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Advanced modern low-emission two-stroke cycle engines

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DOI: 10.1177/0954407011408649

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 Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile
Engineering
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Advanced modern low-emission two-stroke cycle engines

P R Hooper, T Al-Shemmeri and M J Goodwin
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering 2011 225: 1531
originally published online 4 August 2011
DOI: 10.1177/0954407011408649

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 REVIEW PAPER 1531

Advanced modern low-emission two-stroke

cycle engines
P R Hooper*, T Al-Shemmeri, and M J Goodwin
Faculty of Computing, Engineering and Technology, Staffordshire University, Beaconside, Stafford, Staffordshire, UK

The manuscript was received on 22 October 2010 and was accepted after revision for publication on 7 April 2011.

DOI: 10.1177/0954407011408649

Abstract: This paper reviews recent engines and associated technology offering potential low-
emission two-stroke cycle operation for a range of applications. The study considers and dis-
cusses successfully applied modern production engines together with concepts exploring
advanced possibilities for future application. The published results from research and devel-
opment projects and the data from available technology are compared in terms of the specific
performance. The paper does not compare combustion strategies or fluid dynamic aspects of
two-stroke cycle engines but does consider and compare the data from engines using the
crankcase, external, and stepped piston scavenging intended for automotive, marine, and
defence applications.

Keywords: two-stroke cycle engine, stepped piston engine, step piston, external scavenging
engines, variable compression ratio, hybrid electric vehicle, direct injection, downsizing, low
emissions

1 INTRODUCTION problems. The introduction of advanced direct-fuel-

The two-stroke cycle engine has experienced signifi-
cant challenges to its existence as ever more strin-
gent emissions regulatory standards are introduced.
Indeed, many historical manufacturers of such
engines have replaced two-stroke engines within
their product range with four-stroke cycle engines,
accepting the reduced performance that is evident
from such a move while meeting the key goal of
emission legislation. The dilemma that exists is that
the two-stroke cycle engine has the potential to
achieve competitive low-emission characteristics [1,
2], if it could overcome serious inherent durability
problems. Operating a two-stroke engine with direct
fuel injection increases the thermal loading on the
engine. Furthermore, early carburettor fuel systems
delivered excess fuel that often achieved a cooling
effect, preventing subsequent piston durability
*Corresponding author: Faculty of Computing, Engineering and
Technology, Staffordshire University, Beaconside, Stafford,
Staffordshire, ST18 0AD, UK.
email: p.r.hooper@staffs.ac.uk
injection systems eliminated this cooling effect and
readily demonstrated the results of the improved
thermal efficiency. If roller bearings are employed
within a crankcase scavenged engine, then total loss
lubrication is inevitable, owing to the passage of
lubricant from the bearings to the combustion
chamber via the transfer ports. Some methods of
recirculation of excess oil have been demonstrated
[3]; however, to achieve low emissions, this oil sup-
ply must be maintained at a very low level in com-
parison with early two-stroke engine examples. A
number of engine developments have been pro-
posed to achieve low overall emission characteris-
tics and this paper will discuss these developments
together with an analysis of the specific perfor-
mance data from published papers. Engines using a
range of cylinder charging methods are considered
including uniflow, cross, and loop scavenging.
Uniflow scavenging where flow is unidirectional
from intake ports or valves at one end of the cylin-
der to valves at the other end normally offers the
highest charging and scavenging efficiency. If the
minimum engine unit size is a key objective, cross

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1532 P R Hooper, T Al-Shemmeri, and M J Goodwin
scavenging offers a minimum cylinder centre dis-
tance since the cylinder inlet or transfer ports are
arranged directly opposite the exhaust ports, disal-
lowing any space for ports at the side elevations of
the cylinder. This necessitates a deflector on the pis-
ton crown to redirect the incoming charge up into
the combustion chamber. If inlet ports can be
arranged angularly around the periphery of the
cylinder, directed away from the exhaust port, then
loop scavenging can be achieved where the incom-
ing charge trajectory forms a loop path as it sca-
venges the exhaust gas from the cylinder.
2 SPARK IGNITION TWO-STROKE ENGINES
2.1 Crankcase scavenged engines
Schlunke [2] in 1989 and Smith and Ahern [4] in
1993 presented details and developments of the
Orbital combustion process (OCP), an injection sys-
tem where high-pressure (5.5 bar) air and high-pres-
sure (6.2 bar) fuel are injected directly into the
combustion chamber of the two-stroke cycle engine.
Developed by the Orbital Engine Corporation of
Australia, the system was originally applied to an
unusual rotary engine that this company was devel-
oping. The system uses a fuel injector for fuel
metering and, with the addition of solenoid-con-
trolled high-pressure compressed air, a highly ato-
mized fuel–air mixture is propelled directly into the
combustion chamber.
On realizing the potential application of the fuel
system to two-stroke engines, the Orbital Engine
Corporation gained significant interest from major
automotive manufacturers including Ford [5, 6],
Jaguar [6], Fiat, General Motors [6], Piaggio, and
Bajaj in India. Significant examples of published
work exist [6–10] presenting results using an Orbital
in-line three-cylinder 1197 cm3 engine. Automotive
manufacturers were particularly interested in the
very low emission characteristics, the high specific
performance, and the flat torque output of the two-
stroke engine. Indeed, results were so promising
that interested collaborators paid significant initial
and subsequent licence fees in order to assess the
technology.
The crankcase scavenged OCP1200 engine,
despite demonstrating very low emissions and high
efficiency, suffered from poor durability characteris-
tics and was therefore largely abandoned by the
car manufacturers. However, in 1995, the work of
Eisenhauer [11] demonstrated improved durability
and, in 2000, Shawcross et al. [12] published results
of extensive durability testing via fleet vehicle
Proc. IMechE Vol. 225 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
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trials in Australia. Successful production application
of Orbital systems was achieved in conjunction
with Siemens on engines such as the Aprilia direct-
injection technology (DITECH) 50 cm3 motorcycle
scooter as published by Ambler and Zocchi [13]
and Archer and Bell [14] and the Mercury Marine
Optimax outboard motor range. The Aprilia
DITECH system is largely a development of the
Orbital small-engine fuel injection system (SEFIS) as
published by Leighton et al. [15]. Peugeot Motor-
cycles and Kymco introduced two-stroke direct-
injection scooters in 2002 and 2004 respectively.
The design, development, and production of a low-
cost direct-injection system presents significant
challenges. On small-capacity engines the direct-
injection system application can substantially
increase the engine unit cost, making production
viability questionable. In order to address the high
emission levels of current two-stroke engines, signif-
icant interest in direct-injection systems have been
shown in India for application to two-stroke and
four-stroke motorcycles [16–18]. Bajaj launched the
first gasoline direct-injection two-stroke engine rick-
shaw in 2007 [19].
Two-stroke engine developments were published
by Duret and co-workers [20, 21] of the Institut
Francxais du Pétrole (IFP) in 1992–1993 in response
to the growing interest in two-stroke engine solu-
tions for modern low-emission automotive applica-
tions. These developments used the novel principle
known as injection assistée par air comprimé
(IAPAC) of applying a surge tank attached to the
crankcase via a reed non-return valve [22]. The
surge tank feeds low-pressure air from the crank-
case to a cam-actuated poppet valve in the cylinder
head. A conventional low-pressure fuel injector is
positioned just behind the poppet valve. On actua-
tion of the poppet valve, a highly atomized air–fuel
mixture is passed into the combustion chamber.
Similar to the work of Schlunke [2], significant
research has been published by Duret and co-work-
ers [20, 21] based upon an in-line three-cylinder
configuration of 1230 cm3 swept volume. The con-
cept was explored in 1993 in collaboration with
automotive companies such as Peugeot [1, 20] and
Fiat [21] and by a joint collaboration between PSA
Peugeot Citroën and Renault [23–26].
In a similar approach to the Orbital SEFIS system,
a low-cost version of IAPAC entitled simplified cam-
less injection assistée par air comprimé (SCIP) was
developed in 1999 for low-cost motorcycle scooter
applications [27] and outboard manufacturers such
as Selva. Among others, Italian manufacturer
Piaggio collaborated with the IFP [28] on the appli-
cation development of the SCIP system.
 Advanced modern low-emission two-stroke cycle engines
Through the extensive research and development
of Nuti and co-workers [29–31], several notable sys-
tems for the development of new low-emission two-
stroke engines for motorcycle scooter application
were published from 1988 to 1998. Perhaps most
notable is the Piaggio fully atomized stratified tur-
bulence (FAST) system. This uses direct injection
via a crank-driven piston pump situated on top of
the cylinder head. Fuel is fed to the pump in pro-
portion to the air mass flowrate entering the crank-
case. The piston pump, which has a diameter much
smaller than the power cylinder, is used to inject
the fuel mixed with air directly into the combustion
chamber.
A single-fluid direct-injection system developed
originally by Ficht [32] of Germany was published in
1993 and found commercial application with the
Outboard Marine Corporation, USA. The fuel system
injects gasoline using only a magnetically actuated
hydraulic ram system. Fuel is injected at a high
pressure (approximately 30 bar) directly into the
combustion chamber. In 2003, the outboard manu-
facturer Evinrude released the first of a range of
E-TEC direct-injection two-stroke engines which is
based on Ficht technology as described by Strauss
et al. [33].
The Queen’s University of Belfast have long been
active in the field of two-stroke engine research and
have presented many data in 1994 using a cross sca-
venged engine [6] of 270 cm3 swept volume. The
results with air blast direct injection with this crank-
case scavenged engine have been presented by Blair
and co-workers [8, 34, 35].
2.2 Externally scavenged engines
In the 1990s during the period of heightened activity
in two-stroke engine development for low-emission
future automotive powertrains, Ricardo performed
research using inlet and exhaust valves within their
single-cylinder Flagship engine concept as pub-
lished by Stokes et al. [36]. Nomura and Nakamura
[37] presented the results of research at the Toyota
Motor Corporation using poppet valve scavenging
in both direct-injection spark ignition gasoline
engines and indirect-injection compression ignition
diesel engines. A Roots-type supercharger [9] was
used with inlet and exhaust valves in a similar
arrangement to that of a four-stroke engine cylinder
head but operating on the two-stroke cycle.
Scavenging of the exhaust gas from the previous
combustion process is thereby achieved by the
incoming inlet valve charge. The advantage of such
an approach overcomes some of the problems of
lubrication and associated durability issues of
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1533
crankcase scavenged engines. The increased valve
train loading due to the need to operate at twice the
frequency (the engine speed) presents challenges in
terms of the effective gas flow and the valve train
durability. Toyota adopted five valves (two inlet and
three exhaust valves) per cylinder to enhance the
scavenge efficiency.
In the early 1990s, Chrysler was also engaged in
a programme of research and development using a
Roots-type blower for charge scavenging, allowing
a sealed wet-sump-type crankcase design to be
adopted. Development of the 1.17 l and 1.5 l in-line
three-cylinder external breathing direct-injection
engines employed transfer and exhaust ports
through the cylinder walls. Later versions experi-
mented with a centrifugal scavenge pump in place
of the Roots-type blower.
During the same period, General Motors [38] also
experimented with a two-stroke powertrain for
future automotive applications with an engine des-
ignated CDS2. Crankcase scavenging was adopted
for the engine. While few published performance
data are available, much research work was con-
ducted on scavenge flow [39] and analysis of air-
assisted injection vapour distribution [40].
Subaru [6, 7] investigated an externally scavenged
engine design of 1.6 l capacity with four cylinders in
a 90° V configuration. The engine employed loop
scavenging with the addition of rotary exhaust
valves. The adoption of the rotary exhaust valves
allows asymmetric port timing and therefore closing
of the exhaust port prior to transfer port opening,
thereby minimizing charge short-circuiting. The
engine is a further example of a wet-sump crank-
case design. The exhaust rotary valve is unique to
this design and can present major developmental
challenges in order to achieve long-term durability.
The Orbital OCP system was largely applied to
conventional crankcase scavenged two-stroke engine
designs; however, there was some experimentation
with external blower scavenged engines, notably a V6
cylinder 3.2 l engine for Jaguar [6], and an in-line six-
cylinder engine of 2 l swept volume.
Lotus have developed a wide range of innovative
technologies for internal combustion engines, sev-
eral of which relate to two-stroke cycle engines. One
such system is the exhaust or charge-trapping valve
as developed by Blundell and Sandford [41] in 1992
which improves the trapping and scavenging effi-
ciency. Lotus have also collaborated on joint
research projects including the European Low-
Emission V4 Automotive Two-Stroke Engine
(ELEVATE) programme as published from 2000 to
2005 in the work by Duret et al. [42], Blundell et al.
[43], and Turner et al. [44]. The ELEVATE engine
Proc. IMechE Vol. 225 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
1534 P R Hooper, T Al-Shemmeri, and M J Goodwin
shown in Fig. 1 is a V4 cylinder 2000 cm3 unit with
external scavenging provided by a supercharger.
The engine was designed to achieve a low environ-
mental impact, reduced fuel consumption, reduced
emissions, low engine mass, and compactness. The
programme of research involved a consortium of
IFP (IAPAC direct-fuel-injection and controlled
autoignition combustion), Lotus (charge-trapping
valve), and Opcon (ignition and dual-delivery screw
compressor (supercharger)) supported by the
Queen’s University of Belfast. The research was
funded by a European Union (DG XII Brite – Euram)
research grant. Lotus are exploring further develop-
ments using charge trapping and variable compres-
sion in a multi-fuel research project; however, this is
discussed later in the paper.
2.3 Stepped piston engines
The modern stepped piston engine was conceived
in the 1970s by Bernard Hooper well known for the
highly successful Villiers Starmaker [45, 46] and
Stormer engines and Norton Commando motor-
cycle. The stepped piston engine has formed the
basis of considerable research work by Hooper and
Hooper [47, 48] and Hooper [49–52] as presented in
previous papers and patents. The basic operating
principle of the main charge-scavenging system is
reproduced for reference in Fig. 2.
The majority of multi-cylinder units built operate
with multiple arrangements of paired cylinders, as
shown in Fig. 2. An air–fuel mixture (or air only for
direct injection) is drawn into the pumping annulus
through a reed valve. As the piston ascends, the
charge is transferred through a crossover system to
the smaller-diameter or working cylinder. The engine
then operates in a similar mode of operation to a
Fig. 1 Lotus ELEVATE two-stroke engine (image cour-
tesy of Lotus)
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Fig. 2 Simplified schematic diagram of the stepped
piston charge scavenging system (SPX) (image
courtesy of Bernard Hooper Engineering Ltd)
conventional loop scavenged engine but with key
fundamental durability and operational advantages
allowed by the inherent crankcase isolation. A range
of engines and charge-scavenging systems with
swept volumes ranging from 80 cm3 to 1775 cm3 in
single-, twin-, three-, and V4-cylinder configurations
have been the subjects of research and development
projects by one of the present authors (P. R. H).
For comparison purposes, data from Bernard
Hooper Engineering Ltd engines denoted SPV-4
(994 cm3; 90° V4) and SPV580 (580 cm3; 90° V4) are
compared in Table 1 with published data from other
advanced two-stroke engines targeted for low-emis-
sion automotive application. The SPV580 [52] has in
fact been designed for low-mass unmanned air vehi-
cle application but nevertheless demonstrates the
highest specific power so far achieved with a Hooper
stepped piston design and is therefore included in
the comparison. It should also be noted that the
SPV580 uses roller bearings throughout its construc-
tion. This approach was adopted in the interests of
minimizing the engine mass. A hydrodynamic shell
bearing design requires a correspondingly larger
journal diameter than a roller bearing design does.
2.4 Comparison of the performances of
spark ignition engines
Figure 3 compares the performance characteristics
for seven two-stroke cycle engine variations using
available published data.
Table 1 summarizes the key data for each of the
engines forming the comparison. In order to com-
pare engines of different swept volumes a full-load
 Advanced modern low-emission two-stroke cycle engines 1535

100.8 (at 3000 r/min)

specific power analysis has been applied, as shown

55 (at 5500 r/min)

in Fig. 3.
Stepped piston The supercharged S2 and ELEVATE engines offer

4 (90° V-4)
the highest brake mean effective pressure (BMEP)

zNOx, 0.025 g/mile, recorded from a twin-cylinder 500 cm3 carburetted motorcycle unit (LA4 cycle). Only data for vehicle drive cycle emissions (where available) are compared.
SPV-4

and specific power levels at lower engine speeds. In

74.5

994
57
terms of thermal efficiency, however, the S2 shows a

z
35.4 (at 5250 r/min)
64.3 (at 5250 r/min)
rapid reduction with increased speed. The stepped
Stepped piston

piston SPV580 engine offers the highest level of

SPV580LC [52]

BMEP at higher engine speeds. The QUB270PP

4 (90° V-4)

demonstrates good specific fuel consumption (SFC);

however, this is partially offset by the relatively low
580
62
48

z power per litre not uncommon when comparing

cross scavenging with loop scavenging.
Lotus ELEVATE [43, 44]

charge-trapping valve

In terms of exhaust emission characteristics and

110.4 (at 5000 r/min)
230 (at 4000 r/min)
External blower +

comparisons drawn against competing four-stroke

cycle engines, it should be noted that the claims
Table 1 Key data for the comparison of spark ignition engines

reproduced in Table 1 were largely made prior to

4 (90° V-4)

the introduction of Euro 3 and hence this standard

Value for the following engines

2000

was the benchmark. Nevertheless data quoted by

y

the Orbital Engine Corporation and the IFP show

118 (at 3000 r/min)
47 (at 4000 r/min)

favourable values for carbon monoxide (CO) and

External blower
Toyota S-2 [37]

hydrocarbons (HCs) with respect to Euro 5 and

Euro 6 standards. Duret and Venturi [53] reported
LA4 cycle

2250 lb
0.197*

a comparable four-stroke engine 910 kg vehicle

804

under Euro 1996 calibration that achieved a CO

80
80
2

11.0 (at 4500 r/min)

24.2 (at 3000 r/min)

level of 1.31 g/km and a HC + nitrogen oxide (NOx)

level of 0.40 g/km, showing clear advantages in
IFP IAPAC [21, 53] QUB270PP [35]

these emission levels for the IFP two-stroke IAPAC

Crankcase

engine data shown in Table 1. While limited

directly comparable four-stroke engine data were
270
70
70

given by Houston and Nakamura [10], the low NOx

1

52.9 (at 5000 r/min)

characteristics and advantage of the more rapid

*NOx, 0.315 g/mile (NOx for a comparable four-stroke vehicle, 2.0 g/mile) [37].
122.3 (at 3000 r/

engine warm-up and hence reduced cold-start

calibration

emissions against a comparable four-stroke engine

Crankcase

Euro 1996

vehicle were reported. Indeed Houston and Naka-

min)

910 kg
85.7 1

mura stated that almost 50 per cent of total NOx

1230

0.03
71.1

0.07
0.27

yNOx level approaching Euro 3 level without an NOx trap [44].

emission from a four-stroke engine is produced

3

during the first 2 min of operation, requiring a high

Orbital Genesis [10, 12]

Stage 3, New European

level of NOx conversion following engine warm-up.

120 (at 4000 r/min)

With respect to the Toyota S2 gasoline engine,

56 (at 4500 r/min)

Nomura et al. [37] reported limited emission data;

Drive Cycle

however, an NOx level of 0.315 g/mile was exhibited

Crankcase

on the USA LA4 drive cycle. This was reported as

910 kg
0.046
1197

being a significant improvement over the 2.0 g/mile

0.15

0.08
84
72
3

NOx emission from a comparable four-stroke

engine vehicle. Turner et al. [44] reported that the
Vehicle emissions drive cycle

Lotus ELEVATE engine was also capable of low

Charge-scavenging system

NOx levels, being able to achieve Euro 3 compli-

Maximum torque (N m)
Maximum power (kW)

ance without an NOx trap. Very low NOx levels have

Swept volume (cm3)
Number of cylinders

been observed with stepped piston engines operat-

Vehicle inertia

ing with carburettor fuel systems. The test on the

Stroke (mm)

NOx (g/km)
Bore (mm)

US LA4 cycle with a 500 cm3 twin-cylinder motor-

HC (g/km)
CO (g/km)

cycle unit achieved a level of 0.025 g/mile without

after-treatment.

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1536 P R Hooper, T Al-Shemmeri, and M J Goodwin

3 COMPRESSION IGNITION TWO-STROKE

ENGINES

3.1 Crankcase scavenged engines

Automotive two-stroke diesel engines have also
been developed in response to the significant poten-
tial for car application. The work of Matsuda et al.
[7, 54] of Yamaha Motor Co. published research
data for a semidirect-injection two-stroke diesel
engine. The engine was claimed to achieve low
emission levels close to Euro 4 [55]. The engine
forming the subject of research was a 982 cm3 twin-
cylinder design. Good results were observed follow-
ing installation to replace the standard 660 cm3
four-stroke engine in a small Japanese Kei-class car.
A power of 33 kW at 4000 r/min is claimed with
a maximum torque of 80 N m at 2500 r/min. The
engine requires computer control of the oil supply
to reduce the fuel consumption further. A key fea-
ture of the engine is the use of an exhaust port con-
trol valve, allowing the advancement of port timing
at higher engine speeds while offering the ability to
close the valve, which thereby retards the exhaust
port timing for low-speed operation. Furthermore,
for the two-stroke engine designer the most relevant
compression ratio value is that derived from the
charge trapped after exhaust port closure. Variation
in the exhaust port timing therefore allows variation
in the trapped compression ratio. This allows com-
promised ratios higher than the design value to be
available in part-load conditions while lower com-
pression ratios can be employed at full-load opera-
tion, thereby improving the overall efficiency of the
engine particularly in part-load conditions. Matsuda
et al. [54] claimed that a variation in the compres-
sion ratio from 13:1 to 18:1 was achievable with
their system. To improve the noise, vibration, and
harshness (NVH) of the twin cylinder layout a bal-
ance shaft was incorporated into the lower section
of the crankcase. The main challenge is to achieve
acceptable long-term durability with this crankcase
scavenged engine. Using the crankcase for the sup-
ply of inlet air and the conflicting need therefore to
limit severely the supply of lubricant (since it can
contaminate the scavenge air supply) has been
shown to result in poor durability.

3.2 Externally scavenged engines

In a similar approach to their gasoline spark ignition
Fig. 3 Comparison of the specific performances of engine research, the compression ignition version of
spark ignition engines the Toyota S-2 was also scavenged with a Roots-type

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 Advanced modern low-emission two-stroke cycle engines 1537

Table 2 Key data for the comparison of compression ignition engines

Value for the following engines
Yamaha semi-indirect Toyota S-2 AVL [9, 57] SP3-1330
injection [54] diesel [37] prediction

Charge-scavenging system Crankcase External blower External blower + Stepped piston

charge-trapping valve
Bore (mm) 82 96 72 82.5
Stroke (mm) 93 86 80 83
Number of cylinders 2 4 3 3
Swept volume (cm3) 982 2490 980 1331
Maximum power (kW) 33 (at 4000 r/min) 99.4 46.7 44.4
(at 3500 r/min) (at 3500 r/min) (at 4500 r/min)
Maximum torque (N m) 80 (at 2500 r/min) 315.4 164.8 114.6
(at 2000 r/min) (at 2000 r/min) (at 2000 r/min)
Vehicle emissions Extra-Urban Drive Cycle New European
drive cycle Drive Cycle
CO (g/km) 0.40 0.02
HC (g/km) 0.07
HC + NOx (g/km) 0.29
NOx (g/km) 0.25 * 0.39
Particulate matter (g/km) 0.029 * 0.04
Vehicle inertia (kg) 800 910

*Particulate matter and NOx levels lower than for a comparable four-stroke engine [37]. Only data for vehicle drive cycle emissions (where
available) are compared.

supercharger using a poppet-type intake and ex-
haust valves. The results have been presented by
Nomura and Nakamura [37] for prechamber indi-
rect injection. Some significant advantages were
claimed for the S-2 diesel and gasoline engines over
comparable four-stroke engines especially in terms
of reduced NOx and particulate emission, start abil-
ity, and NVH. However, fuel economy improve-
ments were highlighted as requirements for future
adoption of the engines.
Research published by Stone [9] and Knoll et al.
[56, 57] has given the results achieved with an in-
line three-cylinder two-stroke diesel automotive
engine using blower charging developed by AVL List
GmbH of Graz, Austria. The engine uses uniflow
scavenging which is known to offer higher scaven-
ging and trapping efficiencies [58, 59] than can be
achieved with cross or loop scavenging; however,
there are penalties in terms of the overall engine
size, mass, and cost. This would normally limit the
application of uniflow scavenging to relatively large
passenger car applications.
At the 1999 Frankfurt Motor Show [60], Daihatsu
displayed their E202 two-stroke engine under devel-
opment to achieve the key goal of 3 l/100 km vehicle
fuel consumption in a Sirion 2CD. The engine was a
1 l three-cylinder unit using external supercharger
scavenging with a variable-nozzle turbocharger and
intercooler. Little is known regarding the perfor-
mance characteristics of the E202 engine because of
the minimal amount of published material.
3.3 Stepped piston diesel engine
Initial exploratory work has been performed by one
of the present authors (P. R. H.). This work was con-
ducted at Bernard Hooper Engineering Ltd and used
an 800 cm3 twin-cylinder research unit and a
1775 cm3 V-4 cylinder engine. Available assistance
in the key area of fuel system technology was
extremely limited and adapted low-pressure pro-
duction hyd-raulic pump line injection technology
was used in indirect-injection and direct-injection
strategies. Despite inadequacies in the fuel system
(most notably in terms of the low available fuel
delivery pressure (350 bar)), the initial results were
encouraging. This led to the design of an in-line
three-cylinder stepped piston engine of 1330 cm3
swept volume targeted for sub-B class automotive
applications. Research work in terms of computa-
tional modelling analysis of this engine with
Professor F. Wallace is reproduced in part in Table 2
and Fig. 4.
3.4 Comparison of the performances of
compression ignition engines
Published data (where available) for compression
ignition two-stroke cycle engines are compared in
Table 2 and Fig. 4 for each of the engines forming
the comparison.
It is evident from Table 2 that the AVL and S2
engines are supercharged and therefore would be
expected to demonstrate the highest BMEP levels.

Proc. IMechE Vol. 225 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

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1538 P R Hooper, T Al-Shemmeri, and M J Goodwin
Fig. 4 Comparison of the specific performances of
compression ignition engines
Both engines are, however, speed limited because of
various levels of either camshaft-actuated inlet and/
Proc. IMechE Vol. 225 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
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or exhaust valves with speeds of up to only 4000 r/
min possible. The AVL engine utilizes uniflow
scavenging while the S2 is a tumble scavenged
design. In terms of the SFC the comparison in Fig. 4
shows that a significant advantage is offered by the
more compact stepped piston and crankcase sca-
venged Yamaha designs. The SFC and hence the
brake thermal efficiency advantage of the stepped
piston charged and crankcase scavenged engines
are clearly demonstrated.
In consideration of the exhaust emission levels
and their placement in comparison with equivalent
four-stroke engines, the S2 engine in 1993 was
claimed by Nomura and Nakamura [37] to exhibit
lower NOx and particulate emissions than a compa-
rable four-stroke engine although no specific data
were published. Further particulate and NOx emis-
sion reduction was cited as a higher potential
achievement with the S2 diesel engine than could
be achieved with comparable four-stroke engines;
however, further improvements in the fuel efficiency
were also stated as a requirement for future engines.
In 1999, the Yamaha [54] claims of achieving emis-
sion compliance can be seen as the data reproduced
in Table 2 appear to meet the Euro 4 benchmark
presented at that time. The AVL engine data pub-
lished by Knoll [57] show very low CO emission
comparable with current Euro legislation; however,
the NOx and particulate levels would appear to
require significant further effort to achieve current
and future standards.
4 HOMOGENEOUS CHARGE COMPRESSION
IGNITION AND CONTROLLED AUTOIGNITION
TWO-STROKE ENGINES
Following the early work of Onishi et al. [61] of the
Nippon Clean Engine Research Institute where the
effects of active thermo-atmosphere combustion
(ATAC) were explored using crankcase scavenged
two-stroke cycle engines, much further work has
been undertaken. This has resulted in considerable
research effort focusing on the ability of two-stroke
and four-stroke engines to operate in conditions of
autoignition. Promising results have been reported
in terms of emissions and SFC reduction. Initially,
the results demonstrated very low HC emission by
operation using this form of combustion; however,
more recently its adoption to counter NOx emission
has become a major research focus. Because of the
inherent internal exhaust gas recirculation available
with two-stroke cycle engines it has been argued by
Turner [62] that control of autoignition is easier to
achieve in a two-stroke cycle engine.
 Advanced modern low-emission two-stroke cycle engines
Honda achieved notable application success with
their EXP-2 440 cm3 single-cylinder motorcycle
through research and development of the active
radical combustion (ARC) system and explored fur-
ther analysis of stabilizing ARC using smaller-capac-
ity engines through the research of Ishibashi and
co-workers [63, 64].
Duret and co-workers [53, 65] of IFP have also
published work using the crankcase scavenged IFP
IAPAC engine operating in ATAC or autoignition
modes and the marked improvements observed in
terms of the emissions and fuel consumption.
Recent research work based at Ricardo originally
using the earlier Flagship concept engine [36, 66]
has also been explored further for homogeneous
charge compression ignition (HCCI) operation of
two-stroke and four-stroke engines. Under the sup-
port of a Foresight Vehicle programme, Ricardo are
currently developing a research engine that can
switch between two-stroke and four-stroke cycle
operation in order to achieve a significant reduction
in the fuel consumption. The engine uses electrohy-
draulic poppet valve actuation together with an
advanced control system that is able to switch auto-
matically between two-stroke and four-stroke oper-
ating modes. A transition mode is also employed
while cylinders are changing between operating
cycles to improve the transition and hence the vehi-
cle driveability. The system also manages the air
boost levels from the supercharger or turbocharger
during transition together with the increased valve
overlap period required for two-stroke operation.
The results compared with an equivalent current
Fig. 5 Ricardo 2/4 Sight engine (image courtesy of
Ricardo)
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1539
Fig. 6 Lotus OMNIVORE two-stroke engine (image
courtesy of Lotus)
Ford Focus vehicle equipped with a comparable
four-stroke gasoline engine are claimed to show 22–
40 per cent reduction in the carbon dioxide (CO2)
emission and 24 per cent reduction in the fuel con-
sumption over the New European Drive Cycle [67,
68] from the 2/4 Sight engine, as shown in Fig. 5.
A further very recent programme of research
funded by a UK Renewable Materials LINK pro-
gramme was announced by Lotus [69, 70] in August
2008. As shown in Fig. 6, a single-cylinder research
engine entitled OMNIVORE has been built, employ-
ing loop scavenging and direct injection with the
ability to vary geometrically the compression ratio
from 8:1 to 40:1 or from 6.4:1 to 24.4:1 on a trapped
basis (after exhaust port closure).
The engine was designed to be able to operate in
HCCI modes and is intended to explore CO2 reduc-
tion and the ability to operate on alternative alco-
hol-based fuels and gasoline, allowing flexible fuel
vehicle operation. Blundell et al. [71] and Turner
et al. [72] have published data showing very low
NOx emission levels and a minimum part-load indi-
cated a specific fuel consumption of 218 g/kW h
using gasoline and 217 g/kW h using E85. CO and
HC emission levels comparable with the levels for
current direct-injection four-stroke engines have
also been reported.
4.1 Advanced stepped piston engines
A prototype stepped piston engine has also been
considered by one of the present authors (P. R. H.)
for advanced hybrid vehicle operation. Designed
and built at Bernard Hooper Engineering Ltd with
the partial assistance of a UK Department of Trade
and Industry SMART award for innovation, a com-
putational modelling study was conducted in 2001
based upon this in-line three-cylinder engine as the
basis of a low-emission low-cost hybrid electric
vehicle powertrain study. Predictive analysis showed
Proc. IMechE Vol. 225 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
1540 P R Hooper, T Al-Shemmeri, and M J Goodwin
the potential for low SFC levels. The ability to oper-
ate with a variable power cylinder compression ratio
using far simpler methods than those required for
four-stroke engines meant that further advances are
perhaps within reach with this unique pump-
charged two-stroke engine design. It is hoped that
future development of this engine may be possible
and that advanced HCCI, controlled aoutoignition,
and operation with a variable combustion compres-
sion ratio may be explored.
5 CONCLUSIONS
A range of advanced two-stroke engines offering
low-emission potential for future commercial appli-
cation have been compared in terms of their tech-
nological developments and unique features. An
analysis where published data have been available
has provided an interesting comparison of each
different approach to meet future two-stroke
cycle engine design objectives. While the two-stroke
engine offers high-power-density and low-cost
advantages, greater complexity and hence increased
unit cost is inevitable in order to meet ever more
stringent emission standards. By application of
direct-injection systems, high-speed poppet valve
actuation, active exhaust gas recirculation control to
enable a wide range of HCCI operation, and vari-
able-compression-ratio technology, the two-stroke
engine still has the potential to provide competitive
low-emission powertrain solutions. Direct injection
is now a requirement for any modern automotive
two-stroke engine. The relative ease of application
of variable-compression-ratio operation to the two-
stroke engine should not be overlooked and offers
interesting prospects for future research and devel-
opment. Further development of engines such as
the Ricardo 2/4 Sight and Lotus OMNIVORE there-
fore have strong potential; however, in order to
address the challenge to minimize the unit cost, the
stepped piston engine offers strong future pros-
pects. Each of these engine types can present strong
solutions for future engine downsizing.
FUNDING
This research received no specific grant from any
funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-
for-profit sectors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
One of the present authors (P. R. H.) would like
to dedicate this paper to the late B. Hooper for his
Proc. IMechE Vol. 225 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
Downloaded from pid.sagepub.com by guest on January 17, 2012
outstanding foresight in engineering design.
Acknowledgements must also be accredited to
Professor F. Wallace, of F. J. Wallace and Associates,
with whom one of the present authors (P. R. H.) had
the pleasure of working on computational model-
ling analysis, and who sadly passed away in early
2009. His knowledge of engine simulation and in
particular two-stroke cycle engines was indeed
unique.
Ó Authors 2011
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