ES Unit-1

1EE801:Electrical Science
Unit-1
Review of DC Circuits
Kirchhoff’s laws, mesh and nodal analysis, star-delta transformation, Superposition

theorem, Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem, electrostatics definitions, permittivity, series
parallel connection of capacitors , charging and discharging of capacitor.
01-09-2023 1EE801: Electrical Science 1

Ohm’s Law
▪ Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional
to the current flowing through it, provided all physical conditions and
temperature remain constant.
▪ Mathematically;
▪ 𝑉 ∝ 𝐼 → 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼
Georg Simon Ohm, German physicist

Open & Short Circuits

➢ Resistances in Series & Parallel

➢ Examples with Resistances in Series & Parallel
Q. Determine the equivalent Resistance Rab
Ans: Rab =10 ohm

➢ Source conversion

➢ Voltage Division rule

➢ Current Division rule

➢ Classification of Sources
Independent Sources Dependent/Controlled Sources

➢ Some important terms for circuit analysis

➢ Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
“The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero”.

➢ Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

Application of Kirchhoff’s Laws
➢ Nodal Analysis (Application of KCL)

• Identify all the nodes in the given circuit and assign node voltages V1, V2, V3,… considering 0v
to any one reference node.
• Assume branch currents and apply KCL to each non-reference nodes.
• Apply Ohms law to express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.
• Solve the linear equations to determine the node voltages V1, V2, V3,…
➢ Mesh Analysis (Application of KVL)

• Identify all the meshes in the given circuit and assign mesh currents I1, I2, I3,… considering
uniform orientation.
• Apply KVL to each mesh considering voltage source and drops of the mesh.
• Apply Ohms law to express the branch drops in terms of mesh currents.
• Solve the linear equations to determine the mesh currents I1, I2, I3,…

➢ Application of KCL: Nodal Analysis Applying KCL to Node ‘a’ Applying KCL to Node ‘b’
Example 1: Determine the node voltages

using Nodal analysis for the given circuit.
Solution:
Step 1: There are 3 essential nodes, a, b, c in the given
circuit.
Let the node voltages are Va, Vb, Vc respectively.
Step 2: Assuming node c as reference or datum node,
Vc=0 V.
Step 3: Let’s apply KCL to all non-reference nodes…

➢ Application of KCL: Nodal Analysis
Example 2: Determine the current through 10Ω branch using
Nodal Analysis for the given circuit.
Solution:
Current, I10Ω = (V1-V3)/10

= (68.2-27.3)10 =4.09A

Example 3: Determine the voltage across 5Ω branch using Nodal Analysis for the given
circuit.
Solution:
Step 1: To select a reference node and label the node voltages
Step 3: To select a reference node

and label the node voltages

Example 4: Determine node voltages

➢ More examples on KVL Solution:
Let I1 and I2 be the currents flowing through the two loops in the
clockwise direction as shown in the figure
Example 5: Determine the voltage through R2 in the
given circuit using KVL. If voltage source supplies
90V and current source supplies 5A.
VC = 54V

➢ More examples on KVL
Example 6: Determine the currents in each mesh of the given circuit using KVL.
Solution: Applying KVL to Mesh 1, 2, and 3 respectively, we get:

➢ Application of KVL: Mesh Analysis
Example 7: Determine the current I0 using Mesh analysis in the given circuit.
Solution:

➢ Transformation of star-delta circuits

Now adding equation (i), (ii) & (iii) together
The total impedance between A-B in the delta network;
According to star network;
Now subtract equation (i), (ii), & (iii) one by one from equation (iv)
RAB = RA + RB First, Subtract (ii) from (iv)
Similarly the impedance between terminals B-C
RBC = RB + RC
RAC = RA + RC
Similarly the impedance between terminals A-C

Similarly subtracting (i) & (iii) from (iv) results in

Multiplying (v) & (vi)

➢ Solution of star-delta circuits (Example-1)

➢ Solution of star-delta circuits (Example-2)

Superposition theorem
The superposition theorem is used in solving a network in which two or more
sources are present and connected not in series or in parallel.
Statement:
If two or more voltage or current sources are acting simultaneously in a
linear network, the resultant current in any branch is the algebraic sum of
the currents that would be produced in it, when each source acts alone and
all other independent sources are replaced by their internal resistances.
Explanation with Solving steps:
Step-1 Find out a number of independent sources available in the network.
Step-2 Choose any one source and eliminate all other sources. If the network consists of any dependent
source, you cannot eliminate it. It remains as it is throughout the calculation.
(If all energy sources are ideal, you need not consider internal resistance. And directly short-circuit voltage
source and open-circuit current source. But in case, if internal resistance of sources is given, you have to
replace it with internal resistance).
Step-3 Now, in a circuit, only one independent energy source is present. You need to find a response with only
one energy source in the circuit.
Step-4 Repeat step-2 and 3 for all energy sources available in the network. If there are three independent
sources, you need to repeat these steps three times. And every time you get some value of the response.
Step-5 Now, combine all responses by algebraic summation obtained by individual sources. And you will get a
final value of response for a particular element of a network.
If you need to find a response for other elements, you need to follow these steps again for that element.

Example: Superposition theorem
Explanation with Solving steps: Estimating current through the 8Ω
resister, in the given circuit using Superposition theorem:
Solution: Step1: There are two sources in the circuit.
Step2 (a): Considering the current
source
Apply KVL to the loop-1;
0 = 6I1 + 8I1 – 8I2 Step 2(b): Considering the voltage
14I1 – 8I2 = 0 source
The current passes through the loop-2 Apply KVL to the loop;
is calculated from the current source.
And it will be; 28 = 6IL1 + 8IL1
I2 = 28A
Put this value in the above equation; 28 = 14IL1
14I1 – 8 (28) = 0
I1 = 16A IL1 = 28/14
IL2 = 16 – 28
IL2 = -12A IL1 = 2A
Step-3: Applying Superposition theorem:

IL = IL1 – IL2
IL = 2 + (-12)
IL = -10A
Thevenin’s theorem
❖ Thevenin’s Theorem states that any complicated network across
its load terminals can be substituted by a voltage source with
one resistance in series. The VTH is the open circuit voltage (VOC)
known as Thevenin’s Voltage and the RTH is the net internal
resistance known as Thevenin’s Resistance across the opened
load terminal of circuit.
Steps for circuit analysis:
➢ Identify and Open the load terminal. Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit
➢ Determine the open circuit voltage (VOC)
using conventional circuit analysis
methods, which is Thevenin’s equivalent
voltage (VTH).
➢ Determine the net internal resistance
across the opened load terminal of the
circuit after deactivating all the sources,
which is Thevenin’s equivalent
resistance (RTH).
➢ Draw the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit
with VTH, RTH, RL all connected in series
and estimate the load current IL.

Thevenin’s theorem
Example : Find the Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit for this circuit & Estimate the Load current.
Load Current = 12x4/(4+4)=6A

Norton’s theorem
❖ Norton’s Theorem states that any complicated
network across its load terminals can be substituted
by a current source with one resistance in parallel.
The IN is the short circuit Current (ISC) known as
Norton’s current and the RN is the net internal
resistance known as Norton’s resistance across the Example : Draw the Norton’s Circuit for this circuit.
opened load terminal of circuit.
Steps for circuit analysis:
➢ Identify and Open the load terminal.
➢ Determine the short circuit current (ISC) using
conventional circuit analysis methods, which is Norton’s
equivalent Current (IN).
➢ Determine the net internal resistance across the opened
load terminal of the circuit after deactivating all the
sources, which is Norton’s equivalent resistance (RN).
➢ Draw the Norton’s Equivalent circuit with IN, RN, RL all
connected in parallel and estimate the load current IL.
𝐼𝑁
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅
𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑁

Electrostatics: Selfstudy
As per International System of Units
Electron volt
This is the unit of energy in particle physics and is
represented as eV.
• 1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J.

Electrostatics: Selfstudy What is Electrostatics?
Study of stationary electric charges at rest is known as electrostatics. An electroscope is used to detect the
charge on a body. Pith ball electroscope is used to detect a charge and to know the nature of the charge. Gold
leaf electroscope which was invented by Bennet detects a charge and the nature of the charge and determines
the quantity of the charge.
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
•A body in which electric charge can easily flow through is called conductor (e.g. metals).
•A body in which electric charge cannot flow is called insulator or dielectric. (e.g. glass, wool, rubber, plastic,
etc.)
•Substances which are intermediate between conductors and insulators are called semiconductors. (e.g.
silicon, germanium, etc)
Dielectric Strength: It is the minimum field intensity that should be applied to break down the insulating
property of insulator.
•Dielectric strength of air = 3 x 106 V/m
•Dielectric strength of Teflon = 60 × 106 Vm–1
The maximum charge a sphere can hold depends on the size and dielectric strength of the medium in which
the sphere is placed.
1.The maximum charge density of a sphere of radius ‘R’ in terms of electric intensity E at a distance in free
space is Eε0(R/r)2.
2.When the electric field in the air exceeds its dielectric strength air molecules become ionized and are
accelerated by fields and the air becomes conducting.

Surface Charge Density σ:The charge per unit area of a conductor is
Electrostatics: Selfstudy defined as surface charge density. Its unit is coulomb/ meter and its
dimensions are ATL–2. It is used in the formula for the charged disc, charged
conductor and an infinite sheet of charge etc. Surface Charge Density
depends on the shape of the conductor and presence of other conductors
and insulators in the vicinity of the conductor. σ is maximum at pointed
surfaces and for plane surfaces it is minimum. Surface Charge Density is
maximum at the corners of rectangular laminas and at the vertex of the
conical conductor.
Electric Flux: The number of electric lines of force crossing a surface

normal to the area gives electric flux ΦE.
Electric flux through an elementary area ds is defined as the scalar product of area and field. dΦE = Eds cos θ.
Electric Flux will be maximum when electric field is normal to the area (dΦ = Eds). Electric Flux will be minimum
when field is parallel to area (dΦ = 0). For a closed surface, outward flux is positive and inward flux is negative
Electric potential (V): The electric potential at a point in a field is the amount of work done in bringing a unit +ve
charge from infinity to the point. It is equal to the Electric potential energy of unit +ve charge at that point. V = Ed
A positive charge in a field moves from high potential to low potential whereas electron moves from low potential
to high potential when left free. Work done in moving a charge q through a potential difference V is …W = q V
joule.

Electric Lines of Force
Electrostatics: Selfstudy The line of force is the path along which a unit +ve charge,
accelerates in the electric field. The tangent at any point to the
line of force gives the direction of the field at that point.
Properties of Electric Lines of Force
• Two lines of force never intersect.
• The number of lines of force passing normally through a unit
area around a point is numerically equal to E, the strength of
the field at the point.
• Lines of force always leave or end normally on a charged conductor.
• Electric lines of force can never be closed loops.
• Lines of force have a tendency to contract longitudinally and exert a force of repulsion on one another
laterally.
• If in a region of space there is no electric field, there will be no lines of force. Inside a conductor, there cannot
be any line of force.
The number of lines of force passing normally through a unit area around a point is numerically equal to E.
In a uniform field, lines of force are parallel to one another.

Difference between electric lines of force and magnetic lines of force
• Electric lines of force never form closed loops while magnetic lines are always closed loops.

Selfstudy ➢ Electric circuit elements

Capacitors …
What is a Capacitor?
The capacitor is a device in which electrical energy can be stored. It is an arrangement of two-conductor generally carrying
charges of equal magnitudes and opposite sign and separated by an insulating/dielectric medium.
➢ Capacitance
The charge on the capacitor (Q) is directly proportional to the potential difference (V) between the plates
i.e. QαV or Q = CV
The constant of proportionality (C) is termed as the capacitance of the capacitor.
➢ Unit of Capacitance: Farad (F)
The capacitor value can vary from a fraction of pico-farad to more than a micro Farad. Voltage level can range from a
couple to a substantial couple of hundred thousand volts.
➢ Dimensional Formula: M-1L-2I2T4
Commonly Used Scales: μF = 10-6F; nF = 10-9F; pF = 10-12F
➢ Factors Affecting the Capacitance:
✓ Shape and size of the conductor
Selfstudy
✓ Medium between them

✓ Presence of other conductors near it.
➢ Calculation of Capacitance
▪ Assume the charge on the conductors (Q)
▪ Calculate the electric field between the plates (E)
▪ Calculate potential difference from electric field(V)
▪ Apply the relation, C=Q/V
Classifications of capacitors
Types of Capacitor
➢ Parallel Plate Capacitor: It consists of two metal plates of Area, A
and is separated by a distance d. The charge density on each plate
of parallel plate capacitor has a magnitude of σ = Q/A
From Gauss law, E = Q/ε0A; Also, E = V/d
The Capacitance will be C = kAε0/d F, (k=1 for vacuum between plates)
where k is the dielectric constant of the medium,
ε0= Permittivity of free space = 8.85x10-12C2/Nm2
➢ Spherical capacitor: It consists of two concentric spherical shells.

Suppose the radius of the inner sphere, Rin = a and radius of the
outer sphere, Rout = b.
Capacitance, C=4πϵ0k[ba/(b−a)] F.
Selfstudy
Cylindrical capacitor: It may be realized by considering solid cylinder of

radius, a surrounded by a cylindrical shell, b. The length of the cylinder
is l and is much larger than a-b to avoid edge effects.
Capacitance, C=2πϵ0L/ln(b/a) F.

Charging and discharging mechanism in capacitors to a dc source
❖Charging of a Capacitor
When the key is pressed, the capacitor begins to store charge. If at any time during charging, I is the current
through the circuit and Q is the charge on the capacitor, then:
Potential difference across resistor = IR, and
Potential difference between the plates of the capacitor = Q/C
Since the sum of both these potentials is equal to V,
RI + Q/C = V … (1)
As the current stops flowing when the capacitor is fully charged,
When Q = Q0 (the maximum value of the charge on the capacitor), I = 0
From equation. (1): Q0 / C = V … (2)
From equations. (1) and (2):
RI+Q/C=Q0/C (3)
𝑄0 𝑄 𝑄0 −𝑄
Or, − = 𝐼𝑅 ⇒ 𝐼 = (4)
𝐶 𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑄 −𝑄
Since, 𝐼 = , Eqn (4)=> = 0 (5)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
By variable Separation method:
Charging mechanism in capacitors to a dc source

Discharging mechanism in capacitors to a dc source

❖ During charging:

❖Time constant of the circuit:
The time required for the capacitor charge to decrease to 36.8% (0.368) of it’s initial value during
discharging (or to increase 63.2% of its maximum charge during charging.)
➢ For RC circuit the time constant =RC s
➢ For RL circuit the time constant =L/R s
➢ During discharging: 𝑄 = 𝑄𝑜 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
➢ Considering t= =RC s => 𝑄 = 𝑄𝑜 𝑒 −1 = 0.368 𝑄𝑜
Numerical :
Q1. A capacitor of capacitance 1000 μF is connected to a resistor of resistance 150 kΩ and a battery of 1.5 V
in series. Find the maximum current that flows through the resistor while charging. Also determine the time
constant of the circuit.
Solution:
I = V/R = 1.5 V/150 kΩ = 0.01 mA
Time constant, =RC = 1000 μF x 150 kΩ = 150 s

Q2. An uncharged capacitor and a resistor are connected in series as shown in the figure.
After the switch is closed, find
(a) The time constant of the RC circuit.
(b) The maximum charge on the capacitor.
(c) The charge on the capacitor 6 s after the switch is closed.
Solution:
(a) The time constant of the RC circuit, τ = (500 x 103 Ω) (8 x 10-6) = 4s
(b) Q = Qf (1 – e-t/RC)
Qf = CV is the final charge
The maximum charge on the capacitor, Qmax = CV = (8 x 10-6) (12) = 96 μC
(c) The charge on the capacitor 6 s after the switch is closed is given by
Q = Qf (1 – e-t/τ)
= 96 (1 – e -6/4) = 74.5 μC
Q3. A 10F capacitor is connected in series with a 400 k resistor across 250 V d.c. supply. Determine :
(a) Initial charging current,
(b) Time constant of the circuit,
(c) Time taken for capacitor voltage to grow 200V,
(d) Current and voltage across capacitor, 4 second after it is disconnected from the supply.
Q.4. A capacitor of 0.1 F is charged from a 100-V battery through a series resistance of 1 k. Then determine:
(a) the time for the capacitor to receive 63.2 % of its final charge.
(b) the charge received in this time (c) the final rate of charging.
(d) the rate of charging when the charge is 63.2% of the final charge.
Solution:
(a) As per the definition, 63.2% of charge is received in a time equal to the time constant of the circuit.
Time required, =RC = 0.000001 x 1000= 10ms
(b) Final charge, Q = CV = 0.1 × 100 = 10 C; Charge received during this time is = 0.632 × 10 = 6.32 μC
(c) The rate of charging at any time is given by:
Initially,
(d) Here,

Self-study Behaviour of inductors to dc quantity
01-09-2023 Electrical Science 45

Self-study Rise of current in inductive circuit

Self-study Decay of current in inductive circuit

Self-study Numericals on Rise & Decay of current in inductive circuit
Q1. A coil of resistance 200 ohm, and inductance 10 H is connected to a battery of 100 V. Find :
(a) The current in the coil 40 ms after closing the switch,
(b) The rate at which the current will then be increased.
Answer: [0.275A, 4.5A/s]
Q2. What is the characteristic time constant for a 7.50 mH inductor in series with a 3.00 Ω resistor? (b) Find the
current 5.00 ms after the switch is moved to position 2 to disconnect the battery, if it is initially 10.0 A.
Answer: [2.5ms, 1.35 A]

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1EE801:Electrical Science

Kirchhoff’s laws, mesh and nodal analysis, star-delta transformation, Superposition

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Q. Determine the equivalent Resistance Rab

Ans: Rab =10 ohm

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Independent Sources Dependent/Controlled Sources

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“The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero”.

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➢ Nodal Analysis (Application of KCL)

➢ Mesh Analysis (Application of KVL)

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Example 1: Determine the node voltages

Step 3: Let’s apply KCL to all non-reference nodes…

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Current, I10Ω = (V1-V3)/10

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Step 3: To select a reference node

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Solution: Applying KVL to Mesh 1, 2, and 3 respectively, we get:

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The total impedance between A-B in the delta network;

According to star network;

Similarly the impedance between terminals A-C

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Step-3: Applying Superposition theorem:

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Load Current = 12x4/(4+4)=6A

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Electric Flux: The number of electric lines of force crossing a surface

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In a uniform field, lines of force are parallel to one another.

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✓ Medium between them

➢ Spherical capacitor: It consists of two concentric spherical shells.

Cylindrical capacitor: It may be realized by considering solid cylinder of

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(c) The rate of charging at any time is given by: