Diatomic elements: Have No Fear Of Ice Cold Beer

%Yield = actual/theoretical x 100

Dissociation/ionisation:
● changing state of substance
● When it splits into ions

Dilution:
● C1V1=C2V2 (only if water is added/removed)

General Gas Law

● Relates and allows for change of all four variables
● P₁V₁/n₁T₁ = P₂V₂/n₂T₂

Ideal Gas Law

● Molecules behaving according to KMT, at high temperatures and low pressures (not
condensing)
● Universal gas constant R = 8.31kPa⋅L/mol⋅K
● PV = nRT

Dalton's Law (law of partial pressure

● At a given temperature, total pressure equals sum of partial pressure
● Pₜ=P₁+P₂+P₃
● P₁=(n₁/nₜ)⋅Pₜ

Acid-Base:
● pH scale: pH = −log [H+]
● Acid: Proton donor (H+)
● Base: Proton acceptor
○ NH3 is a base
● Strong electrolytes:
○ Strong acids: HClO4, HClO3, HNO3, H2SO4, HCl, HBr, HI (HF is weak)
○ Strong bases: alkali metal and alkaline earth metal + hydroxide
○ Acid-base neutralisation: exothermic reaction

● Double replacement when two of each

● Acid-base: Polyatomic on its own, donor and acceptor method
● Precipitation can also be acid base, check the reactants
○ Transition metals with changing charges in double replacement can have
different oxidation states and thus be a redox reaction even if there is no pure
element
Solubility rule

1. Any compound with any of the ions below will be soluble

- Nitrate NO3-
- Acetate C2H3O2-
- Group 1A (H, Li, Na, and others)
- NAG
- NA1

2. Any compound with any of the ions below (with a few

exception) will always be soluble
- sulphate (SO4 except with koi Ba, Ca, Sr)
- Ammonium (NH4 without any exception)
- Group 7A (F, Cl, and others except with Pb, Hg, Ag)
- SA7
- S/Castro bear
- A
- G/MLS-Cu2+

decompose:
➢ H+ with OH-,O2-,CO32-
➢ SO42- with Hg2+
➢ SO32- with Hg2+,Hg22+
➢ O2- with elements with +1 charge and Ba2+, Ca2+
➢ I- with Cu2+
➢ S2- with Ba2+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Al3+

If not listed here then it's most likely insoluble

Properties of light (electromagnetic waves):
● wavelength size can be chosen similar to size of atom to maximise interactions
● atoms absorb or radiate light
● electrons behave like wave around nucleus - interference patterns for light used with
electron to understand electron cloud properties
● electromagnetic wave: wavelength λ, amplitude (power), oscillation, frequency
(oscillations/sec)

Constant speed:
● speed of light is constant
● c = 299 792 458 m/s
● c = λ v (λ - wavelength , v - frequency)

Reflection:
● When light passes from one transparent medium to another with different densities
(interface), it changes speed and bends
● degree of bending depends on angle of light beam and difference of refractive index
between two mediums on each side of interface

Diffraction:
● bending of wave (light,sound,etc.) around object, obstacle or edges of opening
● wave has ability to spread in circles (surface) or spheres (volume)
● to get diffraction, obstacle should be about same size as wavelength. for each
different wavelength, light bent at different angle, separating wavelengths.

Interference:
● two or more waves sharing same region in space can have intensity add-up to make
interference pattern
● two synchronised waves (electromagnetic, sound, waves on water) sharing same
region give constructive interference
● two synchronised waves with opposite intensity make destructive interference where
intensities can cancel out

Atomic spectrum of Hydrogen:

● Hydrogen gas can be excited with ele ctric discharges to emit light.
● Light obtained from this is refracted by prism to give discontinuous spectrum of light:
line spectrum
● Balmer equation: λ = 364.56 nm ( n₂² / (n₂²-n₁²)
● Rydberg's equation: 1/λ = Rₕ (1/n₁² - 1/n₂²)
○ Rydberg’s constant: 1.0974x10⁷ m⁻¹
○ n₁ and n₂ = positive integers, n₂>n₁
● Blackbody radiation:
● when heated, atoms of solid oscillate with specific frequency
● certain energies of vibration are allowed and correspond to specifc quantity of E
● hot materials radiate heat or visible light (electromagnetic radiation) using packages
of energy
● | ∆E | = h v
 ○ (∆E of atom) (h = 6.626x10⁻³⁴ J.s) (v= freq of vibration of radiation in S⁻¹, or
Hz)
○ change of energy can either be positive or negative
○ "package" of energy absorbed or released is always positive

Photoelectric effect:
● when monochromatic light shines on surface of metal, electrons are ejected from
surface with specific kinetic energy (KEelectron = 1/2 mv²)
● electrons are ejected when energy of light particle (hv) is equal to or higher than one
of threshold value (hv₀)
● threshold is energy required to remove electron from metal surface (work function)
and is unique for each material
● slope of curve is constant - corresponds to planck constant h. This light particle is
called photon
● KEelectron = hv - hv₀
● Ephoton = hv
● # of photons = Epulse/Ephoton
● photon with certain minimum energy must be absorbed by material for electron to be
freed
● photon is a light particle having electromagnetic energy proportional to its frequency
● light behaves both as wave and particle
● neither wave or particle view alone is complete description of light
● Bohr's model of atom:
● energy of electron in hydrogen is quantized
● atom changes from stationary state to another stationary state by absorbing or
emitting lower energy stationary state
● hydrogen equation for energy of atom is valid for any single electron atom or ion
● Eatom = −2.178×10⁻¹⁸ J (Z²/n²)
● −2.178×10⁻¹⁸ J (Zf²/nf² - Zi²/ni²)
○ Z is the amount of protons/atomic number
○ if hydrogen: Z = 1, He = 2
○ ground state = lowest allowed energy level (n=1 for single electron system)
○ excited state = not at ground state - any other energy level (n>1)
○ ionised = electron completely removed from nucleus n=∞ - Eatom = zero)

De Broglie's wavelength (λ):

1. if electrons have wavelike motion, they will be restricted to an orbit of fixed radius
around nucleus
2. only certain frequencies and energies will be possible following bohr's model of atom
3. any moving object has characteristic wavelength:
4. λ = h / mv (6.626x10⁻³⁴ J.s, mass in kg, v in m/s)

Heisenberg uncertainty principle:

● electron is moving particle with a mass that has kinetic energy of 1/2 mv²
● change in kinetic energy of electron (∆Eelectron) for small period of time (∆t) cannot
violate:
● ∆Eelectron ⋅ ∆t ≥ h
 ● ∆x ⋅ ∆(mv) ≥ h / 4π (∆x uncertainty of position, ∆v uncertainty of speed, m =
mass of particle)

Spdfg
super: l value of 0 1 orbital
powers: l value of 1 3 orbitals
Destroy: l value of 2 5 orbitals
fat: l value of 3 7 orbitals
gingers: l value of 4 9 orbitals

● S and P orbitals are valence electrons on the same period as the element

Atomic radius: increases bl

Electron affinity: increases tr
● Taking electrons (add electron)
Electronegativity: increases tr
● Sharing electrons but stronger pull on electrons (dipole)
Ionisation energy: increases tr
● Energy needed to get rid of an electron (remove electron)
Ionic radius: for the same amount of electrons, the smallest one is the one with the most
protons (force of attraction therefore it’s smaller radius).

Bonds:
Ionic bond: metal-nonmetal (electrostatic bond)
−19 𝑄1·𝑄2
Coulomb's law: 𝐸𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 2. 31 × 10 𝐽 · 𝑛𝑚 ( 𝑟
)
● r = distance between ion centres in nm
● Q1, Q2 are ion charges
● 10 Å (angstroms) = 1 nm
Covalent bond = two nonmetals
Bond breaking = endothermic — bond making = exothermic
Size of the bonds: triple bond < double bond < single bond
Short bond = strong bond.

Electronegativity EN: The relative ability of a bonded atom to attract shared electrons to itself

● Covalent polar: When either N, O, F or Cl, (Br) is present in a covalent bond, (2

non-metal) the bond has a dipole moment
○ Polar arrow should point towards the more electronegative element/negative
pole (F is most electronegative - F>O>Cl>N>Br)
● Covalent non-polar: covalent but not N, O, F or Cl
● Ionic: metal-nonmetal

Lewis structure:
1. add-up the valence electrons of all the atoms in the molecule.
a. Use the periodic table to find the valence of each element.
b. For an ion, add-up (or subtract) an electron according to the charge
2. Make a skeletal structure (1 bond between each atom).
a. Hydrogen are always peripheral since they can make only one bond.
b. Carbon are placed at the centre ( always make multiple bonds)
c. The most electronegative (EN) atoms like F, O, Cl are peripheral atoms.
3. Put electrons to the skeletal structure
a. start from the most EN atom to the least EN.
b. Distribute the electrons by pairs until there is no one left.
4. Move around lone pair electrons to make more bonds
a. The final structure must respect the octet rule.
Resonance structure: When there is more than one way to distribute the electron in a
skeletal structure (still obey the Lewis structure).

Formal charge = Valence electron - (Bonds + dots)

● For a molecule having a high formal charge (more than +1 or less than −1) on either
C, N, O, F atoms without resonance, the compound is unstable. (It will not exist or
has a very short life!)
● In resonance structure, the negative formal charge should be on the more
electronegative atom in order to be stable

MO Theory

Bond Order = 3 - 0.5 (e - 14) only for elements left of oxygen

or
Bond Order = (bonds - antibonds) / 2

Unpaired electrons = paramagnetic

All paired = diamagnetic

Expanded Octet
1. The empty “d” orbitals of larger atoms (orbital n < 2) are available.
2. Large atoms can have more than 8 electrons around them.
When to expand the octet?
 1. To make new bonds (favourable exothermic process)
2. To reduce the formal charge of an atom when there is no resonance
3. (stability).
The only non metal atoms that cannot expand their octet are: H , C , N , O , F
● (no “d” orbital available)

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals: combining atomic orbitals to make hybrid orbitals:

S1P3 = S + P + P + P
S1P2 = S + P + P
SP = S + P
d2s1p3 = d + d + s + p + p + p

Localised electron model:

● single bond is a sigma bond
● double bond contains 1 sigma and 1 pi bond
● triple bond contains 1 sigma and two pi bonds

3D sketch:
● Count the number of electron groups by looking at the number of sigma bonds and
lone pairs to determine the molecular geometry, then associate the number of lone
pairs to a shape
 H 0 1 2 3 4

2 sp linear 180゜

Trigonal
3 sp2 planar
bent 120゜

Trigonal
4 sp3 tetrahedral
pyramidal
bent 109.5゜

Trigonal
5 sp3d bipyramidal
seesaw T-shape linear 90゜120゜

Square Square
6 sp3d2 octahedral
pyramidal planar
T-shape linear 90゜90゜
Intermolecular forces
● high IMF = high boiling/melting point
● high IMF = high freezing point
● high IMF = low vapour pressure
● high IMF = high viscosity
● high IMF = high surface tension
● high IMF = high water solubility

Gas to liquid: condensation

Liquid to gas: vaporisation
Liquid to solid: solidification
Solid to liquid: fusion (melting)
Solid to gas: sublimation
Gas to solid: deposition
Hess’ Law of Constant Summation
Literal form: When a chemical reaction can be expressed as the sum of two or more reactions, its
heat of reaction (∆𝐻) is the sum of the heats of reaction if each of them.

∆𝐻 = ∆𝐻1 + ∆𝐻2 + ∆𝐻3 +...

where ∆𝐻 = Enthalpy change of the overall reaction, expressed in kJ/mol.

∆𝐻1 + ∆𝐻2 + ∆𝐻3 = Enthalpy change of each simple reaction of the overall reaction, expressed in
kJ/mol.

To carry out the algebraic sum of thermochemical equations, one must respect the following rules:

1. The identical terms situated on the same side of the equation are added.
2. The identical terms situated on either side of the equation are subtracted
3. If an equation is reversed, the ∆𝐻 the sign must also be reversed.
4. If the coefficients of a chemical reaction are modified by multiplying or dividing them by a
common factor, the value of ∆𝐻 must also be multiplied or divided by the same factor.

1. Underline final compounds in reactions

2. Circle the intermediate compounds
3. Make sure the final compounds are situated on the right side and have the same number of
moles
a. If they are not on the right side: reverse
b. Multiply the number of moles to match the final compound
4. Cancel out and find ∆𝐻 of the reaction
test 1

test 2-3

Hw
P₁V₁/n₁T₁ = P₂V₂/n₂T₂
PV = nRT

C1V1=C2V2

Pₜ=P₁+P₂+P₃
P₁=(n₁/nₜ)⋅Pₜ

pH scale: pH = −log [H+]

c=λv (freq/wavelength)
λ = h / mv (wavelength/mass/speed)
E=hv E = hc / λ # photons = Epulse/Ephoton (energy)

Eatom = −B (Z²/n²)

∆Eelectron ⋅ ∆t ≥ h
∆x ⋅ ∆(mv) ≥ h / 4π