Weathering and Mass Wasting

Denudation- refers to the wearing away of the earth by processes

such as weathering and erosion.

All natural elements such as sun, temperature, wind, rainfall, plants

and animals all influence the processes of weathering and erosion.

As a result of denudation several features are created.

Weathering- is defined as the process by which rocks exposed to the

weather are disintegrated, altered and decomposed into the soil in
situ (in position). The weathered accumulated materials are known
as regolith.

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Erosion- is defined as the process by which weathering materials are

removed and transported by wind, water, ice etc.

In essence, weathered materials are transported and then

deposited from area to another.
Mass wasting- commonly called mass movement refers to the
movement of rocks or soil downslope due to gravity.

There are two types of mass wasting:

Soil creep or rock creep (slow movement)

Landslides (fast movement)

Weathering, erosion and mass wasting are all processes of the

rock cycle. The weathered materials are eroded and deposited to
form new bedrock overtime.

Weathering involves no movement of materials, the process of

weathering occurs in position (in situ).

Erosion involves the movement of materials that are weathered.

There are three types of weathering:
1. Physical weathering ( mechanical weathering)
2. Chemical weathering
3. Biological weathering

1. Physical weathering-refers to the disintegration of rocks into

the soil my natural elements and forces such as the rainfall,
wind, temperature, waves, snow/ice. There are four types of
physical weathering:

Frost action/frost shattering/freeze-thaw -

Salt weathering -

Temperature changes (exfoliation)

Pressure release
Frost action/frost shattering/freeze-thaw

Location:common in mountainous, high altitude and polar/sub-

polar regions

Frost action: is the most widespread physical weathering caused

due to the repeated cycle of freezing and thawing of water which
were deposited in cracks, joints, fractures and spaces of rocks.

Rainfall or water enter the joints of rocks. As the water is lodged

in the joints the water freezes as the temperature drops to zero
degrees (0 degrees Celsius). As the water freezes, ice is formed
and exerts pressure on the joints of rocks.

The joints of the rocks begin to expand due to the pressure. As the
temperature increases, the ice melts. Rainfall occurs again and
more water is lodged within the joints. **The joint is wider due to
the pressure exerted on joint** Therefore, it can hold more water.

As temperature drops to zero degrees, the water freezes. The ice

exerts pressure on the joint resulting in the joint to widen (due to .
This process is continuously repeated.

Eventually, the joints would not be able to withstand the pressure

exerted upon by the grow of the ice, therefore resulting in the
joints to disintegrate.
Salt weathering

Location: commonly occur in desert areas and coastal regions.

Salt weathering: is the physical disintegration of rocks due to the

growth and expansion of salt crystals in joints, cracks, fractures
and pores of rocks.

As seawater/saltwater are deposited in the joints, cracks,

fractures and pores Z of rocks, the water evaporate leaving
behind salt crystals.
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This process is repeated over time. The salt crystals which were
left after evaporation accumulate causing crystals to grow
exerting pressure on the joint. The joint grows wider allowing for
more salt crystals to accumulate and grow exerting pressure on
the joint. **the joint become wider**
As the joint expands, more salt crystals would accumulate i.e. salt
crystals expand. This leads to increase pressure to be exerted on the
joint. Eventually the joints would not be able to withstand the
pressure exerted by the salt crystals thereby disintegrating.

Temperature changes (exfoliation)

Location: regions where extreme temperature fluctuations occur

Rocks are heated and cooled due to changes in temperatures.

Exposed rocks expand when heated and contract when cooled.

In deserts, the temperature differences within a 24 hour period can

be as much as 50 degrees Celsius at midday and at night
temperature drops below 0 degrees Celsius.

Therefore, due to the constant fluctuations in temperature (day and

night), the rock expand in the day and constant in the night. This
causes the top layer of rock to weaken resulting in exploitation.
Pressure release

Location: polar regions

Pressure release do result in exfoliation, however, the main

difference is that rocks within the earth are under higher pressure
than those exposed at the surface.

The weight of the rock ash the earths surface causes the high
pressures of those beneath the earth. As a consequence of
denudation, the surface rocks (top rocks) are eroded, expoosing the
layer of rocks beneath.

The pressure of the new exposed layer is now reduced, as the

pressure of the now exposed rocks are reduced, fractures of the
rock layer would occur. Further, as temperature fluctuations occur,
the rock layer which is exposed, contract and expand resulting in
increase fractures and peeling (exfoliation effect).

**the process by which rocks are fractured due to the amount of

overlying rock is referred to dilation**
2. Chemical weathering-refers to the chemical decomposition of
rocks as their minerals react with rainfall/water and chemicals.
The chemistry of the rock is altered whereby the minerals are
destroyed and new minerals are formed. There are four types of

WaterAghtens
chemical weathering:

Carbonation -

Solution -

Oxidation
Hydrolysis and hydration

Carbonation

Carbonation occurs on rocks which contain calcium carbonate such

as limestone and chalk. Carbonation takes place when rain
combines with carbon dioxide to form a weak carbonic acid which
reacts with calcium carbonate (the limestone) and forms calcium
bicarbonate. This results in the limestone rock to weaken and
erode.

Steps in carbonation weathering:

1. Rainfall dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to create

mild carbonic acid.

t CO
He0 2 Hyl03
=

(water) (carbon (mild carbonic)

dioxide) acid
2. The mild carbonic acid rainwater reacts chemically with the calcium
carbonate in the rock.

Ca CHLOs) a
HeLOs f CaCO3 -

(calcium
(calium
Imildacid
carbonic
C carbonate) bicarbonate)
limestone

3. Calcium bicarbonate is soluble in water therefore it is readily

weathered. Calcium carbonate may be deposited beneath the surface
to form features such as stalactites and stalagmites. Surface features
such as clints and grykes may form.
Solution

Solution weathering is the process by which minerals within rocks

are dissolved by acidic solutions. For example, calcite in
limestone is dissolved easily by carbonic acid.

Rain that percolates through cracks and fissures in limestone beds

dissolves calcite, making wider cracks that can ultimately develop
into cave systems. Solution may make the rocks weaker.

Rock salt is another example of a rock that is affected by solution

weathering.

Oxidation
This is the reaction of rock minerals with oxygen, thus changing
the mineral composition of the rock. When minerals in rock
oxidize, they become less resistant to weathering. Iron, a
commonly known mineral, becomes red or rust colored when
oxidized.
Oxygen is present in air and water. Oxidation occurs when these
rocks are exposed to air and water. The chemical interaction of
iron and oxygen to forms iron oxide (rusting). Oxygen reacts with
iron-bearing minerals to form the mineral hematite (Fe2O3) , which
weathers a rusty brown. This causing the rocks to become weaker
this disintegrating rapidly.
Hydrolysis and hydration

Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction caused by water. Water reacts with

the rock changing the chemical composition and size of minerals
in rock. The water replaces the minerals in the rock causing the

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rock to become soft and unstable.

For example, the mineral feldspar found in granite rocks when

interacts with water, the mineral size and composition changes
resulting in the formation of clay a new softer rock. Therefore,
clay is readily weathered.

Hydration occurs when water is absorbed by minerals (which are

dry) in the rock thereby undergoing a chemical reaction forming
crystals. These crystals which are formed exert pressure on the
surrounding rock. Eventually as more crystals are formed due to
the absorption of water the structure of the rock is compromised
eventually causing it to crumble.

For example, this chemical change results in the formation of a new

rock. Anhydrite rock absorbing water results in the formation
gypsum.

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Biological weathering- is the wearing away and further
disintegration of rock by animals, plants and micro organisms.
These include:

Root expansion
Microbial activity
Burrowing animals

Root expansion can exert stress or pressure on rocks. The roots of

tress continue to expand over time and further exert pressure on
the rocks leading to these rocks to disintegrate.

Microbial activity breaks down rock minerals by altering the rock’s

chemical composition, thus making it more susceptible to
weathering. One example of microbial activity is lichen; lichen is
fungi and algae, living together in a symbiotic relationship. Fungi
release chemicals that break down rock minerals; the minerals thus
released from rock are consumed by the algae. As this process
continues, holes and gaps continue to develop on the rock,
exposing the rock further to physical and chemical weathering.

Burrowing animals can move rock fragments to the surface,

exposing the rock to more intense chemical, physical, and
biological processes and so indirectly enhancing the process of
rock weathering.
When vegetation die, decomposition occurs resulting in humus. As
rainfall occur the water mixes with the humus leading to the creation
of acidic water. The acidic water interacts with rocks resulting in the
process of chelation to occur where the disintegration of the rocks.

Chelation refers to the removal of minerals from the rocks

chemically and biologically.
 Mass wasting

Mass wasting is the defined as the movement of rock and soil

down a slope due to the influence of gravity. There are two types
of mass wasting mainly:

a. Slow movements (soil creep/rock creep)

b. Fast movements (landslides/rock flow)

Slow movements Fast movements

Soil creep- is defined as the slow movement of rock/soil

downslope. The movements associated with soil creep are extremely
slow, constant and may not be visible until several years after.

The formation of terracettes (step like features), the movement of

light poles, fences and the growth of trees are indicators of soil
creep.
Factors affecting soil creep:

Climate
Gradient of slope

1. Climate: in tropical areas soil creep occur fast. The rate of soil
creep occur due to the *the alternate wetting and drying of the
soil and the alternate freezing and melting of the soil* water acts
as a lubrication for the soil resulting in movement. The more
saturated the soil, the faster the rate of soil creep. In the rainy
season, soil creep would most likely occur.

*in cold semi arid regions, where there is constant freezing and
thawing would increase the rate of soil creep* when soil freezes
and then melts, the melt water lubricates the soil causing
movement. The fluctuations in temperature result in the constant
freezing and thawing of the soil throughout the year.

2. Gradient of the slope: the steepness of the slope dictates the

rate of soil creep. A steeper slope result in faster rates of
movement and gentle slopes encourage slower rates of movement.

- *
Temperate regions slow -
steep slope-fast
Tropical regions fastgentle slope
-
slow -

faster
Cold regions
-
Landslide-is defined as a sudden and rapid movement of large
volume of soil downslope. As the gradient of a slope increases, the
chances of landslides increases.

Landslides are caused by physical and human factors:

Physical
*heavy rainfall-soils are saturated thereby leading to mass
movements.

*earthquakes-the shaking/vibration loosen the bonds in the soil

which allow it to become unstable and move in large volumes.

*volcanic eruptions-these are powerful and may result in parts of

the volcanic flanks to suddenly move as a landslide.

*unconsolidated materials-lose materials are more susceptible to

movements.

*undercutting of slopes by rivers or oceans

*geology (shale/clay)-some rocks are just weak and unstable and

collapses.

Human -
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*construction dams

*deforestation-the roots of trees hold the soil. As vegetation are

removed the roots die resulting in the soil to become lose.

*building on unstable slopes- weight of structures on unstable

slopes causes landslides.

*cutting slopes to construct highway/roads etc.

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