CE 391 Lecture 1: Spot Speed Studies

Topics to be covered:
● Speed Study
● Spot Speed Study
● Methods used for Spot Speed Study
● Presentation of Data
● Speed and Delay Study
● Methods used for Spot Speed Study

1 Overview

Speed data is needed for a variety of traffic analyses. Spot speed data refers to measurement of
individual speeds of vehicles passing a point on a roadway.

Speed measurements are most often taken at a point (or a short section) of road way under
conditions of free flow. The intent is to determine the speeds that drivers select, unaffected by the
existence of congestion. This information is used to determine general speed trends, to help
determine reasonable speed limits, and to assess safety.

Care must be taken to conduct the study appropriately so that the sample data will adequately
reflect speed characteristics of the population. Traffic flow is influenced by the speed of the traffic
on existing roads.

2 Speed Studies

Speed largely defines the distance travelled by a user in a given time. In other words speed of
movement is the ratio of distance travelled to time of travel. The actual speed of traffic flow over
a given route may fluctuate widely, because at each time the volume of traffic varies. Accordingly,
speeds are generally classified into three main categories :

1. SPOT SPEED: This is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specific location.

Spot speeds are useful to:
(i) study paints of congestion,
(ii) for locating traffic signals, or for
(iii) enforcing speed limits.

2. RUNNING SPEED: This is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given stretch
of highway while the vehicle is actually in motion; the clause “while the vehicle is actually
in motion” is significant because the running speed is determined by dividing the length of the
stretch by the time for which the vehicle is in motion (The running time excludes that part of
the journey time for which the vehicle suffers delay, for example, at controlled intersections.)

Running speeds are useful to:

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 (i) assess the traffic capacity of highways.

3. OPERATING SPEED: It is the sustained running speed at which a vehicle can travel under
the existing traffic and environmental conditions.

4. OVERALL SPEED OR JOURNEY SPEED: This is the effective speed with which a vehicle
covers a particular route between two terminals; this is, the average speed obtained by dividing
the total distance covered by the total time taken including all delays, but excluding
voluntary stoppages, if any.

Journey speeds are useful to:

(i) assess the adequacy of an existing road network
(ii) the efficiency of the improvement measures and
(iii) for cost-benefit studies of a project.

For assessing the improvement measures implemented on a stretch of a highway, journey speed
studies are conducted before and after the implementation of an intervention. These studies are
specially referred to as before and after studies.

3 Spot Speed Studies

When we measure the traffic parameter over a short distance, we generally measure the spot speed.
A spot speed is made by measuring the individual speeds of a sample of the vehicles passing a
given spot on a street or highway. Spot speed studies are used to determine the speed distribution
of a traffic stream at a specific location. The data gathered in spot speed studies are used to
determine vehicle speed percentiles, which are useful in making many speed-related decisions.
Spot speed data have a number of safety applications, including the following

1. Monitoring speed trends through systematic ongoing speed studies

2. Establishing traffic operation and control parameters by:

a. Evaluating and determining proper speed limits
b. Determining the 50th and 85th speed percentiles
c. Evaluating and determining proper advisory speeds
d. Establishing the limits of no-passing
f. Setting appropriate traffic signal timing

3. Establishing highway design elements (Geometric design) by:

a. Evaluating and determining proper intersection sight distance
b. Evaluating and determining proper passing sight distance
c. Evaluating and determining proper stopping sight distance

4. Evaluating highway capacity

5. Assessing highway safety by:

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 a. Evaluating and verifying speeding problems
b. Assessing speed as a contributor to vehicle crashes
c. Investigating input from the public or other officials.

6. Measuring effectiveness of changes by

a. Measuring effectiveness of traffic control devices or traffic programs, including signs and
markings, traffic operational changes, and speed enforcement programs.

7. Accident analysis e.g. Building and Road Research Instititue (BRRI), Kumasi

8. Research studies.

4 Methods of Measurement

Methods of conducting spot speed studies are divided into two main categories:
(i) Manual and
(ii) Automatic.

Spot speeds may be estimated manually by measuring the time it takes a vehicle to travel between
two defined points on the roadway a known distance apart (short distance), usually less than 90m.
The distance between the two points is generally dependent upon the average speed of the traffic
stream. The following table gives the recommended study length (in meters) for various average
stream speed ranges (in kmph).

Stream Speed Length

Below 15 30
15-25 60
Above 25 90

The following are the some methods to measure spot speed of vehicles in a traffic stream using
manual methods:

The methods available for spot speed measurement may be classified as:

1. Direct observation of the time taken by a vehicle to cover a known distance.

2. Radar speedometer method.

3. Electronic meter method

4. Photographic methods.

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The direct observation method can be further classified to long-base method and short-base
method.

The long-base method is sub-divided to:

(i) Direct measurement of time

(ii) Enoscope Method

(iii) Pressure contact tubes.

Long-Base Methods

(i) Direct-Timing Methods:

This is the simplest and most direct method for spot speed determination. Two
observers are stationed at a convenient distance (50 m) such that they can see each
other. The first one starts a stop-watch as a vehicle crosses the first reference point and
stops it on a signal from his counterpart the moment the vehicle touches the other end
of the section. If the timing is done by a single observer, the measurement can be made
from a convenient point in the section on one side of the road at a slightly higher
elevation so that both the timing spots can be seen directly. From the known distance
and the measured time intervals, speeds can becalculated. A skilled observer can read
a stop-watch to an accuracy of 0.2 second. If the observer can station themselves in an
inconspicuous way, the speeds calculated are not influenced by the driver’s reaction to
work. The disadvantages of this approach are that the readings are influenced by the
observer’s reaction time and the parallax effect in observing the vehicle position

(ii) Enoscope Method:

The parallax error of the observer can be eliminated by using a simple device called
‘Enoscope’, especially in the case of a single observer. Also known as ‘Mirror box’, it

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 is an L-shaped box, open at both ends; a mirror is set inside it at 45° to both the arms.
Light rays from the vehicle impinge on the mirror, get reflected and pass in a direction
perpendicular to the incident ray. The reflected rays fall on the eye of the observer as
shown. The observer can start and stop the stop-watch more accurately, with no
parallax, because the line of sight is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
vehicle. Either one enoscope can be used or two. If only one is used the device is placed
directly opposite the first reference point and the observer is stationed at the other.

An enoscope

Placement of a single Enoscope to collect data

Placement of two Enoscopes to collect data

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 Placement of an Enoscope to collect data

The reference points are marked by fixing poles at the side of the road; a lamp may be used
for night work. As soon as the vehicle passes the first reference point or the enoscope the
timer is started and it is stopped as soon as it passes the observer.

If two enoscopes are used, one each is placed at either end of the reference section and the
observer will be positioned midway between the two. The observer starts the timer when
a vehicle crosses the first reference point and stops it as soon as the vehicle crosses the
other end of the base by using the line of sight from each of the enoscopes.

This method is not suitable for heavy multilane traffic because it is difficult to associate
an observed shadow with a particular vehicle. Further, it is difficult to conceal the enoscope
and the observer from the driver, whose attention would be distracted, giving scope for
false readings

(iii) Pressure Contact Tubes:

In this method, pressure contact strips, either pneumatic or electric, can be used to
avoid error due to parallax and due to manually starting and stopping the chronometer
or stopwatch.

In the case of pneumatic tubes, they are laid across the carriageway at two reference
points and act a detectors. When a vehicle passes over them, air impulses are sent to an
electromagnetically controlled stop-watch in the hands of the observer, starting the
time at the first reference point and stopping it at the second. This is the best method
over short distance as it collects relevant data and can be connected to a graphical
recorder to collect continous data automatically; reducing the level of work done
manually.

Pneumatic tubes

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 (iv) Radar Speedometers :

This is one of the more recent methods for data collection, and automatically records
speed using a radar transmiter- receiver unit. The system works using the Doppler
principle where the speed of a moving body is proportional to change in frequency
between the Radio wave transmitted to the moving body and the radio wave received
back.

The apparatus transmits high frequency electromagnetic waves in a narrow beam

towards the moving vehicle, and reflected waves change their length depending on the
vehicles speed. These redlected waves are then returned to the receiving unit, and
through calibration, can indicate directly, the spot speed of the vehicle.

Usually, the instrument is setup near the edge of carriageway at a height of 1m. The
speed meter is installed such that the angle between the direction of travel of the vehicle
being observed, and the axis of transmission of radio wave is as low as possible, say
within 20˚. The speed of vehicles in both directions can be observed. An examples of
the speed radar in action can be seen on the Tema Motorway where a speed radar
currently tells drivers their speeds of travel.

Speed radar in action

(v) Photographic Method:

Time-lapse camera photography can be used. Photographs are taken at fixed intervals
of time (say one second per frame) on a special camera. By projecting the film on a
screen, the passage of any vehicle can be traced with reference to time. Images by video
cameras can be also used.

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 Photographic method

Selection of the Observation Point for Speed studies:

The criteria for the selection of a section for speed study observations are:

1) Appropriate location for the specific purpose of study, intersection zones

2) Minimum influence of the observers and equipment on the driver and their speeds (Remain
inconspicuous so as not to influence speeds of drivers e.g decelereation to conform their
behavior to acceptable standards)

3) Straight and level section of the highway to minimise the effect of geometric elements and
roadside developments.

4) Select roadway section with typical travel speed; i.e. unless a specific requirement of the
speed study, make an attempt to avoid the following, primarily to avoid
accelerating/decelerating vehicles:

– Traffic signals and other junctions

– Intersections
– Work zones
– Curves
– Parking zones
– Active crosswalks

Other considerations

1) Consider free flow vehicles only (those not impacted by speed of preceding vehicle,
such as the first vehicle in a platoon);

2) Consider date and time – Typical weekdays (Tues., Wed., Thur.) preferred over
Mondays, Fridays or Weekends

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 3) Avoid unusual conditions, including:
-Unique events e.g. Big sports events (AFCON)
-Inclement weather
-Holidays

4) If using a Radar, consider:

- The angle of measurement to ensure accurate speeds are recorded

- Remember safety first!!!

5. Data Collection Sheets

At typical data collection sheet should have:

a. the date

b. Name of enumerator

c. Location for data collection

d. Posted speed limit for the road

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 e. Start time for data collection

f. End time for data collection

g. Weather

6. Analysis and Presentation of the Speed Data

The collected data using any of the previously described methods have to be presented in some
representable format that makes calculation and analysis simpler and easier. The following
methods are some of the typical ways by which spot speed data is presented:

● Frequency Distribution Table

After the collection of data in the given conditions, arrange the spot speed values in
order to their magnitudes. Then select an interval speed (e.g. 5 kmph) and make
grouping of data which come under this range. Now, prepare the frequency distribution
table.

● Frequency Distribution Curve

For each speed group, the % frequency of observations within the group is plotted
versus the middle (mid-mark) speed of the group(s). From this curve the modal speed
and pace of traffic flow can be determined. Generally the shape of the curve follows
the normal distribution curve, this is because most of the vehicles on road travel near
the mean speed and very few deviate from mean speed.

Using Excel to generate an Frequency Distribution Curve:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aNFDEYERCb0

● Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve

For each speed group, the % cumulative frequency of observations is plotted against
the higher limit of the speed group. The cumulative frequency distribution curve,
however, results in a very useful plot of speed versus the percent of vehicles traveling
at or below the designated speed. For this reason, the upper limit of the speed group is
used as the plotting point. In both the distribution curve, the plots are connected by a
smooth curve that minimizes the total distance of points falling above the line and those
falling below the line. A smooth curve is defined as one without.
7 Distribution Characteristics
Common descriptive statistics may be computed from the data in the frequency distribution
table or determined graphically from the frequency and cumulative frequency distribution
curves. These statistics are used to describe two important characteristics of the distribution:

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 7.1 Measure of Central Tendency
Measure which helps to describe the approximate middle or center of the distribution.
Measures of central tendency include the average or mean speed, the median speed, the modal
speed, and the pace.

Average Speed of Vehicles: From spot speed data, distribution tables are prepared by arranging
the data in groups covering various speed ranges and number of vehicles in each range. It is
the arithmetic mean/the average speed.

Cumulative Speed of Vehicles: Graph is plotted with average values of each group on X-axis
and cumulative % of vehicles travelling at different speeds.

The 85th percentile speed: Speed at or below 85 % of vehicles are passing the point of
highway. Only 15 % of vehicles exceed the speed at that spot. Drivers exceeding 85th
percentile speed are considered to drive faster than the safe speed. Hence 85th percentile
speed is adopted for Safe speed limit at that zone.

o 50th percentile speed: median speed.

o 15th percentile speed: represents the lower speedlimit.

o 98th percentile speed: represents the design speed

Standard Deviation (δs): The most common statistical measure of dispersion in a

distribution is the standard deviation. It is a measure of how far data spreads around the
mean value. In simple terms, the standard deviation is the average value of the difference
between individual observations and the average value of those observations. The Standard
deviation, σs, of the sample can be calculated by:

The 85th and 15th percentile speeds can be used to roughly estimate the standard
deviation of the distribution σest, although this is not recommended when the data is
available for a precise determination.

Standard Error of the mean (Se)

The means of different sample taken from the same population are distributed normally
about the true mean of population with a standard deviation, is known as standard error.

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 Sample Size

Generally, sample sizes of 50 to 200 vehicles are taken. In that case, standard error of
mean is usually under the acceptable limit. If a precise sample size is required, the
following equation may be adopted

where, nr = the no. of sample required,

σs = the Standard deviation,
Z = value calculated from Standard Normal distribution table for a particular
confidence level (i.e. for 95% confidence Z=1.96 and for 99.7% confidence Z=3.0)
and
Se = the permissible (acceptable) error in mean calculation.

SMART SPEED APP (Google Playstore)

● Can be used to collect experimental data for your class speed study assignments

Numerical Example

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Using the spot speed data given in the following table, collected from a freeway site operating
under free-flow conditions:
(i) Plot the frequency and cumulative frequency curves for these data;
(ii) Obtain median speed, modal speed, pace, and percent vehicles in pace from these plots;
(iii) Compute the mean and standard deviation of the speed distribution; \
(iv) The confidence bounds on the estimate of the true mean speed of the underlying
distribution with 95% confidence? With 99.7% confidence; and
(v) Based on these results, compute the sample size needed to achieve a tolerance
of 1.5 kmph with 95% confidence.

Speed Range (km/h) Frequency (fi)

21-25 2
26-30 6
31-35 18
36-40 25
41-45 19
46-50 16
51-55 17
56-60 12
61-65 7
66-70 4
71-75 3
76-80 1

Solution

For the spot speed study, first draw a frequency distribution table show below.

Speed Range Speed Frequency % fi %⅀ fi fi*Vi fi*(Vi-

(km/h) midpoint (fi)
(km/h)
Vi
21-25 =(21+25)/2 2 =(2/130)*100= 1.5~2%
=23 2 46
26-30 28 6 5% 6 168
31-35 33 18 14% 20 594
36-40 38 25 19% 39 950
41-45 43 19 15% 54 817
46-50 48 16 12% 66 768
51-55 53 17 13% 79 901
56-60 58 12 9% 88 696
61-65 63 7 5% 94 441
66-70 68 4 3% 97 272
71-75 73 3 2% 99 219
76-80 78 1 1% 100 78
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 Total 130 100% 5950

%⅀ fi
120
Cumulative Frequency (%) 99 100
94 97
100 88
79
80 66
54
60
39
40
20
20 6
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Speed (km/h)

%⅀ fi

Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve

%f
25
19
20
Frequency (%)

14 15
15 12 13
9
10
5 5
5 3 2
2 1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Speed (km/h)

%f

Frequency Distribution Curve

● From the curves, Median speed, v50 = 43 kmph;

● Modal speed, = 38 kmph;

● Pace = 33 - 43 kmph;

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 ● Percent vehicles in pace = 54-20= 34%; and the

● 85th Percentile speed = 58 kmph.

● Mean is calculated by using

● Standard Deviation of the Speed

● Sample size required for 95% confidence with acceptable error of 1.5 kmph

Given the results, it can be said that the sample size is not sufficient and we require a
minimum of 234 samples to achieve the desired confidence with given acceptable error.

The results are summaries in the table below.

Parameter Value
Median speed
Modal speed
Mean speed
Standard Deviation
85th percentile speed
15th percentile speed
98th percentile speed
Sample size

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Rules of thumb

● For spot speed studies, a sample size of at least 50 and preferably 100 vehicles should
be obtained. (Using multiples of 100 for the sample size simplifies calculations.) Data
for weekday speeds should be not be collected on Mondays or Fridays because of potential
differences in traffic patterns on those days (unless, of course, an agency wants to conduct
a spot speed study during a special event or other activity occurring on either Monday or
Friday).

● The site to be observed should be documented with an accurate sketch, and local law
enforcement and other officials should be contacted if staff will be on location collecting
data or installing equipment.

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TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. Determine the time mean speed, space mean speed, and 85 th percentile speed from the
following speed (in m/s) data.
Speed Frequency
1-5 9
6-10 16
11-15 32
16-20 48
21-25 23
26-30 9

2. For a given road following speed data is collected. 25, 31, 36, 39, 42, 44, 47, 48, 49, 51,
52, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 57, 57, 58, 59, 60, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 66, 68, 68, 69, 70, 70,
71, 73, 75, 79, 85, 89, 90. What is the speed you will recommend for designing sight
distance or radius of circular curve? (Hint: find how these speeds for sight distance are
determined)

3. The spot speeds of ten vehicles observed at a certain location are 55.1, 40.8, 32.2, 47.8,
64.5, 53.2, 58.2, 67.6, 36.4, and 53.2 kmph. Find the time mean speed, space mean speed
and 85th percentile speed

4. Tabel l below indicates the values of spot speeds observed at a certain location. Find (i)
the 85th percentile speed and (ii) the probability that the speed exceeds 85th percentile
assuming that speeds follow a normal distribution.

Observation Speed
1 55.1
2 40.8
3 32.2
4 47.8
5 64.5
6 53.2
7 58.2
8 66.6
9 36.4
10 53.2

5. For the speed data given in Table below, what is the probability that the speed is greater
than 25 kmph but less than 45 kmph? Assume suitable distribution for speed.

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 Speed Range (kmph) Observed
Lower Bound Upper Proportion
Bound
10 20 0.012
20 30 0.178
30 40 0.316
40 50 0.218
50 60 0.108
60 70 0.055
70 80 0.033
80 90 0.022
90 100 0.013
100 110 0.045
Number of observations 2600
Mean speed in km/h 40
Standard deviation 22
Minimum possible speed 10

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 LAB ASSIGNMENT 1
Title: Spot Speed Analysis in Obuasi, Ghana: Factors Affecting Traffic Speed
Objective:
The objective of this laboratory assignment is to assess spot speeds at various locations in Obuasi,
Ghana, and analyze key factors that may influence traffic speed. Students will collect spot speed
data, analyze the data, and draw conclusions regarding the factors affecting spot speeds in the
study area.
Materials and Equipment:

6. Speed measurement devices (e.g., radar gun, speed gun, or smartphone apps with speed
measurement capabilities)
7. Stopwatch or timer
8. Maps of Obuasi, Ghana
9. Data collection sheets
10. Clipboard and pens
11. Safety vests for visibility (optional but recommended)
Procedure:
a. Select Study Locations

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 b. Choose at least 5 different locations within Obuasi that represent a variety of traffic
conditions (e.g., residential areas, commercial areas, intersections, etc.).
c. Prepare Data Collection Sheet:
d. Create a data collection sheet with the following columns:
● Location
● Date
● Time
● Speed (in km/h or mph)
● Weather conditions
● Road type (e.g., residential, commercial, arterial)
● Traffic volume (light, moderate, heavy)
Training Session:
Conduct a brief training session among the group on how to use the speed measurement devices
and ensure that all students know how to collect data using the tool, and the importance of accurate
data collection.
Data Collection:
● In each location, students should measure the spot speeds of passing vehicles during
different time intervals.
● Record the data on the prepared data collection sheets.
Additional Observations:
● In addition to spot speeds, note any relevant observations such as the presence of speed
limit signs, road conditions, pedestrian activity, and any traffic control devices. Note also,
driver compliance to speed limit signs, etc.
Data Analysis:
After collecting data, compile the information and calculate average spot speeds for each location.
Analyze the data to identify any patterns or trends. Consider factors such as time of day, road type,
and weather conditions.
Draw Conclusions:
Based on the analysis, draw conclusions about the factors that influence spot speeds in Obuasi,
Ghana. Discuss potential implications for road safety, traffic management, and urban planning.
Report and Presentation:
Each group should prepare a report summarizing their findings and present their results to the
class. Extra marks will be given to effective communication of findings and recommendations.
Include pictures of your site visit, an attachment of the responsibilities of all team members,
minutes of team meetings.

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Note: All students are to adhere to ethical guidelines and safety precautions during data
collection, especially when working near roadways. Consider obtaining any necessary
permissions or approvals for conducting the study in public spaces.
Submission date: 20th Febuary 2024

https://www.bu.edu.eg/portal/uploads/Engineering,%20Shoubra/Civil%20Engineering/3041/crs-
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vbWUyCQgAEEUYORiABDIJCAEQRRg7GIAEMgYIAhBFGEAyBwgDEAAYgAQyBwgEE
AAYgAQyBwgFEAAYgAQyBwgGEAAYgAQyBwgHEAAYgASoAgCwAgA&sourceid=chro
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