Introduction

Since perhaps ancient times, people have dreamed of

exploring the distant stars. But the most important
star may be the one closest to home. The sun is the
star at the center of our solar system. Earth and all
the other familiar planets revolve around it. Energy
from the sun warms our world, lights our days, and
enables plants and other living things to make food.

It is natural to want to learn more about such an

important part of our lives. But though the sun is

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nearby, studying it presents some serious challenges.
One of the most important is heat. The heart of the
sun is a massive nuclear reactor. There, atomic nuclei
(cores) of the element hydrogen are combined to
form nuclei of the element helium. This reaction
churns out huge amounts of energy, which are
flung into space in the form of radiation. It is this
radiation that warms our planet, making it possible
for life as we know it. But that same energy would
fry a spacecraft at close range.

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In 2018, the National
Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) launched
the Parker Solar Probe. This
robotic spacecraft was built to
study the sun more closely than
ever before. Its design featured
a state-of-the-art heat shield to
protect the craft from the sun’s
searing temperatures. Yet the
probe’s closest approach was
targeted for 4 million miles (6
million kilometers) above the
solar surface.

To unlock all the secrets of our

home star, future probes will
have to get closer than that. To
do so, they will need serious
protection. The NASA inventor
and physicist Bob Youngquist
is working to develop a heat-
resistant coating that could help
future probes practically surf
the solar surface. In doing so, he
may also revolutionize the way
spacecraft fuel up, speed up, Artist’s impression of
Parker Solar Probe
and protect their crew.
approaching the sun

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 The NASA Innovative
Advanced Concepts
program. The titles in
the Out of This World series feature
projects that have won grant money
from a group formed by the United
States National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, or NASA. The
NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts
program (NIAC) provides funding
to teams working to develop bold
new advances in space technology.
You can visit NIAC’s website at
www.nasa.gov/niac.

Meet
Bob Youngquist.

“ My dad worked on the Apollo

missions, which carried astronauts to
the surface of the moon.
Now, I’m developing new
technologies that will
enable us to explore farther
out in space—and possibly
even touch the surface
of the sun!
”
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What is
heat?
To protect a solar-surfing space probe from
overheating, Youngquist will have to limit the
flow of heat from the sun to the spacecraft. But
just what is heat? And how does it flow from one
thing to another?

All things are made up of tiny particles called

atoms. These atoms are always moving and
vibrating, even in solid matter. The motion gives
every object internal energy, sometimes called
thermal energy or heat energy. An object’s
thermal energy depends on how much its atoms
are moving. If they are only moving a little, the
object has a low level of thermal energy. If the
atoms move a lot, the object has a high level of
thermal energy.

Heat is a word that describes the flow of thermal

energy. Heat is thermal energy that flows from a
warmer object to a colder object. Any object that
is warmer than its surroundings gives off heat.
The sun gives off heat because it is much, much
warmer than its surroundings. Even our bodies
give off a little heat into their surroundings.
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Everything emits heat—including people,
as seen with this thermal camera.

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How
heat
moves
Heat does not stay in one place. It
naturally flows from warmer objects
to cooler objects, in much the same
way that water flows downhill.

“ This transfer of heat occurs

in three different ways: through
conduction, convection, or
radiation.
”—Bob

Conduction is the spreading of heat

through a material by collisions
between atoms. Imagine a metal
spoon placed in a hot pan. The
pan transfers thermal energy to
the atoms at the tip of the spoon,
causing them to vibrate faster.
These atoms strike neighboring
atoms, causing them to move
faster. In this way, thermal energy is

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transferred, or conducted, along
the spoon. The atoms themselves
do not move through the spoon.
Instead, they transfer heat from
one to the next.

Convection is the transfer of heat

by the movement of a liquid or
gas. Picture a hot stove in a room.
The stove warms the air around it.
Warm air is less dense than cool
air. So the warm air rises. As it rises,
cool air rushes in to take its place.
This air is in turn heated and rises
as well. The rising of warm air and
falling of cool air creates a pattern
of movement called a convection
current, spreading thermal energy
throughout the room.

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Outer space is nearly empty. There is no This image shows
the ultraviolet light
air or other fluid to transfer heat through
emitted by the sun.
convection. It is also extremely unlikely for
a spacecraft to touch something, allowing
the transfer of heat by conduction. So in
space, heat is often transferred in a third
way: radiation.

Radiation is energy given off in the form

of waves or tiny particles of matter. Much
of the sun’s energy is given off in the form
of electromagnetic radiation. The light
we see is one form of electromagnetic
radiation. But there are also many kinds of
electromagnetic radiation invisible to our
eyes.

Objects with lots of energy give off

electromagnetic radiation in the form of
tiny particles called photons. A photon
travels from its source at a high speed.
When a photon strikes an atom, the photon
is either reflected or absorbed. If the atom
absorbs the photon, it gains the photon’s
energy. Remember, objects whose atoms
gain internal energy or thermal energy
heat up. So by transferring energy, radiation
transfers heat.

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13
 Inventor
feature:
Growing up NASA

Youngquist was born in New York state. His family

moved to the state of Florida when he was seven.
Bob’s father worked as an engineer for the
manufacturer General Electric. Bob was inspired by
his father’s broad training and knowledge.

“ From rebuilding
car transmissions to
building houses, Dad
seemed to do a little
bit of everything.
—Bob ”
Lennart Youngquist

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Bob was a self-proclaimed nerd. He loved the science-
fiction television series “Star Trek” (1966-1969) and hung
out with members of the chess club. Today, science and
technology are an important part of pop culture, and
many people proudly identify themselves as nerds. But in
the 1960’s and 1970’s, the term nerd was a serious insult.
To avoid bullies, Bob stuck close to his group of like-
minded (nerdy) friends.

At General Electric, Bob’s father worked on projects that

contributed to NASA’s Apollo program. And, living in
Florida, Bob could watch rockets launched from Kennedy
Space Center from his own backyard. Despite such close
ties to the space program, Bob did not imagine pursuing
a career in space technology himself.

“ I wasn’t really a space buff.

” —Bob

After briefly considering becoming a doctor,

Bob returned to New York to get degrees in
physics and mathematics from the University
of Rochester. Then he went to Stanford
University in California to get his Ph.D.
degree in applied physics.

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