ES Unit-5

Topics to be covered
➢ Half and full wave rectifiers.

➢ Special purpose diodes
➢ Clipper and clamper circuits.
➢ Regulators
➢ Bipolar junction transistor, construction, working and application as switch, Numericals.
➢ Basics of amplifier and oscillator.
➢ Basics of operational amplifier, comparator and their applications.
➢ Basics of Timer IC.
➢ Basics of multivibrators.
26-10-2023 Electrical Science 1

Introduction - Semiconductor
❖ Classification of Materials based on Energy Band
▪ Semiconductor: Materials such as germanium, silicon, selenium etc. which are neither conductors nor
insulators, i.e., their conductivity lies between the conductivity of conductors and insulators.
▪ (a) Intrinsic Semiconductors
▪ (b) Extrinsic Semiconductors
Extrinsic Semiconductor
▪ n-type semiconductor: Semiconductor formed ▪ p-type semiconductor: Semiconductor formed
by adding a small amount of pentavalent by adding a small amount of trivalent impurity
impurity (arsenic, antimony or phosphorus) to a (gallium, boron or indium) to a pure
pure semiconductor (intrinsic semiconductor) semiconductor (intrinsic semiconductor) such
such as germanium or silicon crystal . as germanium or silicon crystal .
▪ Thus, n-type semiconductor consists of: ▪ Thus, p-type semiconductor consists of:
▪ Large number of free electrons – majority carriers ▪ Large number of holes – majority carriers
▪ Few thermally generated holes – minority carriers ▪ Few thermally generated electrons – minority carriers

p-n junction
▪ When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to a n-type semiconductor the contact surface
so formed is called p-n junction.
▪ In actual, p-n junction is fabricated by special techniques such as growing, alloying and
diffusion methods.
▪ Depletion layer: A region around the junction from which

the charge carriers (holes and free electrons) are depleted.
▪ Width of depletion layer is of the order 0.5 – 1.0 micron
▪ Barrier potential (or cut-in voltage 𝑉0 ): Potential difference

built up across the p-n junction which restricts further
movement of charge carriers across the junction.
▪ 𝑉0 = 0.3 for Ge and 0.7 for Si

Fig.: Unbiased p-n junction
Semiconductor Diode
▪ A p-n junction is known as semiconductor diode.
▪ Diode means device having “two electrodes” or terminals.

Biasing a p-n junction
▪ To make the current flow through a p-n junction, it is necessary to ‘bias’ the junction.
▪ Biasing is a process of applying external d.c. voltage to the semiconductor diode to establish
certain operating conditions. It is of 2 types:
▪ Forward Biasing: +ve terminal of d.c. ❖ In the forward biased state as the applied potential increases,
source is connected to p-type and –ve the depletion region width decreases. As a result, conduction
of electron increases.
terminal is connected to n-type. ❖ In general, the current (Id) of the semiconductor diode can be
▪ Reverse Biasing: +ve terminal of d.c. defined by the equation:
𝑘𝑉𝑑
source is connected to n-type and –ve 𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑇𝐾 −1
terminal is connected to p-type. ❖ For positive values of Vd, Id is positive and increases
exponentially.
❖ At Vd=0, ID is also zero (ref: equation). For negative values of
Vd,
𝐼𝑑 = −𝐼𝑆
❖ which is a horizontal line. This explains the VI characteristics
of pn junction diode.

Biasing a p-n junction contd…
▪ Forward Biasing: The process of applying ▪ Reverse Biasing: The process of applying
external voltage to a p-n junction that external voltage to a p-n junction in such
cancels the potential barrier to constitute a direction that increases the potential
easy flow of current through it. barrier.
▪ During Forward Biased: ▪ During Reverse Biased:
▪ The junction potential barrier is reduced and at ▪ The junction potential barrier is strengthened
some forward voltage (0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for or increased.
Si), it is eliminated altogether.
▪ The junction offers high resistance (called
▪ The junction offers low resistance (called reverse resistance 𝑅𝑅 ) to the flow of current
forward resistance 𝑅𝐹 ) to the flow of current through it.
through it.
▪ Ideally no current flows in the circuit due to
▪ The magnitude of flow of current (called high resistance path. However, in practice very
forward current) through the circuit depends small current (reverse saturation current) flows
upon the applied forward voltage. due to the movement of minority carriers.

V-I characteristics of a Diode
▪ At zero external voltage no current flows through the
diode.
▪ At forward bias, current increases slightly till

potential barrier is wiped off.
▪ After knee voltage (or cut-in voltage), forward

current rises abruptly.
▪ If forward current increases beyond rated value of

diode, the diode may be destroyed.
▪ At reverse bias, the reverse current increases slightly

with increase in voltage because of minority carriers.
▪ At a certain reverse voltage (break-down voltage),

the junction breaks and the reverse current rises
abruptly to a large value since the resistance of
barrier region falls suddenly.
▪ Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): The maximum value of reverse ▪ At reverse voltage, when the junction breaks, the
voltage that a p-n junction can withstand without damaging it. diode may be destroyed.
Resistance of a Diode
▪ Forward Resistance: It’s the opposition offered by diode to the forward current, under forward
condition. Depending on the current flowing through diode being a.c. or d.c., it could be
classified as:
▪ D.C. or Static Forward Resistance (Rf): Opposition offered 𝑅𝑓 = d.c. voltage across diode = OA
by the diode to d.c. flow in forward bias condition. d.c. current flowing through it OB
▪ A.C. or Dynamic Forward Resistance (rf): Opposition

offered by the diode to a.c. flow in forward bias condition.
change in forward voltage OC − OE EC

𝑟𝑓 = = =
change in forward current OD −OF DF
▪ Reverse Biasing: +ve terminal of d.c. source is connected to n-type and –ve terminal is
connected to p-type.
▪ Reverse Resistance (𝑅𝑟 ): Under reverse biasing, the opposition offered by diode to the reverse
current. Ideally it is considered to be infinite. However, in actual practice 𝑅𝑟 is very high.
▪ The ratio of reverse to forward resistance is 105 : 1 for Si diodes and 40,000 : 1 for Ge diodes.

Equivalent Circuit of a Diode
Fig.: Ideal diode equivalent circuit
▪ A diode will conduct when forward voltage (𝑉𝐹 )

Fig.: Diode and its simplified equivalent circuit
applied across diode overcomes:
1. Potential barrier (𝑉0 )
𝑅𝐹
2. Voltage drop in forward resistance
i.e., 𝑉𝐹 = 𝑉0 + 𝐼𝑓 𝑅𝑓
Fig.: Diode and its equivalent circuit

Numerical on application of diodes
Q.1: An a.c. voltage of peak value 20 V is connected in series with a silicon diode and load resistance of 500 Ω. If the
forward resistance of diode is 10 Ω, find : (i) peak current through diode, (ii) peak output voltage, (iii) What will be these
values if the diode is assumed to be ideal ?
Solution: Data given:
Peak input voltage = 20 V
Forward resistance, rf = 10 Ω
Load resistance, RL= 500 Ω
Potential barrier voltage, V0 = 0.7 V
The diode will conduct during the positive half-cycles
of a.c. input voltage only.
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.(ii)
(i) The peak current through the diode will occur
at the instant when the input voltage reaches
positive peak i.e. Vin = VF = 20 V.
(ii) Peak output voltage :
(iii) Ideal diode case:

Q.2: Calculate the current through 48 Ω resistor in the circuit shown in Figure.
Assume the diodes to be of silicon and forward resistance of each diode is 1 Ω.
Solution: Diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased.
We can, therefore, consider the branches containing diodes D2 and D4 as “open”.
Replacing diodes D1 and D3 by their equivalent circuits and making the branches containing
diodes D2 and D4 open, we get the circuit shown in 2nd Figure.
As we know for a silicon diode, the barrier voltage is 0.7 V.
Q.3: Find the voltage VA in the circuit shown in Fig. (i). Use simplified model.
Solution: It appears that when the applied voltage is switched on, both the diodes will
turn “on”. But that is not so. When voltage is applied, germanium diode (V0 = 0.3 V)
will turn on first and a level of 0.3V is maintained across the parallel circuit.
The silicon diode never gets the opportunity to have 0.7 V across it and, therefore,
remains in open-circuit state as shown in Fig.(ii).
26-10-2023 12
Q.4: Determine the currents I1, I2 and I3 for the network shown in Fig. (i).
Use simplified model for the diodes.
Solution: As we can see in Fig. (i) both diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased.
Using simplified model for the diodes, the circuit shown in Fig. (i) becomes the one shown in Fig. (ii).
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to loop ABCDA in Fig. (ii), we have,

Applications of diode: half and full wave rectifiers
❖ The process of converting an alternating voltage/current to a unidirectional voltage/current is called rectification.
❖ A diode offers very low resistance when forward biased and very high resistance when reverse biased.
❖ Hence, it can be used as rectifier. The rectified output is a pulsating unidirectional voltage/current.
❖ A filter is necessary after rectifier to convert pulsating waveform to dc. Rectifiers are classified as:
1. Half Wave Rectifier
2. Full Wave Rectifier
2.1 Centre-tap Full Wave Rectifier
2.2 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
1. Half Wave Rectifier:

o During positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased.
Hence, current flows through load resistor.
o During negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased
and is equivalent to open circuit.
o Therefore current through load is zero.
o Thus, the diode conducts only for one half cycles and
results in half wave rectified output.
➢ Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):
It is the maximum voltage across the diode during
reverse-biased condition (due to negative half-cycle).
✓ For Half-wave rectifier: PIV= Vmax
Half wave rectifiers
➢ DC or Average value of load current (Idc) ➢ RMS value of load current (Irms)
AC/DC Power in Half-wave rectifier

➢ Output voltage (Vdc):
➢ DC output power (Pdc):
𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿 𝑰𝒎 𝟐 𝑰𝟐𝒎
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑷𝒅𝒄 = 𝑰𝟐𝒅𝒄 𝑹𝑳= 𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹
𝜋 𝐿 𝜋(𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆 ) 𝐿 𝜋 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆 ) 𝝅 𝝅𝟐 𝑳
𝑉𝑚 1 𝑉𝑚 𝐴𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑, 𝑅𝐿 ≫ 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 ➢ AC input power (Pac):
⇒ 𝑉𝑑𝑐 =
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆
≅ 𝑷𝒂𝒄 = 𝑰𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆 )
𝜋 𝜋 𝐴𝑡 𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝑅𝐿 → ∞
1+ 𝑅 ) 𝑰𝟐𝒎
𝐿 = (𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆 )
Where, RS is the secondary winding resistance of the transformer. 4
Half wave rectifiers ➢ Ripple Factor ()
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒(𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 )
➢ Rectifier Efficiency (): 𝛾=
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒(𝐼𝑑𝑐 )
𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃𝑑𝑐 )
=
𝐴𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃𝑎𝑐 )
2
𝐼𝑚
𝑅 0.406
= 𝜋2 𝐿 = ≅ 0.406 𝑜𝑟 40.6%
2
𝐼𝑚 𝑅 + 𝑅𝑆
(𝑅 +𝑅 + 𝑅𝑆 )
4 𝑓 𝐿 1+ 𝑓 )
𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 𝐴𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑, 𝑅𝐿 ≫ 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆
1+ ≅1
𝑅𝐿 𝐴𝑡 𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝑅𝐿 → ∞
➢ Transformer utilization factor(TUF):

𝐷𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑃𝑑𝑐)
TUF= 𝐴𝐶 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟(𝑃𝑎𝑐)

2.1 Centre-tapFull Wave Rectifier
o The full wave rectifier consists of a center-tap transformer, which results in equal voltages above and below the
center-tap.
o During the positive half cycle, positive voltage appears at the anode of D1 while negative voltage at the anode of D2.
o So diode D1 is forward biased and it results in current through load. During negative half cycle, the positive voltage
appears at the anode of D2 and hence it is forward biased resulting in current through load.
o At the same instant a negative voltage appears at the anode of D1, thus reverse biasing it and hence D1 does not
conduct.
o The current through the load during both half cycles is in the same direction hence it is sum of individual currents.
➢ Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):
For Full-wave Centre-tap rectifier: PIV= Vm+Vm=2Vm

2.2 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier
o This circuit does not required center-tap transformer. During the positive
half cycle, diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and D3 and D4 are
reverse biased.
o Thus, current flows in the circuit due to D1 and D2. During the positive
reverse biased.
o Thus, current flows in the circuit due to D1 and D2. During the negative
reverse biased which results in a current in the same direction.
o Thus the current flows for the whole cycle across the load in one
direction resulting in full wave rectification.
➢ Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): For Full-wave Bridge rectifier: PIV= Vm

Full wave rectifiers ➢ RMS value of load current (Irms)
➢ DC or Average value of load current (Idc)
➢ Output voltage (Vdc):

2𝐼𝑚 2𝑉𝑚 2𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿 AC/DC Power in Full-wave rectifier
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 = ➢ DC output power (Pdc):
𝜋 𝜋(𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆 ) 𝜋 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆 )
𝟐𝑰𝒎 𝟐 𝟒𝑰𝟐𝒎
2𝑉𝑚 1 2𝑉𝑚 𝐴𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑, 𝑅𝐿 ≫ 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 𝑷𝒅𝒄 = 𝑰𝟐𝒅𝒄 𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝑳
⇒ 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = ≅ 𝝅 𝝅𝟐
𝜋 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 𝜋 𝐴𝑡 𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝑅𝐿 → ∞ ➢ AC input power (Pac):
1+ )
𝑅𝐿 𝑷𝒂𝒄 = 𝑰𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆 )
Where, RS is the secondary winding resistance of the transformer. 𝑰𝟐𝒎
= (𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆 )
2
Full wave rectifiers ➢ Ripple Factor ()
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒(𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 )
➢ Rectifier Efficiency (): 𝛾=
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒(𝐼𝑑𝑐 )
𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃𝑑𝑐 )
=
𝐴𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃𝑎𝑐 )
2
4𝐼𝑚
𝑅 0.812
= 𝜋2 𝐿 = ≅ 0.812 𝑜𝑟 81.2%
2
𝐼𝑚 𝑅 + 𝑅𝑆
(𝑅 +𝑅 + 𝑅𝑆 )
2 𝑓 𝐿 1+ 𝑓 )
𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 𝐴𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑, 𝑅𝐿 ≫ 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆
1+ ≅1
𝑅𝐿 𝐴𝑡 𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝑅𝐿 → ∞
➢ Transformer utilization factor(TUF):

𝐷𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑃𝑑𝑐)
TUF= 𝐴𝐶 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟(𝑃𝑎𝑐)
𝟒𝑰𝟐
𝒎𝑹
𝝅𝟐 𝑳 8 𝑅𝐿 8
➢ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑈𝐹 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 = ≅ ≅ 0.812
𝝅𝟐 (𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝐿 +𝑅𝑆 ) 𝝅𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
➢ 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 − 𝑡𝑎𝑝 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑈𝐹 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑇𝑈𝐹 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2×0.287+0.812
➢ = 2
≅ 0.693

Rectifier Comparison

Numerical on Rectifiers
Q.5: The applied input a.c. power to a half-wave Q.6: A half-wave rectifier is used to supply 50V d.c. to a
rectifier is 100 watts. The d.c. output resistive load of 800 Ω. The diode has a resistance of 25 Ω.
power obtained is 40 watts. Calculate a.c. voltage required.
(i) What is the rectifier efficiency ?
(ii) What happens to remaining 60 watts ? Solution:
Solution: (i)
(ii) 40% efficiency of rectification does not mean that 60% of

power is lost in the rectifier circuit. In fact, a crystal diode
consumes little power due to its small internal resistance.
• The 100 W a.c. power is contained as 50 watts in positive
half-cycles and 50 watts in negative half-cycles.
• The 50 watts in the negative half-cycles are not supplied
at all.
• Only 50 watts in the positive half-cycles are converted
into 40 watts.

Numerical on Rectifiers Q.8: A crystal diode having internal resistance rf = 20Ω
Q.7: An a.c. supply of 230 V is applied to a half-wave rectifier circuit through a is used for half-wave rectification. If the applied voltage
transformer of turn ratio 10 : 1. Find (i) the output d.c. voltage and (ii) the peak v = 50 sin ω t and load resistance RL= 800 Ω, find :
inverse voltage. Assume the diode to be ideal. (i) Im, Idc, Irms (ii) a.c. power input and d.c. power output
(iii) d.c. output voltage (iv) efficiency of rectification.
Solution: Primary to secondary turns ratio is: Solution: Data given
(i)
(ii)
Max. secondary voltage is:
(i)
(iii)
(ii)During the negative half-cycle of a.c. supply, the diode is reverse biased and
hence conducts no current. Therefore, the maximum secondary voltage
appears across the diode.
(iv)

Numerical on Full wave rectifiers Q.10: In the bridge type circuit shown in Figure, the
diodes are assumed to be ideal. Find : (i) d.c. output
Q.9: In the centre-tap circuit shown in Figure, the diodes are voltage (ii) peak inverse voltage (iii) output frequency.
assumed to be ideal i.e. having zero internal resistance. Find : (i) d.c. Assume primary to secondary turns to be 4.
output voltage (ii) peak inverse voltage (iii) rectification efficiency.
Solution: Primary to secondary turns, N1 / N2 = 5
Solution: Data given
(i) Average current, Idc =
(ii) The peak inverse voltage is equal to the maximum

secondary voltage, i.e., PIV = 65 v
(iii)

Numerical on full-wave rectifiers
Q.11: Fig. (i) and Fig. (ii) show the centre-tap and bridge type circuits having the same load resistance and transformer
turn ratio. The primary of each is connected to 230V, 50 Hz supply. (i) Find the d.c. voltage in each case. (ii) PIV for each
case for the same d.c. output. Assume the diodes to be ideal.
(ii) PIV for same d.c. output voltage: The d.c. output
voltage of the two circuits will be the same if Vm (i.e.
max. voltage utilized by each circuit for conversion into
d.c.) is the same. For this to happen, the turn ratio of the
transformers should be as shown in Figure below:
Solution:
(i) DC output:
Centre-tap circuit :
Centre-tap circuit :
Bridge circuit :
Bridge circuit :

Numerical on Rectifiers Q.13: The bridge rectifier shown in Figure uses silicon
Q.12: The four diodes used in a bridge rectifier circuit diodes. Find (i) d.c. output voltage (ii) d.c. output current.
have forward resistances which may be considered Use simplified model for the diodes.
constant at 1Ω and infinite reverse resistance. The Solution: The conditions of the problem suggest that the
alternating supply voltage is 240 V r.m.s. and load a.c voltage across transformer secondary is 12V r.m.s.
resistance is 480 Ω. Calculate (i) mean load current and (ii)
power dissipated in each diode.
Solution:

Special purpose diodes:
❖ Apart from rectification, the diodes could be applied in circuit design for specific purposes.
❖ Some of the special purpose diodes are listed below:
➢ Light-emitting diode (LED)
➢ Photo-diode
➢ Zener diode
➢ Tunnel diode
➢ Varactor diode
➢ Shockley diode
➢ Schottkey diode
➢ Etc.
Symbols of Special purpose diodes Packaging of Special purpose diodes

Light-emitting diode (LED):
o In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such
as gallium arsenide, charge carriers that cross the junction
emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on
the other side.
o Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from
the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The first
LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have
been developed over time.
o All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; "white"
LEDs are actually a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating, or
combinations of three LEDs of a different color.
o Advantages:
➢ Long Lifespan.
➢ Energy Efficiency.
➢ Improved Environmental Performance. o Application:
➢ The Ability to Operate in Cold Conditions. ➢ The LED are used in lightening, traffic signals, automotive
➢ No Heat or UV Emissions. headlamps, medical devices, camera flashes, etc
➢ Design Flexibility. ➢ LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in
➢ Instant Lighting and the Ability to Withstand Frequent Switching. signal applications.
➢ Low Voltage Operation. ➢ An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor
in the same package, to form an opto-isolator.

Photo-diode :
o Photodiodes are intended to sense light (photodetector), so they
are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually
PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light.
o When light falls on the reverse biased junction, reverse current
flowing through the diode increases. Photo diodes are based on
this principle.
o This diode works in reverse bias condition. Glass window is
provided on top of this diode to permit the light to fall on the
diode.
o Multiple photodiodes may be packaged in a single device, either
as a linear array or as a two-dimensional array.
o Application:
o Advantages:
➢ The photodiode is linear.
➢ A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in
➢ Low resistance. photometry, or in optical communications.
➢ A very good spectral response. ➢ Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics
➢ Better frequency response. devices such as compact disc players, smoke
➢ Low dark current. detectors, medical devices and the receivers for
➢ Fastest photodetector. infrared remote control devices used to control
➢ Long lifetime. equipment from televisions to air conditioners.
➢ Low noise.

Zener diode:
o This diode is heavily doped and the depletion layer is very thin.
When forward biased, its working is the same as PN- junction
diode.
o These can be made to conduct in reverse bias (backward), and are
correctly termed reverse breakdown diodes.
o This effect called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined
voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage
reference.
o Zener diodes have a breakdown voltage of below 5 volts, whilst
avalanche diodes are used for breakdown voltages above that
value.
o In practical voltage reference circuits, Zener and switching diodes
are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the
temperature coefficient response of the diodes to near-zero.
o Application:
o Advantages:
➢ Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in
➢ Less expensive than other diodes.
the same package, constitute a transient absorber.
➢ Ability to shift voltage.
➢ Zener diodes are used for voltage regulation, as reference
➢ Easily compatible and obtainable across systems.
elements, surge suppressors, and in switching applications
➢ High-performance standard.
and clipper circuits. The load voltage equals breakdown
➢ Protection from over-voltage.
voltage VZ of the diode. The series resistor limits the
➢ Ability to regulate and stabilize circuit voltage.
current through the diode and drops the excess voltage
➢ Greater control overflowing current.
when the diode is conducting.
➢ Usable in smaller circuits..
Zener diode as Voltage Regulator:
o Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilized
voltage output with low ripple under varying load
current conditions.
o A Zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased
condition. As such a simple voltage regulator circuit
can be designed using a Zener diode to maintain a
constant DC output voltage across the load in spite of
variations in the input voltage or changes in the load
current.
o The Zener voltage regulator consists of a current
limiting resistor RS connected in series with the input
voltage VS with the Zener diode connected in parallel
with the load RL in this reverse biased condition.
o The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be
the same as the breakdown voltage VZ of the diode. By KCL: IS = IZ+IL , whereas, V0 = VZ
Hence, VS = ISRS+V0 = ISRS+VZ
o The preferred values are 2.7V, 4.7V, 5.1V, 6.2V, 6.8V, Case-1: Supply voltage increases & RS is kept constant
9.1V, 10V etc. V0 = VZ
Case-2: Supply voltage is fixed & RL decreases
RS = (VS – VZ)/(IZ+IL)
Zener diode as Voltage Regulator:
Q.14 A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required to be
produced from a 12V DC power supply input source. The
maximum power rating PZ of the zener diode is 2W. Using
the zener regulator in circuit given, calculate:
(a) Maximum Zener current, (b) Minimum series
resistance, (c) Load current, (d) Zener current at full load.
Solution:
a)
The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.
b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS
c). The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the zener diode.
d). The zener current IZ at full load.

Application of diode: Clipper
➢ A simple diode clipper can be made with a diode and a resistor. This will remove
either the positive, or the negative half of the waveform depending on the
direction the diode is connected. The simple circuit clips at zero voltage (or to be
(i) Positive (unbiased) Diode Clipping Circuits
more precise, at the small forward voltage of the forward biased diode) as
shown in fig. (i). However, the clipping voltage can be set to any desired value
with the addition of a reference voltage. The simplest circuit for the voltage
reference is a resistor potential divider connected between the voltage rails.
➢ To produce diode clipping circuits for voltage waveforms at different levels, a
(ii) Positive Bias Diode Clipping
bias voltage, VBIAS is added in series with the diode to produce a combination
clipper as shown in fig. (ii) 0r (iii). The voltage across the series combination
must be greater than VBIAS + 0.7V before the diode becomes sufficiently forward
biased to conduct. For example, if the VBIAS level is set at 4.0 volts, then the
sinusoidal voltage at the diode’s anode terminal must be greater than 4.0 + 0.7 =
4.7 volts for it to become forward biased. Any anode voltage levels above this (iii) Negative Bias Diode Clipping
bias point are clipped off.
➢ In fig. (iv), when the voltage of the positive half cycle reaches +4.7 V,
diode D1 conducts and limits the waveform at +4.7 V. Diode D2 does not conduct
until the voltage reaches –6.7 V. Therefore, all positive voltages above +4.7 V
and negative voltages below –6.7 V are automatically clipped.
(iv) Diode Clipping of Different Bias levels
➢ The advantage of biased diode clipping circuits is that it prevents the output
signal from exceeding preset voltage limits for both half cycles of the input
waveform, which could be an input from a noisy sensor or the positive and
negative supply rails of a power supply.
➢ This can be improved by replacing the lower resistor with a zener diode with
a breakdown voltage equal to the required reference voltage. (v) Full-wave Zener Diode Clipping
Application of diode: Clamper
➢ A clamper is an electronic circuit that fixes either the positive or
the negative peak excursions of a signal to a defined value by
shifting its DC value.
➢ The clamper does not restrict the peak-to-peak excursion of the
signal, it moves the whole signal up or down so as to place the
peaks at the reference level.
➢ A diode clamp (a simple, common type) consists of a diode, which V0=Vi+Vm
conducts electric current in only one direction and prevents the
signal exceeding the reference value; and a capacitor, which
provides a DC offset from the stored charge.
➢ The capacitor forms a time constant with the resistor load, which
determines the range of frequencies over which the clamper will
be effective..

Tunnel diode :
o A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor diode
Self-study
that has effectively "negative resistance" due to the quantum

mechanical effect called tunneling. It was invented in August
1957 by Leo Esaki, Yuriko Kurose, and Takashi Suzuki when they
were working at Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, now known as Sony.
o Tunnel diodes have a heavily doped positive-to-negative (P-N)
junction that is about 10 nm (100 Å) wide. The heavy doping
results in a broken band gap, where conduction band electron
states on the N-side are more or less aligned with valence band
hole states on the P-side. They are usually made from
germanium, but can also be made from gallium arsenide and
silicon materials.
o Advantages:
➢ Low cost. o Application:
➢ Low noise. ➢ Tunnel diode is used in different oscillators like
➢ Ease of operation. relaxation, microwave, etc.
➢ High speed. ➢ It is used as a switching device with very high speed.
➢ Low power. ➢ It is used like a logic memory storage device.
➢ Insensitive to nuclear radiations. ➢ It is used as a microwave oscillator with high frequency.
➢ This diode is used as an oscillator, amplifier & switch..

Varactor diode:
➢ The diode whose internal capacitance varies with the variation of the reverse voltage such
Self-study
type of diode is known as the Varactor diode. It is used for storing the charge. The varactor
diode always works in reverse bias, and it is a voltage-dependent semiconductor device.
➢ The voltage-dependent device means the output of the diode depends on their input
voltage. The varactor diode is used in a place where the variable capacitance is required,
and that capacitance is controlled with the help of the voltage. The Varactor diode is also
known as the Varicap, Voltcap, Voltage variable capacitance or Tunning diode.
➢ The Varactor diode is used for storing the charge not for flowing the charge. In the
forward bias, the total charge stored in the diode becomes zero, which is undesirable.
Thus, the Varactor diode always operates in the reverse bias.
o Advantages:
➢ The varactor diode produces less noise as less compared to the other diode.
➢ It is less costly and more reliable.
➢ The varactor diode is small in size and less in weight..
o Application:
➢ They are used in RF design arena and provide a method of varying the capacitance
within a circuit by the application of control voltage. It provides them with special
capability due to which varactor diodes are used in the RF industry.
➢ These diodes are used in many circuits and find applications in two main sectors.
➢ FR filters – It is possible to tune filters by using varactor diodes. Tracking filters can be
required in front-end receiver circuits wherein the filters are enabled to track the
frequency of incoming received signals.
➢ Voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs) – VCOs are used for many applications and
oscillators within a phase-locked loop is the major region. VCOs are present in almost
all wireless receivers and radio.
Shockley diode:
➢ The Shockley diode (named after physicist William Shockley) is a four-
layer semiconductor diode, which was one of the first semiconductor devices
Self-study
invented.
➢ The Shockley diode has a negative resistance characteristic.
➢ It is a PNPN diode, with alternating layers of P-type and N-type material. It is
equivalent to a thyristor with a disconnected gate.
➢ Shockley diodes were manufactured and marketed by Shockley Semiconductor
Laboratory in the late 1950s.
o Working:
The Shockley diode remains in an OFF state, with a very high resistance, until a voltage
greater than the trigger voltage is applied across its terminals. When the voltage exceeds
the trigger value, the resistance drops to an extremely low value and the device switches
ON. The constituent transistors help in maintaining the ON and OFF states. As the
construction resembles a pair of interconnected bipolar transistors, one PNP and other
NPN, neither transistor can turn ON until the other is turned ON due to the absence of
any current through the base-emitter junction. Once sufficient voltage is applied and one
of the transistors breaks down, it starts conducting and allows base current to flow
through the other transistor, resulting in saturation of both the transistors, keeping both
in ON state. On reducing the voltage to a sufficiently low level, the current flowing
becomes insufficient to maintain the transistor bias. Due to insufficient current, one of
the transistors will cut off, interrupting the base current to the other transistor, hence
sealing both transistors in the OFF state.
o Advantages: Simple construction; Gets latched into the on state; Low forward
voltage drop hence low power dissipation; Capable of blocking the reverse voltage; It
can be protected against over – current with the help of a fuse.
o Application:
➢ Trigger Switch
Schottkey diode:
➢ The Schottky diode (named after the German physicist Walter H. Schottky), also known
as Schottky barrier diode or hot-carrier diode, is a semiconductor diode formed by the
Self-study
junction of a semiconductor with a metal. It has a low forward voltage drop and a very
fast switching action. The cat's-whisker detectors used in the early days of wireless and
metal rectifiers used in early power applications can be considered primitive Schottky
diodes. When sufficient forward voltage is applied, a current flows in the forward
direction. A silicon p–n diode has a typical forward voltage of 600–700 mV, while the
Schottky's forward voltage is 150–450 mV. This lower forward voltage requirement
allows higher switching speeds and better system efficiency.
➢ A metal–semiconductor junction is formed between a metal and a semiconductor,
creating a Schottky barrier (instead of a semiconductor–semiconductor junction as in
conventional diodes). Typical metals used are molybdenum, platinum, chromium or
tungsten, and certain silicides (e.g., palladium silicide and platinum silicide), whereas the
semiconductor would typically be n-type silicon.[1] The metal side acts as the anode,
and n-type semiconductor acts as the cathode of the diode; meaning conventional
current can flow from the metal side to the semiconductor side, but not in the opposite
direction. This Schottky barrier results in both very fast switching and low forward
voltage drop..
o Advantages:
o Faster recovery time. The small amount of charge stored within a Schottky diode makes
it ideal for high speed switching applications. o Application:
o Less noise. The Schottky diode will produce less unwanted noise than your typical p-n ➢ Voltage clamping
junction diode. ➢ Reverse current and discharge protection
o Better performance. ➢ Switched-mode power supplies
➢ Sample-and-hold circuits
➢ Charge control

Transistor
▪ William Shockley invented the first junction transistor in
1951.
▪ To achieve amplification in the transistor, signal is passed

from a region of low resistance to a region of high
resistance, hence the name transistor (transfer-resistor).
▪ Types of transistor:
▪ Unipolar Junction Transistor: Current conduction

is only due to majority carriers.
▪ Bipolar Junction Transistor: Current conduction is

due to both charge carriers (holes and electrons).

Construction of BJT
▪ Width of depletion region is not the same on two sides

of the junction.
▪ Depletion region always penetrates more in the lightly
doped region, i.e., the base region in this case.
▪ Penetration of depletion region is less in heavily
doped collector and emitter regions.

Construction of BJT
▪ Types of BJT:
▪ n-p-n: formed by sandwiching a thin

‘p’ type semiconductor between two
‘n’ type semiconductor.
▪ p-n-p: formed by sandwiching a thin

‘n’ type semiconductor between two
‘p’ type semiconductor.
▪ Middle portion of each transistor is called

base (B) and is very thin and lightly doped.
▪ Remaining two regions are called emitter (E) Note: Easy way to remember the direction of
and collector (C) and are heavily doped. arrow is NPN stands for “Not Pointing iN”
Biasing of a Transistor
▪ Depending upon the external bias voltage polarities used, a transistor operates in 3 regions:
Region Emitter-base junction Collector-base junction
Active Forward Biased Reversed Biased
Cut-off Reversed Biased Reversed Biased
Saturation Forward Biased Forward Biased
▪ In order to use a transistor as an amplifier, it must be operated in its active region.
Fig. : n-p-n transistor Fig. : p-n-p transistor

Working of a n-p-n transistor
▪ E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased.
▪ Due to forward biased E-B junction, electrons in n-type emitter start

flowing towards p-type base which constitute the emitter current 𝐼𝐸 .
▪ These electrons cross the E-B junction and enter the thin and lightly
doped base region and combine with the holes in the p-region.
▪ Since the base is very thin and lightly doped, very few electrons
combine with the holes in p-region thereby constituting the base
current 𝐼𝐵 .
▪ 𝐼𝐵 is small as compared to 𝐼𝐸 (typically 5% of 𝐼𝐸 ).
▪ Remaining large number of electrons cross the depletion region and pass through the collector region which constitute
the collector current 𝐼𝐶 (since the reverse bias on the collector is very high and exerts attractive force on these
electrons).
∴ 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶
▪ The input circuit (i.e. emitter-base junction) has low resistance because of forward bias whereas output circuit (i.e. collector-
base junction) has high resistance due to reverse bias. Therefore, a transistor transfers the input signal current from a low-
resistance circuit to a high-resistance circuit. This is the key factor responsible for the amplifying capability of the transistor.

Working of a p-n-p transistor
▪ E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased.
▪ Due to forward biased E-B junction, holes in p-type emitter start flowing
towards n-type base which constitute the emitter current 𝐼𝐸 .
▪ These holes cross the E-B junction and enter the thin and lightly doped
base region and combine with the electrons in the p-region.
▪ Since the base is very thin and lightly doped, very few holes combine
with the electrons in p-region thereby constituting the base current 𝐼𝐵 .
▪ 𝐼𝐵 is small as compared to 𝐼𝐸 (typically 5% of 𝐼𝐸 ).
▪ Remaining large number of holes cross the depletion region and pass through the collector region which constitute the
collector current 𝐼𝐶 (since the reverse bias on the collector is very high and exerts attractive force on these holes).
∴ 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶
▪ The input circuit (i.e. emitter-base junction) has low resistance because of forward bias whereas output circuit (i.e. collector-
base junction) has high resistance due to reverse bias. Therefore, a transistor transfers the input signal current from a low-
resistance circuit to a high-resistance circuit. This is the key factor responsible for the amplifying capability of the transistor.

BJT Configuration
▪ There are three terminals in a transistor (E, B and C).
▪ To connect a transistor to a circuit, we require 4 terminals

(2 for i/p and 2 for o/p).
▪ This difficulty is overcome by making one terminal common to both input and output.
▪ Depending on which terminal is made common, the 3 possible configurations of

transistor are:
▪ Common Base (CB) configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain
▪ Common Emitter (CE) configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain
▪ Common Collector (CC) configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain

Common Base Configuration
▪ Base is common to both input and output.
▪ Current amplification factor (𝛼): Ratio of change in collector current (𝐼𝐶 ) to change in emitter current
(𝐼𝐸 ) at constant collector-base voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐵 ).
∆𝐼𝐶
𝛼𝑎𝑐 = ቤ
∆𝐼𝐸 𝑉 constant
𝐶𝐵 =
𝐼𝐶
▪ If only dc values are considered. 𝛼𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐸

Common Emitter Configuration
▪ Emitter is common to both input and output.
▪ Current amplification factor (𝛽): Ratio of change in collector current (𝐼𝐶 ) to change in base current (𝐼𝐵 )
at constant collector-emitter voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ).
∆𝐼𝐶
𝛽𝑎𝑐 = ቤ
∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉 constant
𝐶𝐸 =
𝐼𝐶
▪ If only dc values are considered. 𝛽𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐵

Common Collector Configuration
▪ Collector is common to both input and output.
▪ Current amplification factor (𝛾): Ratio of change in emitter current (𝐼𝐸 ) to change in base current (𝐼𝐵 ) at
constant collector-emitter voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ).
∆𝐼𝐸
𝛾𝑎𝑐 = ቤ
∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉 constant
𝐶𝐸 =
𝐼𝐸
▪ If only dc values are considered. 𝛾𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐵

Relation between 𝜶 and 𝜷
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶
𝛽= =
𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶
▪ The value of 𝛼 lies between 0.9 to 0.995.
▪ The value of 𝛽 lies between 20 to 500.

Expression for Collector Current
▪ We know that: ∴ 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶
▪ For CB configuration: 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐼𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
= 𝛼 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
= 𝛼𝐼𝐵 + 𝛼𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
⇒ 𝐼𝐶 1 − 𝛼 = 𝛼𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
𝛼 1
⇒ 𝐼𝐶 = 1−𝛼 𝐼𝐵 + 1−𝛼 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
⇒ 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 + 𝛽 + 1 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
▪ The CE configuration is frequently used as it gives appreciable current gain as well as voltage gain.

Comparison of Transistor Configurations
Sr.
Characteristics Common Base (CB) Common Emitter (CE) Common Collector (CC)
No.
1. Input Resistance Very low (20 Ω) Low (1 kΩ) Very high (750 kΩ)
2. Output Resistance Very high (500 kΩ) High (10 kΩ) Low (50 Ω)
3. Input Current 𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐵
4. Output Current 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐸
5. Input voltage applied between E and B between B and E between B and C
6. Output voltage taken from C and B from C and E from E and C
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐸
7. Current amplification 𝛼𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐸
𝛽𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐵
𝛾𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐵
8. Current gain Less than 1 (0.9 to 0.999) High (20 to few hundreds) High (20 to few hundreds)
9. Voltage gain Medium (150) High (500) Less than 1
For High frequency For audio frequency
10. Applications For impedance matching
applications applications
11. Leakage Current Very small Very large Very large
Transistor as Switch
❖ Both the NPN & PNP type BJT can be
made to operate as “ON/OFF” type solid
state switch by biasing the transistors
Base terminal differently to that for a
signal amplifier.
❖ Solid state switches are one of the main

applications for the use of transistor to
switch a DC output “ON” or “OFF”.
❖ Transistor switches can be used to switch and control lamps, relays or even motors.
❖ When using the bipolar transistor as a switch they must be either “fully-OFF” or “fully-ON”.
❖ Transistors that are fully “ON” are said to be in their Saturation region.
❖ Transistors that are fully “OFF” are said to be in their Cut-off region.
❖ When using the transistor as a switch, a small Base current controls a much larger Collector load current.
❖ When using transistors to switch inductive loads such as relays and solenoids, a “Flywheel Diode” is used.
❖ When large currents or voltages need to be controlled, Darlington Transistors can be used.

Transistor as Switch
➢ OFF State:
• The input and Base are grounded ( 0v )
• Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7v
• Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
• Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
• Transistor is “fully-OFF” ( Cut-off region )
• No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
• VOUT = VCE = VCC = ”1″
• Transistor operates as an “open switch”.
➢ ON State:
• The input and Base are connected to VCC
• Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7v
• Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
• Base-Collector junction is forward biased
• Transistor is “fully-ON” ( saturation region )
• Max Collector current flows ( IC = Vcc/RL )
• VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
• VOUT = VCE = ”0″
• Transistor operates as a “closed switch”.

Transistor as Amplifier
Common Emitter Configuration of BJT as
Amplifier:
▪ The CE configuration is frequently
used as it gives appreciable current
gain as well as voltage gain.
Operation:
➢ The common emitter amplifier operates when an AC
input signal flows through the emitter-base
junction.
➢ The input signals alternate between positive and
negative peak values.
➢ The signal is in a forward bias direction and
increases when it moves across the junction during
the upper half cycle.
➢ The collector current also increases significantly
due to an increase in the flow of electrons from the
emitter to the collector through the base.
➢ The current also increases across the collector load
resistor RC and a voltage drop is also observed
across the collector.
➢ Therefore, the overall output signal is amplified.

Transistor as Amplifier

Numerical on Amplifier
Q-15: What should be the base supply voltage for saturating the transistor in figure with =200?

Characteristics of Amplifier
PARAMETER VALUES
Voltage gain Medium – typically 40
Current Gain High – typically 200
Power gain Very High – typically 8000
Input resistance Medium – 2.5kΩ
Output resistance High – 20kΩ
0
Phase shift 180
Typical application General Purpose AF and RF
amplifiers

Numerical on BJT
Q.16
Q.17 In a common base connection, current amplification factor is 0.9. If the emitter current is 1
mA, determine the value of base current.

Numerical on BJT
Q.18
Q.19

Numerical on BJT
Q.20

Oscillator
❖ An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a
Self-study
periodic, oscillating electronic signal, often a sine wave or

a square wave or a triangle wave.
❖ Oscillators convert direct current (DC) from a power supply to
an alternating current (AC) signal.
❖ They are widely used in many electronic devices ranging from
simplest clock generators to digital instruments (like calculators)
and complex computers and peripherals etc.
Oscillators are characterized by the frequency of their output signal:
➢ A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that
generates a frequency below approximately 20 Hz. This term is Type of Oscillator Frequency Ranges
typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to distinguish it
from an audio frequency oscillator. Wien bridge oscillator 1 Hz – 1 MHz
➢ An audio oscillator produces frequencies in the audio range, Phase shift oscillator 1 Hz – 10 MHz
about 16 Hz to 20 kHz.
➢ An RF oscillator produces signals in the radio frequency (RF) range Hartley oscillator 10 kHz – 100 MHz
of about 100 kHz to 100 GHz. Colpitt’s oscillator 10 kHz – 100 MHz
Negative resistance >100 MHz

oscillator
Crystal oscillator Fixed frequency

Multivibrators
➢ An electronic circuit that generates square waves
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(or other non-sinusoidals such as rectangular,

saw-tooth waves) is known as a multivibrator.
➢ A multivibrator is a switching circuit which
depends for operation on positive feedback.
➢ It is basically a two-stage amplifier with output of
one feedback to the input of the other as shown
in right figure. ➢ It is a two-stage amplifier with 100% positive feedback.
➢ The circuit operates in two states (ON and OFF) ➢ At any particular instant, one transistor is ON and conducts
controlled by circuit conditions. Each amplifier lC(sat) while the other is OFF.
stage supplies feedback to the other in such a ➢ Suppose output is taken across the transistor Q2 and Q2 is
manner that will drive the transistor of one stage ON whereas Q1 is OFF.
to saturation (ON state) and the other to cut off ➢ The collector current in Q2 will be IC(sat) as shown in
(OFF state) Left Figure. This condition will prevail for a time (bc in this
➢ Two possible states: case) determined by circuit conditions.
➢ After this time, transistor Q2 is cut off and Q1 is turned ON.
The collector current in Q2 is now ICEO
as shown. The circuit will stay in this condition for a time de.
➢ Again Q2 is turned ON and Q1 is driven
to cut off. In this way, the output will be a square wave.

Self-study Types of Multivibrator

Integrated circuits (IC)
❖ IC: A circuit in which all or some of the circuit elements are inseparably associated and electrically interconnected so
Self-study
that it is considered to be indivisible for the purposes of construction and commerce.

❖ An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set
of electronic circuits on one small flat piece (or "chip") of semiconductor material, usually silicon.
❖ Microcontrollers, microprocessors, and FPGAs, all
packing thousands, millions, even billions of
transistors into a tiny chip, are all integrated circuits.
❖ Benefits of IC: Small size, Power consumption is less,
Reliability, Less cost, Less weight, Replacement can
be done very easily, More consistent, Improved
operating speed & performance.
Transistor Logic
Acronym Name Year
count gates number
small-scale
SSI 1964 1 to 10 1 to 12
integration
medium-scale
MSI 1968 10 to 500 13 to 99
integration
large-scale
LSI 1971 500 to 20 000 100 to 9999
integration
very large-scale 20 000 to
VLSI 1980 10 000 to 99 999
integration 1 000 000
ultra-large-scale 1 000 000 100 000 and
ULSI 1984
integration and more more

555 Timer IC
❖ The basic 555 timer gets its name from the fact that there are three internally
Self-study
connected 5kΩ resistors which it uses to generate the two comparators reference
voltages.
❖ The 555 timer IC is a very cheap, popular and useful precision timing device which
can act as either a simple timer to generate single pulses or long time delays, or as
a relaxation oscillator producing a string of stabilised waveforms of varying duty
cycles from 50 to 100%.
❖ The 555 Timers name comes from the fact that there are three 5kΩ resistors
connected together internally producing a voltage divider network between the
supply voltage at pin 8 and ground at pin 1.
❖ The voltage across this series resistive network holds the negative inverting input
Self-study
of comparator two at 2/3Vcc and the positive non-inverting input to comparator
one at 1/3Vcc.
❖ The most common use of the 555 timer oscillator is as a simple astable oscillator
by connecting two resistors and a capacitor across its terminals to generate a fixed
pulse train with a time period determined by the time constant of the RC network.
❖ But the 555 timer oscillator chip can also be connected in a variety of different
ways to produce Monostable or Bistable multivibrators as well as the more
common Astable Multivibrator.
❖ It’s application include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce-free switches,
touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width
modulation (PWM), and so on. Bistable (flip-flop) mode – the 555 operates as an
SR flip-flop. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.

Links for video lectures
Special Purpose Diode (AAN) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0E5drXB5OSU&feature=youtu.be
Self-study
Oscillators (AAN) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WN9ntTO4YgQ&feature=youtu.be
Multivibrators (AAN) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7tic3NVqF20&feature=youtu.be
Clipper and Clamper (AAN) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cpORaVCqsn8&feature=youtu.be
Transistor Connections(TKT) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIlOdJTDfqo
Digital Electronics Part I (PAK) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iiKCahoqCi8&feature=youtu.be
Digital Electronics Part II (PAK) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iREsuY5uNAE&feature=youtu.be
Clipper Part 1 (ABR) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e0QhgJMFf-4&feature=youtu.be
Clipper Part II (ABR) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MIDmPEn0rAY&feature=youtu.be
Clamper (ABR) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v94790cjYtY&feature=youtu.be
Three Phase Circuits 1 (AAN) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OorTfFhjjZo&feature=youtu.be
Three Phase Circuits 2 (AAN) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?reload=9&v=2DV2hlGpmbE&feature=youtu.be
Three Phase Circuits 3 (AAN) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mkv8IpFloHs&feature=youtu.be

Thank You
Link for Book by VK Mehta: https://rnsinstituteoftechnology.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/principles-of-electronics-s-chand-v-k-mehta-rohit-mehta.pdf

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➢ Half and full wave rectifiers.

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▪ Depletion layer: A region around the junction from which

▪ Width of depletion layer is of the order 0.5 – 1.0 micron

▪ Barrier potential (or cut-in voltage 𝑉0 ): Potential difference

▪ 𝑉0 = 0.3 for Ge and 0.7 for Si

▪ Diode means device having “two electrodes” or terminals.

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▪ During Forward Biased: ▪ During Reverse Biased:

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▪ At forward bias, current increases slightly till

▪ After knee voltage (or cut-in voltage), forward

▪ If forward current increases beyond rated value of

▪ At reverse bias, the reverse current increases slightly

▪ At a certain reverse voltage (break-down voltage),

▪ A.C. or Dynamic Forward Resistance (rf): Opposition

change in forward voltage OC − OE EC

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Fig.: Ideal diode equivalent circuit

▪ A diode will conduct when forward voltage (𝑉𝐹 )

Fig.: Diode and its equivalent circuit

(ii) Peak output voltage :

(iii) Ideal diode case:

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Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to loop ABCDA in Fig. (ii), we have,

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1. Half Wave Rectifier:

AC/DC Power in Half-wave rectifier

➢ Transformer utilization factor(TUF):

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➢ DC or Average value of load current (Idc)

➢ Output voltage (Vdc):

➢ Transformer utilization factor(TUF):

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(ii) 40% efficiency of rectification does not mean that 60% of

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Solution: Data given

(i) Average current, Idc =

(ii) The peak inverse voltage is equal to the maximum

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Symbols of Special purpose diodes Packaging of Special purpose diodes

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b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS

d). The zener current IZ at full load.

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that has effectively "negative resistance" due to the quantum

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▪ To achieve amplification in the transistor, signal is passed

▪ Unipolar Junction Transistor: Current conduction

▪ Bipolar Junction Transistor: Current conduction is