RADIOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT

NAME: KACHIDZA BRIGHTON

REG NUMBER: H210350F

SCHOOL: ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES

PART: 3.2

COURSE: IMAGING SCIENCES AND EQUIPMENT IV

COURSE CODE: ARG 3205

LECTURER: MS MAKAZA

ASSIGNMENT No: 1
1. Describe the x-ray tube and explain its mode of function [50 marks]

The X-ray tube stands as a crucial building block of radiographic imaging systems, serving as
the cornerstone for generating the X-rays that are vital to diagnostic imaging. An x-ray tube
functions as a specific energy converter, receiving electrical energy and converting it into two
other forms of energy: x-ray (1%) and heat (99%). Heat is considered the undesirable product
of this conversion process; therefore x-radiation is created by taking the energy from the
electrons and converting it into photons. This very specific energy conversion takes place in
the x-ray tube. This indispensable device is composed of several integral components,
including the anode, cathode, and vacuum tube. Its operation rests upon the principles of
thermionic emission and electron acceleration, which have been extensively researched and
documented in scientific literature (Bushberg et al., 2011). The x-ray tube contains two
principal elements: filament (also acts as cathode): boils off electrons by thermionic emission
and target (also acts as anode): electrons strike to produce x-rays. Additional components
include: expansion bellows (provide space for oil to expand), tube envelope (evacuated), tube
housing, cooling dielectric oil, rotor, induction stator and tube window: usually made from
beryllium, not glass. With its intricate design and sophisticated function, the X-ray tube has
revolutionized medical science by enabling physicians to diagnose and treat a wide range of
conditions with greater accuracy and precision than ever before.

Cathode is the source of electrons for x-ray production. It is the negative electrode in an X-
ray tube. The cathode contains a filament, typically made of tungsten, which is heated to a
high temperature by passing an electric current through it. The heat causes thermionic
emission, whereby electrons are released from the filament’s surface (William, 1913).
Surrounding the filament is a focusing cup, which is usually made of nickel. It has a negative
charge, which keeps the cloud of electrons emitted from the filament from spreading apart.
The focusing cup has a concave shape and serves to direct the emitted electrons towards the
anode. These electrons are then propelled towards the positively charged anode, which is a
metal target, by a high voltage applied across the tube. The anode is where electrons
decelerate, and the energy from deceleration is released in the form of heat and X-ray photons
(Edmond, 1930).

The anode of an x-ray tube is a positively charged electrode composed of molybdenum,

copper, tungsten, and graphite. These materials are used for their thermal and electrical
conductive properties (Walter, 1950). The anode consists of a target and, in rotating anode
tubes, a stator and rotor. The target is a metal that abruptly decelerates and stops electrons in
the tube current, allowing the production of x-rays. The target can be either rotating or
stationary.

The filament/cathode and target/anode are contained in the envelope, which provides
vacuum, support and electrical insulation. The envelope is most often made from glass (Pyrex
or borosilicate glass), although some tubes contain envelopes formed from ceramic or even
metal. A glass envelope is more prone to failure because tungsten filament vapourises and
coats on the surface of glass, altering the electric potential of tube, resulting in the formation
of electric arc, causing tube failure. On the other hand, a metal envelope maintains the
electric potential across the tube, making it less likely to fail. Thus, most high output x-ray
tube uses metal envelopes.

An X-ray tube can have two filaments at the cathode where a smaller filament produces a
smaller focal spot, thus images with greater detail. However, the image will be easily blurred
by movement artefacts. Meanwhile, a larger filament produces high intensity X-rays with
quick exposures, thus less influenced by movement artefacts. The energy used for this
process is provided from a generator, connected by an electrical circuit connected to the x-ray
tube. The generator also needs to convert the mains supplied alternating current (AC), into
direct current (DC), as needed by the x-ray tube. The reason for this is to ensure a constant
unidirectional flow of electrons from the negatively charged cathode to the positively charged
anode.

The quality and the quantity of the x-radiation are controlled by adjusting the electrical
parameters (kV – tube voltage (potential difference applied across the tube), mA – tube
current (flows through the tube) and exposure time, usually a fraction of a second.

Upon collision with the anode target, two primary processes generate X-rays: bremsstrahlung
radiation and characteristic radiation (Fauber, 2014). Bremsstrahlung radiation occurs when
electrons decelerate as they approach atomic nuclei in the anode; this causes them to emit
energy in the form of X-ray photons. In contrast, characteristic radiation happens when an
electron from the cathode collides with an atom on the anode’s surface. The collision causes
an inner-shell electron to be ejected from the atom, leaving behind a vacancy that is filled by
another electron. This results in the emission of X-ray photons with energies specific to the
particular element involved in the interaction (Huda, 2016). Overall, these processes work
together to produce high-quality medical images that assist healthcare professionals in
diagnosing and treating various conditions.

Bremsstrahlung x-rays

Bremsstrahlung x-rays (German for “braking”) - electrons lose kinetic energy as they pass
through atoms in the anode because they are attracted to the positively charges nuclei. The
closer to the nucleus the electron passes the more kinetic energy it loses and it is deflected to
continue moving in another direction at lower energy, or stopped altogether. This is where
maximum kinetic energy is transferred to the production of an x-ray that is emitted from the
anode.

Characteristic x-rays

If electrons possess an energy that is equivalent to, or greater than, the binding energy of the
orbiting electrons in target atoms, these electrons is likely to be ejected from the atom. This
most often occurs in the inner electron shell (K-shell). The ejected electron is known as a
photoelectron. The vacancy left in the K-shell must be filled in order for the atom to remain
stable (law of conservation of energy) so outer shell electrons drop down to fill the shell. This
process of electron transfer between shells produces x-rays that are “characteristic” of the
binding energies of that particular atom/material, hence the name.

In order to produce X-rays in an efficient manner, it is imperative that the X-ray tube operates
within a vacuum environment. This is done to prevent any potential collisions between
electrons and air molecules. Once generated, the X-rays are able to pass through the patient’s
body and interact with various tissues in order to create diagnostic images that can be
captured by detectors. As outlined by Seeram (2016), this process is critical for accurately
diagnosing various medical conditions and ensuring proper treatment plans are put into place.
By maintaining a strict focus on creating a safe and effective environment for producing X-
rays, medical professionals are able to provide patients with the best possible care and
support throughout their medical journey.
Fig 1: Shows a diagram of an x-ray tube with a rotating anode (X-ray tube configuration,
press books create).

2. Describe the working principle of a high tension generator [25 marks]

A high tension generator, also known as an X-ray generator, is a crucial component of

radiographic imaging systems that produces the high voltage required to accelerate electrons
within the X-ray tube and generate X-rays for diagnostic imaging. This device operates based
on the principles of electromagnetic induction and transformer action (Bushong, 2017).

A high-tension alternator generator, also known as a high-voltage alternator, operates on the

principle of electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Rotor: The rotor is the rotating component of the generator. It usually consists of a shaft and a
magnetic field-producing component such as a field coil or permanent magnets. Stator: The
stator is the stationary component of the generator. It surrounds the rotor and contains wire
windings or coils. Electromagnetic Induction: As the rotor rotates within the stator, the
magnetic field produced by the rotor induces an alternating current (AC) in the stator
windings due to electromagnetic induction. This alternating current is known as the output
voltage of the generator. Output Voltage Regulation: The output voltage of the generator can
be regulated by controlling the excitation current supplied to the rotor (in the case of a field
coil) or by adjusting the speed of rotation. This ensures that the generator produces the
desired voltage level.
 A high tension generator, also known as an X-ray generator, provides high voltage between
the anode and cathode. It serves several functions:

 Supplying high voltage: It generates the necessary high voltage required for X-ray
production.
 Controlling exposure timing: The generator determines the duration of X-ray exposure.
 Turning exposure on and off: It allows precise control over when X-rays are emitted.

Working Principles:

o Electromagnetic Induction: The generator operates based on electromagnetic induction.

o Changing Magnetic Field: When an alternating current (A.C.) flows through a primary coil,
it creates a changing magnetic field around a soft iron core.
o Secondary Coil (S. Coil): This changing magnetic field induces a current in a secondary coil
(S. coil).
o Current Flow: Current flows only when the magnetic field changes (increases or decreases),
not when it remains stable.
o Diode Valve Function: The high tension generator is connected to an X-ray tube via a diode
valve. If the valve is connected such that the cathode is negative with respect to the anode,
electrons flow toward the anode, allowing current to pass. Conversely, if the cathode is
positive with respect to the anode, the valve blocks current, ensuring that the supply of
current to the X-ray tube is unidirectional.

Fig 2: principle of operation of high tension generator

The working principle of a high tension generator involves several key components,
including an autotransformer, a step-up transformer, rectifiers, and a capacitor. The
autotransformer adjusts the incoming voltage to the desired level, which is then increased
further by the step-up transformer to generate high voltages necessary for X-ray production.
The rectifiers convert the alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC), while the
capacitor helps to smooth out the voltage waveform and ensure a consistent output (Bushong,
2017).

Transformer action: The varying magnetic field induces a high-voltage current in the
secondary winding of a transformer within the generator. The transformer has a step-up ratio,
meaning the number of turns in the secondary winding is much higher than the number of
turns in the primary winding, resulting in a high-voltage output.

Rectification: The high-voltage AC output from the transformer is then rectified, typically
using a cascade of diodes, to produce high-voltage DC output.

Voltage multiplier: In some high-tension generators, a voltage multiplier circuit is used to

further increase the output voltage. This circuit consists of a series of capacitors and diodes
that multiply the voltage in a stepwise manner.

Insulation and safety: High-tension generators require robust insulation to prevent electrical
breakdown and ensure safe operation. The components are often housed in a sealed and
pressurized container filled with an insulating gas, such as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
(Bardeen, 1952).

A typical high tension generator consists of the following essential components:

1. Power Supply: The high tension generator requires a power source, which can be a low-
voltage alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) supply, depending on the specific
design.

2. Voltage Multiplier Circuit: This circuit is responsible for converting the input low voltage
into a much higher output voltage. Common voltage multiplier circuits include the Cockcroft-
Walton multiplier, the Greinacher multiplier, and the Villard multiplier (Cockcroft, 1950).
3. Transformer: In some high tension generator designs, a transformer is used to step up the
input voltage to a higher level, which is then further amplified by the voltage multiplier
circuit.

4. Capacitors: Capacitors play a crucial role in the voltage multiplier circuit, storing and
releasing the high-voltage charge to generate the desired output.

5. Resistors: Resistors are used in the high tension generator circuit to limit the current flow
and provide voltage regulation, ensuring the safety and stability of the high-voltage output.

6. Insulation: Proper insulation is essential to prevent electrical breakdown and arcing

between the high-voltage components and the surrounding environment. Common insulation
materials include air, oil, and solid dielectrics.

7. Control and Monitoring Systems: High tension generators often incorporate control and
monitoring systems to regulate the output voltage, monitor the system's performance,
and ensure safe operation.

During operation, the high tension generator receives power from the main power supply,
which is then transformed and rectified to produce a high voltage output. This high voltage is
applied across the X-ray tube to accelerate electrons from the cathode to the anode, leading to
X-ray production through electron interactions with the anode target (Bushberg et al., 2011).

In summary, the high tension generator plays a critical role in radiographic imaging by
providing the high voltage required for electron acceleration within the X-ray tube, ultimately
leading to X-ray generation for diagnostic purposes.

Fig 3: how generator supply smooth high-voltage to the x-ray tube

3. Discuss Ward Radiography Management outlining Key Skills, Radiation Protection, and
Infection Control.

Ward radiography refers to the process of performing imaging examinations at the patient’s
bedside or in a healthcare facility’s ward, rather than in a dedicated radiology department
(Sutton, 1998). This approach is often necessary for patients who are unable to be transported
to the radiology department due to their medical condition or other logistical constraints.
Effective ward radiography management requires a comprehensive understanding of the key
skills required, as well as the implementation of robust radiation protection and infection
control measures (Elinor, 2021). Ward radiography management involves the coordination
and supervision of radiographic procedures within a hospital ward setting. This requires
radiographers to possess a range of key skills including technical proficiency, effective
communication, patient care, radiation protection, and infection control.

In this discussion, we will outline the key skills required for ward radiography management,
as well as the importance of radiation protection and infection control in this setting.

Key Skills for Ward Radiography

Radiographers conducting ward radiography must possess a high level of technical

proficiency in operating portable x-ray equipment, ensuring optimal image quality, and
adjusting exposure parameters to accommodate the unique challenges of the ward
environment. Technical proficiency is a crucial skill for radiographers working in a ward
setting. They must be able to operate radiographic equipment efficiently and accurately
position patients for imaging procedures (Brown, 2018).

Radiographers must exhibit expertise in patient positioning and immobilization techniques to

acquire high-quality images, often in confined spaces and with limited patient cooperation
(Ballinger, 2015).

Communication skills are critical for radiographers working on wards as they need to
effectively communicate with patients, family members, and healthcare staff. They should be
able to explain the examination process, address concerns promptly, and provide a patient-
centered approach (Johnson, 2017).
Efficient workflow management is crucial when working on wards where radiographers have
to navigate complex hospital settings, coordinate with other healthcare professionals while
prioritizing examinations based on clinical urgency.

Patient care is another important aspect of ward radiography management. Radiographers

must have a compassionate and empathetic approach when dealing with patients, particularly
those who may be anxious or in pain. They should prioritize patient comfort and dignity
during imaging procedures.

Successful ward radiography requires close collaboration between radiographers and other
members of the healthcare team like nurses, physicians or allied health professionals; this
ensures that a coordinated approach is taken towards providing holistic care for patients.

As unexpected challenges may arise during procedures which may require quick decision-
making concerning safety measures for patient’s well-being; therefore it’s essential that
radiographers possess adeptness at critical thinking and problem-solving skills when dealing
with such situations onwards.

Radiation Protection in Ward Radiography

Radiation protection is a critical consideration in ward radiography management.

Radiographers must adhere to strict protocols to minimize radiation exposure to both patients
and staff. This includes using lead aprons, collimation, and shielding devices to reduce
unnecessary radiation exposure (Seeram, 2016)

Adherence to Radiation Safety Protocols: Radiographers must meticulously comply with

established radiation safety protocols, which encompass the use of personal protective
equipment (PPE), appropriate shielding techniques, and the implementation of ALARA (As
Low As Reasonably Achievable) principles.

Dose Optimization Expertise: Radiographers must possess expertise in optimizing radiation

doses by carefully selecting exposure parameters, minimizing the number of exposures, and
ensuring that the radiation dose is kept at a minimum while achieving optimal diagnostic
quality.

Patient and Staff Shielding Methods: Proper shielding methods should be employed to
safeguard patients, healthcare staff members, as well as other individuals present in ward
environments from superfluous radiation exposure.
Quality Assurance and Monitoring Measures: A robust quality assurance program consisting
of regular equipment checks, image quality assessments and monitoring of radiation dose
levels are indispensable for safe delivery and effective functioning of radiography services
within wards.

Compliance with Regulatory Guidelines: It is incumbent upon radiographers to remain

cognizant about pertinent regulations governing radiation protection practices and ensure that
all radiography procedures conducted within wards strictly conform to these stipulations.

Infection Control in Ward Radiography

In order to prevent the spread of healthcare-associated infections, radiographers must adhere

to strict disinfection and cleaning protocols for all portable x-ray equipment and accessories.
This includes regular cleaning and disinfecting of surfaces that come into contact with
patients, such as the exam table and any other equipment used during the examination
process. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is also essential in minimizing the risk of
cross-contamination between radiographers and patients. Proper use of gloves, gowns, masks,
and other PPE is crucial in ensuring the safety of both parties involved (Smith, 2019).

Moreover, radiographers must be trained in aseptic techniques to minimize the risk of

introducing or transmitting infectious agents during examinations. This includes proper hand
hygiene before and after each patient interaction, as well as maintaining a sterile field
throughout the procedure. Waste management is equally important in maintaining a safe and
hygienic environment within the ward setting. Radiographers must ensure that all waste
generated during ward radiography, including contaminated materials and sharps, are handled
and disposed of properly (WHO, 2016).

On-going education and training for radiographers and other healthcare staff on infection
control measures specific to ward radiography are essential in maintaining best practices and
reducing the risk of healthcare-associated infections. By prioritizing technical proficiency,
patient-centered care, radiation safety, and infection control measures, radiographers can
contribute to the overall quality and safety of healthcare delivery within the ward setting.

In summary, effective management of ward radiography requires a comprehensive

understanding of key skills such as radiation protection measures necessary for safe delivery
of imaging services within this particular environment. Through strict adherence to
disinfection protocols, proper use of PPEs, aseptic techniques implementation during
examinations processes together with appropriate waste management handling procedures
amongst others; Radiographers can help reduce risks associated with healthcare-associated
infections while contributing to improved overall quality care provision within wards
settings.

In order to effectively manage radiography services within a ward setting, it is essential for
radiographers to possess a thorough understanding of the necessary skills, radiation
protection protocols, and infection control measures. The safe and efficient delivery of
imaging services in this environment requires prioritizing technical proficiency, patient-
centered care, radiation safety, and infection control. By focusing on these key areas,
radiographers are able to make significant contributions towards improving the overall
quality and safety of healthcare delivery in the ward setting. It is crucial that radiographers
remain up-to-date with the latest developments in their field and continuously seek out
opportunities for professional development to ensure they maintain the highest standards of
care and service delivery possible. With a strong emphasis on comprehensive training and on-
going education, we can help ensure that patients receive the best possible care when
undergoing radiographic procedures in a ward setting.
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