Chapter 2

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Outline
• Weather
• = The condition of the atmosphere
• (i.e. temp., pressure, sunshine, wind,
clouds, fog, precipitation)
• at any place at a specific time.
• i.e. short term.
• Meteorology = study of weather

• Climate
• = long-term (30-35yrs) weather conditions
of a large area.
• Climatology = study of climate.

Atmospheric
Introduction Relative Humidity Circulation and
Precipitation

Climate Diagrams Soil Horizons Terrestrial Biomes

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 Terrestrial Biomes
▪ Biomes are distinguished primarily by their predominant
plants and are associated with particular climates.

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Weather and Climate

= The condition of the atmosphere
(i.e. temp., pressure, sunshine, wind, clouds,
fog, precipitation)

Weather Climate
▪ Short term. ▪ long-term (30-35yrs)
▪ at any place at a ▪ on a large area.
specific time. ▪ Climatology = study of
▪ Meteorology = study of climate.
weather

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 Humidity
Liquid Water + latent heat → Vapor

Vapor pressure (Mpa)= pressure exerted by water

vapor.

Humidity ratio = Wt. of water vapor

weight of dry air
e.g. 0.010 g water vapor/1 gm dry air

Saturation vapor pressure = Maximum vapor

pressure
% Relative humidity at a given T
= wt. of water vapor x100
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max wt. of water vapor 5

Saturation vapor pressure vs temperature

Max H2O vapor
pressure

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Temperature 6

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 Example:
1 gm of (dry) air
at 30oC
▪ % Relative humidity at a given T
▪ = wt. of water vapor x100
▪ max wt. of water vapor
▪ = Actual vapor pressure x100
▪ max vapor pressure

▪ %R.H. = (11/27) x 100=41% at

30oC

Max Water vapor 27mg

Actual water vapor 11mg

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Saturation vapor pressure vs temperature

Max H2O vapor
pressure

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Temperature 8

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Dew point
= saturation temperature
= temperature where
condensation starts

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Vapor
pressure
deficit

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 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES

Environmental lapse rate

= rate of decrease of temperature with
altitude

Adiabatic lapse rate

= rate of temp. decrease of rising air as it
expands.
– Dry adiabatic lapse rate = 1o C/100m
– Moist adiabatic lapse rate = 0.6o C/100m

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22:21 Altitude 14

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Local climate & weather are determined by

complicated interactions of:
a) global wind circulation
b) regional wind patterns
c) Topography (mountains, valleys, hills
etc)
d) vegetation
e) sea, lakes, rivers etc.

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 Outline
• Weather
• = The condition of the atmosphere
• (i.e. temp., pressure, sunshine, wind,
clouds, fog, precipitation)
• at any place at a specific time.
• i.e. short term.
• Meteorology = study of weather

• Climate
• = long-term (30-35yrs) weather conditions
of a large area.
• Climatology = study of climate.

Atmospheric
Introduction Relative Humidity Circulation and
Precipitation

Climate Diagrams Soil Horizons Terrestrial Biomes

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Global Wind Circulation

▪ Spherical shape and tilt of earth’s axis cause uneven
heating ofNearth’s surface.
illumination

Equator
Circle of

90°

S
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 Equator: Higher
sunshine latitudes:
vertical sunshine at
an angle

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Cool, dry Cool, dry

Adiabatic
heating
Adiabatic
cooling

Hot,Dry Intertropical Hot,Dry

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Equator
Convergence Zone 20

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 Polar cell

Ferrel cell

Hadley
cells

Ferrel cell

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▪ Coriolis effect causes

apparent deflection of
winds clockwise in the N
hemisphere and
counterclockwise in the S
hemisphere.
▪ Coriolis force is due to the
difference in rotation
speed between the
equator and higher
latitudes.

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23

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 N

Summer

23½

Equator Spring/Fall

23½

Winter

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 Northern
Northernfall,
Northern spring,
wintersouthern
southern
spring
fall Polar cell
Northern summer

Ferrel cell

Hadley
cells

Ferrel cell

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Climate Diagrams
Summarize climatic information using a standardized structure.

Relative
position of lines
reflect water Precipitation
availability. plotted on
right vertical
axis.

10o C equivalent to 20
Temperature mm precipitation.
plotted on left
vertical axis.

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 Climate Diagrams

Adequate moisture
for plant growth
when precipitation
above temperature.

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Climate Diagrams

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 Climate Diagrams

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Atmospheric Envelope
▪ Clean, dry air at the earth’s surface is
approx:
– 78.08 % Nitrogen
– 20.94 % Oxygen
– 0.93 % Argon
– .003 % Carbon Dioxide
– .00005 % Ozone

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 Atmospheric Composition
▪ Record of atmospheric
composition during last
160,000 years was extracted
from ice cores in Greenland
and Iceland → Samples of
atmosphere trapped in ice.
– Core indicated two very
large fluctuations in
atmospheric CO2
concentrations.
– 140,000, 13,000 years ago.
– Low CO2 → ice ages,
– High CO2 → interglacial
periods.

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Human Influence on Atmospheric

Composition
▪ 19th and 20th centuries:
concentration of atmospheric
CO2 increased dramatically.
▪ Fossil fuel burning alone
produces more than enough
CO2 (5,600 Tg/yr) to account
for recent increases in
atmospheric concentrations
(3,500 Tg/yr).
– Three major periods of
interruptions:
– World War I
– Great Depression
– World War II
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 Earth Heat Balance

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Greenhouse Effect
▪ Heat is trapped near the earth’s surface
by greenhouse gases:
– Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, Methane,
Ozone, Nitrous Oxide, and CFC’s)
▪ Absorb infrared and reemit most back to
earth.
– 30 % Solar energy reflected back by
clouds, particulate matter, etc.
– 70 % Absorbed by atmosphere/surface.

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 A Global System
▪ During El Nino, a warm current appears
off the coast of Peru.
– Generally during Christmas season (El
Nino refers to the Christ child).
▪ Southern Oscillation refers to oscillation
in atmospheric pressure that extends
across the Pacific Ocean.

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Historical Thread
▪ Walker (1924) discovered
correspondence between barometric
pressure across Pacific and rainfall
during monsoons.
▪ Found Southern Oscillation: Barometric
pressure rises in western Pacific, and
causes decrease in pressure in eastern
Pacific, and vice versa.
– Suggested temperatures in Canada are
somehow connected.
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 Southern Oscillation

El Niño La Niña

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Southern Oscillation
El Nino
▪ Eastern tropical Pacific: Sea
surface much warmer than
average; barometric pressure
lower than average.
→formation of storms →
increased precipitation in
much of North America.
▪ Western Pacific: sea surface
cooler than average;
barometric pressure higher
than average.
→ drought.
La Nina:
▪ Eastern tropical Pacific:
Periods of lower sea
surface temperatures;
higher than average
pressure.
▪ → Drought in much of
North America.
▪ Western Pacific: Higher
than average precipitation

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 Soil : Foundation of Terrestrial
Biomes
– Soil is a complex mixture of living and
non-living material.
– Classification based on vertical
layering (soil horizons).
▪ Profile provides a snapshot of soil
structure in a constant state of flux.
– Sources of soil particles:
disintegration of rock → transportation
bywater, wind, glaciers → Regolith
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Soil Development
Regolith (rego = blanket, lithos = rock)
= unconsolidated disintegrated, loose,
incoherent rock waste/debris overlaying hard,
unweathered bedrock

Physical, chemical
Regolith & biological activity
"SOIL”

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 CO2 Rain

Plants Minerals
washed away

Decomposition
Roots break
Clay Minerals leaching
Humification down regolith
loss e.g. Carbonates
(Eluviation)
Humus
Mineralization Translocation

Minerals

Illuviation
(redeposition)

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Soil : Foundation of Terrestrial

Biomes
– Classification based on vertical
layering (soil horizons).
▪ Profile provides a snapshot of soil
structure in a constant state of flux.

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 Soil profile (Horizons)

O –Horizon: Loose, fragemented plant litter; more fragmented in

lower layer.

A-Horizon: Mixture of mineral soil (clay, silt and sand)

and organic matter. Loss of clay and minerals (Fe, Al,
Silicates etc.)

B-Horizon: illuvial deposition of minerals. Clay,

humus, and other materials leached from A horizon - often
contains plant roots.

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Soil profile (Horizons)

O –Horizon: Loose, fragemented plant litter; more fragmented in

lower layer.

A-Horizon: Topsoil; Mixture of mineral soil (clay, silt

and sand) and organic matter. Loss of clay and
minerals (Fe, Al, Silicates etc.)

B-Horizon: Subsoil; illuvial deposition of minerals.

Clay, humus, and other materials leached from A horizon -
often contains plant roots; contains less organic matter
than layers above
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 O-horizon
A- Horizon
–The E horizon is the zone in the A
horizon of maximum leaching (eluviation)

B-Horizon

C-Horizon: Unconsolidated, weathered

parent material.

D-Horizon: Unweathered bedrock

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