doubt Aristotle’s
theory

They called this hypothetical process Spontaneous Generation.

In 1668, the Italian physician Francesco Redi a strong opponent

of spontaneous generation, set out to demonstrate that maggots
did not arise spontaneously from decaying meat.
 Theory of Biogenesis
In 1858, when the German scientist Rudolf Virchow challenged the case for
spontaneous generation with the concept of biogenesis, the claim that
‘living cells can arise only from preexisting living cells’.
In 1961, French scientist Louis Pasteur demonstrated that
‘microorganisms are present in the air and can contaminate sterile solutions,
but that air itself does not create microbes’.

LOUIS JABLOT
In 1670 Jablot conducted an experiment in which he divided a
hay infusion that had been boiled into two containers: a
heated container that was closed to the air and a heated
container that was freely open to the air. Only the open
vessel developed microorganisms. This further helped to
disprove abiogenesis.
Disproved by:

Schwann, Friedrich Schroder and von Dusch (1830s) – Air allowed to enter flask but only after passing
through a heated tube or sterile wool

John Tyndall (1820-1893) – Omission of dust  no growth. Demonstrated heat resistant forms of bacteria
(endospores)
LOUIS PASTEUR’S EXPERIMENT
He filled several short-necked flasks with beef broth and then boiled their
contents.
Some were then left open and allowed to cool. In a few days, these flasks
were found to be contaminated with microbes.
The other flasks, sealed after boiling, were free of microorganisms.
From these results, Pasteur reasoned that microbes in the air were the
agents responsible for contaminating nonliving matter such as the broths
in Needham's flasks.
 LOUIS PASTEUR’S EXPERIMENT
Pasteur next placed broth in an open-ended,
long necked flasks and bent the necks into S-
shaped curves.

The contents of this flask was then boiled

and cooled.

Why didn’t the microorganisms appear in

the broth ?
The broth in the flasks did not decay and Pasteur's unique design allowed air to pass into the flask,
showed no signs of life, even after months. but the curved neck trapped any airborne
microorganisms that might contaminate the broth.
 Fermentation and Pasteurization
Pasteur showed that microbes are responsible for fermentation.
Fermentation is the conversation of sugar to alcohol to make beer and wine.
Microbial growth is also responsible for spoilage of food.
Bacteria that use alcohol and produce acetic acid spoil wine by turning itto
vinegar (acetic acid).

Pasteur demonstrated that these spoilage bacteria could be killed by heat

that was not hot enough to evaporate the alcohol in wine. This application
of a high heat for a short time is called pasteurization.

Louis Pasteur
 Showed microbes caused fermentation
 Studied spoilage and introduced “Pasteurization” to prevent it
 Used cotton plugs in his cultures to prevent air borne contamination,
devised Aseptic Technique. 14
 Germ Theory of Disease
Proof that microorganisms caused disease
Robert Koch demonstrated that anthrax was caused by Bacillus anthracis
Blood from a diseased animal caused disease in a healthy animal
Cultivated the disease causing agent outside the animal’s body, then introduced the
agent into a healthy animal which subsequently developed the disease

 1876 - Robert Koch provided proof that a bacterium

causes anthrax using experimental steps now called the
Koch’s Postulates
 He was the first to use agar as solid culture
mediumin bacteriology.
1884 Koch’s Postulates of Disease Transmission

 The microbe must always be present in every case of the disease

 It must be isolated in pure culture on artificial media
 When inoculated into healthy animal host it should produce the
same disease
 It must be isolated from the diseased animal again
15
16
Third Golden Age of Microbiology
Vaccination
Injection of a killed microbe in order to stimulate the immune system against
the microbe, thereby preventing disease.

How Vaccination came about?

Edward Jenner, a young British physician, embarked on an experiment to

find a way to protect people from smallpox.
When a young milkmaid informed Jenner that she couldn't get smallpox
because she already had been sick from cowpox-a much milder disease-
he decided to put the girl's story to the test.
First Jenner collected scrapings from cowpox blisters.
Then he inoculated a healthy 8-year-old volunteer with the cowpox
material by scratching the person's arm with a pox-contaminated
needle.
How Vaccination came about?
Years after Jenner's experiment, in about 1880, Pasteur discovered why
vaccinations work.
He found that the bacterium that causes fowl cholera lost its ability to
cause disease (lost its
virulence or became avirulent) after it was grown in the laboratory for
long periods.
However, it- and other microorganisms with decreased virulence-was able
to induce immunity against subsequent infections by its virulent
counterparts.
The discovery of this phenomenon provided a clue to Jenner's successful
experiment with cowpox.
Both cowpox and smallpox are caused by viruses.
Even though cowpox virus is not a laboratory-produced derivative of smallpox
virus, it is so closely related to the smallpox virus that it can induce immunity
to both viruses.
Pasteur used the term vaccine for cultures of avirulent microorganisms used
for preventive inoculation.
Chemotherapy
Microbiologists focused on destroying pathogenic microorganisms without
killing infected organisms or humans.
Treatment of disease by using chemical substances is called
chemotherapy.
Chemicals produced naturally by bacteria and fungi to act against other
microorganisms are called antibiotics.
Chemotherapeutic agents prepared from chemicals in the laboratory are
called synthetic drugs.
The First Synthetic Drugs

Paul Ehrlich speculated a ‘magic

bullet’ that can destroy the
pathogen but not the infected
host
He introduced an arsenic-
containing chemical called
salvarsan to treat syphilis (1910)
.
Discovery of Antibiotics
Alexander Fleming, a Scottish physician and bacteriologist, almost tossed
out some culture plates that had been contaminated by mold.
Fortunately, he took a second look at the curious pattern of growth on the
contaminated plates.
Around the mold was a clear area where bacterial growth had been
inhibited
Fleming was looking at a mold that could inhibit the growth of a bacterium.
The mold was later identified as Penicillium notatum, later renamed
Penicillium chrysogenum.
In 1928 Fleming named the mold's active inhibitor penicillin.
Thus, penicillin is an antibiotic produced by a fungus.
Why drug resistance occurs?
Drug resistance results from genetic changes in microbes that enables them
to tolerate a certain amount of an antibiotic that would normally inhibit
them.
These changes might include
- the production by microbes of chemicals (enzymes) that inactivate
antibiotics,
- changes in the surface of a microbe that prevent an antibiotic from attaching
to it,
- and prevention of an antibiotic from entering the microbe.
 A Chronology of events important in the history of microbiology
(Summary)

Era Investigator Contribution

1500-1600 Girolamo Theory that invisible lining seeds caused disease

Fracastoro

1600-1700 Francesco Redi Performed experiments to disprove spontaneous generation

Antony van First to observe and accurately record and report microorganisms

Leeuwenhoek

1700-1800 John Needham Performed experiments, result supported concept of spontaneous

generation

Lazaro Did experiments, results disproved spontaneous generation

Spallanzani

Edward Jenner Discovered vaccination for small pox using cowpox vaccine
1800-1900 Theodor Schwann
Performed experiments, result disproved spontaneous generation

Frans Schultze
Performed experiments, results disproved spontaneous generation
Oliver Windel Holmes
Stressed contagiousness of puerperal fever; host agent was carried from one other to another

by doctors.
Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis
Introduced use of antiseptic
Louis Pasteur
Established germ theory of fermentation and gem theory of diseases, developed immunization

techniques.
Joseph Lister
Era Investigator Developed asepti cContribution
technique, isolated bacteria in pureculture

1800-1900 John Tyndall Developed fractional sterilization to kill spores (Tyndallization)

Fanny Hesse Suggested use of agar as solidifying material for microbiological media

Robert Koch Developed pure culture technique and Koch’s Postulates;discovered

causative agents of anthrax and tuberculosis.
Paul Erlich Developed modern concept of chemotherapy and chemotherapeutic agents

Elie Methchnikoff Discovered Phagocytosis

Hans Christian Gram Developed important procedure for differential staining of bacteria, the
Era
Investigator Contribution

1900-1910
August von Wassermann Introduced complement-fixation test for syphilis
Utilized principles of enrichment cultures; confirmed finding of
Martinus first virus.
Beijerinck
Willem