Chapter Four ( Lenses) Thin lenses, focal points and focal lengths , Image formation,

Conjugates points and planes, the parallel - Ray method

The oblique- Ray method, Use of the lens formula, Lateral magnification, Virtual Images and
lens maker formula. States of lens

Thin-lens combinations, The power of a thin lens, Derivation of the lens Makers formula. Thick
Lines, two spherical surfaces.

Focal points and principal points, General Thick- Lens Formula, cardinal points, problems

1. *Introduction

Shapes of several standard forms of thin lenses were shown in Fig (4-1)

1).These are examples of converging lenses. 2)They have positive focal lengths.

3)They are thickest in the middle.

1)These are examples of diverging lenses.2)•They have negative focal lengths.
3)They are thickest at the edges.

Figure (4-1) explains converging and diverging lenses

Define thin lens is one which thickness is small compared with the image
object distances primary and Secondary focal lengths.
Details of several of lenses according different of radii of curvature can be
explained in fig(4-2)

There are two types of lenses includes of (1) Convex or Converging ,

(2) Concave or Diverging.
Figure 4.2 types of lenses a) converging lenses b) diverging lenses.

Definition term important

1. Convex lens : it’s the lens whose causes the rays of light to form a
converging beam
2. A concave lens: it’s the lens which forms a diverging beam.
3. Optical center: center of lens , sometime its take the sample C, the
direction through the optical center and perpendicular to the lens is
called the principal axis.
4. principal axis: the axis of symmetry is called the principal
axis of the lens. From now on we think of every lens as having rotational
symmetry about its
.

A beam parallel to the principal axis will form a converging beam with a
convex lens and a diverging beam with a concave lens see fig.(4-3).

Fig 4-3 explain ray treatment in the concave lens and focus in the primary focal points
Ray treatment at pararelle method at the principle axis 1 in the convex lens
At ray oblique method in the focal points 2 and refracted into covex lens then parallel . in breifly
a convex lens is converging of any light ray pass through it.

A ray of light is refracted twice by a lens, once when it passes into the lens
(air to glass) and once when it emerges from the lens (glass to air).

Convex lens causes the rays of light to form a converging beam and a
concave lens forms a diverging beam.
The centre of the lens is called the optical centre and the direction through
the optical centre and perpendicular to the lens is called the principal axis.

A beam parallel to the principal axis will form a converging beam with a
convex lens and a diverging beam with a concave lens.

(4-2) FOCAL POINTS AND FOCAL LENGTHS

Diagrams showing the refraction of light by an equiconvex lens and by an
equiconcave lens are given in figure 4.2. The axis in each case is a straight
line through the geometrical center of the lens and perpendicular to the
two faces at the points of intersection. For spherical lenses this line which
joins the centers of curvature of the two surfaces. Ray diagrams shown in the
figure 4.2 illustrates the primary and secondary focal points F and F' and the
corresponding focal lengths f and f' of thin lenses.

The primary focal point (F) of convex lens : an axial point having the
property that any ray coming from it , travels parallel to the axis after
refraction.

The secondary focal point (F') of convex lens: an axial point having the
property that any incident ray traveling parallel to the axis will, after
refraction, proceed toward.
The primary focal point (F) of concave lens : an axial point having the
property that any ray proceeding toward it travels parallel to the axis
after refraction.
The secondary focal point (F') of concave lens: an axial point having
the property that any incident ray traveling parallel to the axis will,
after refraction, appear to come from, F'.
Focal length: The distance between the center of a lens and either of its
focal points, these distances denoted by f and f ' in the below figure.

Figure 4.2: Ray diagrams illustrating the primary and secondary focal points F and F' and
the corresponding focal lengths f and f' of thin lenses.

The rays which form the image so that they are close to the principal axis
and also by making sure that the angle between any ray and the principal
axis is small. Such rays are said to be paraxial. Paraxial rays don't have to
be parallel to the principal axis but they do have to be close to it. If that
angle is small the rays satisfy the paraxial approximation and the
converging lens will produce a reasonably sharp image point, as shown in
figure 4.3 In this case the focus or image point is not on the principal

axis but it does lie in a plane, called the focal plane, which is perpendicular
to the principal axis.
Figure 4.3 Focussing by a converging lens Incoming parallel rays from any small angle
come to a focus in the focal plane.
A diverging lens is thinner in the middle than it is at its edge. It bends the parallel
beam from a distant point into a diverging cone of rays which (ideally) appear to
come from one virtual image point. Here the focal point and the focal plane are on
the same side of the lens as the incident light.

(4-3) IMAGE FORMATION

When an object is placed on one side or the other of a converging lens and
beyond the focal plane, an image is formed on the opposite side (see Fig. (4-
4). If the object is moved closer to the primary focal plane, the image will be
formed farther away from the secondary focal plane and will be larger, i.e.,
magnified. If the object is moved farther away from F, the image will be
formed closer to F' and will be smaller.
In Fig. 4-4 all the rays coming from an object point Q are shown as brought
to a focus Q', and the rays from another point M are brought to a focus at M'.
Such ideal conditions and the formulas given in this chapter hold only for
paraxial rays, i.e., rays close to lens axis and making small angles with it.
 Figure 4.4 Image formation by an ideal thin lens. All rays from an object point Q which
pass through the lens are refracted to pass through the image point Q'.

Simplified model of a thin converging lens

If all the rays are paraxial, detailed ray tracing is not necessary. The function
of a lens can be described completely in terms of a geometrical construction
in which the lens is represented by a set of points, lines and planes and the
location and size of an image can be found by tracing only two rays. Figure
4.5 shows the essential features of the model for a thin lens.
The principal plane is a plane perpendicular to the principal axis located
centrally within the lens.
The first focal plane and the first focal point are located on the side of the
lens where the light comes from. Light diverging from a point source in the
first focal plane will emerge as a parallel beam. The second
focal plane contains all the points where an incoming beam of parallel rays
can come to a focus.
The focusing properties of the lens are determined by the locations of the
principal plane and the focal planes relative to the principal axis.

Figure 4.5 geometrical model for function of convex lens.

(4-4-1) Image Formation by convex lens
There are six possibilities of position of object in the case of convex lens:

1. Object at infinity
2. Object beyond centre of curvature, C
3. Object at centre of curvature, C
4. Object between centre of curvature, C and principal focus, F
5. Object at principal focus, F
6. Object between principal focus, F and optical centre, O

Case 1. Object at infinity:

Convex lens converge parallel rays coming from objet at infinity and a highly
diminished - point sized, real and inverted image is formed at principal focus
F2.

Fig: Object at Infinity

Properties of Image: Image is highly diminished, real and inverted.

Case 2. Object beyond centre of curvature, C1 or 2F1:

A diminished, real and inverted image is formed between principal focus, F2
and centre of curvature, C2 at the opposite side when an object is placed
beyond C1 of a convex lens.

Fig: Object Beyond 2F

Properties of Image: Image is diminished, real and inverted.

 Case 3. Object at centre of curvature, C1 or 2F1:

A same sized, real and inverted image is formed at centre of curvature, C2

when object is placed at centre of curvature, C1 of a convex lens.

Fig: Object at 2F

Properties of Image: Image is same size as object, real and inverted.

Case 4. Object between centre of curvature, C1 and principal focus, F1:

An enlarged, real and inverted image is formed beyond centre of curvature, C2 when an
object is placed between centre of curvature, C1 and principal focus, F1 of a convex
lens.

Fig: Object between 2F and F

Properties of Image: Image is enlarged, real and inverted.

Case 5. Object at principal focus, F1:

An infinitely large, real and inverted image is formed at infinity when
.object is placed at principal focus, F1 of a convex lens

Fig: Object at F

Properties of Image: Image is highly enlarged, real and inverted

Case 6. Between principal focus, F1 and optical centre, O

A virtual, erect and enlarged image is formed at the same side of lens, when
an object is placed between principal focus, F1 and optical centre, O of a
.convex lens

Fig: Object between F and pole or vertex

Properties of Image: Image is enlarged, virtual and erect.

4.2 CONJUGATE POINTS AND PLANES

If the principle of the reversibility of light rays is applied to figure 4.3, we
observe that Q'M' becomes the object and QM becomes its image. The
object and image are therefore conjugate. Any pair of object and image
points such as M and M' in figure 4.3 are called conjugate points, and planes
through these points perpendicular to the axis are called conjugate planes.

Figure 4.3 Image formation by an ideal thin lens. All rays from an object point Q which
pass through the lens are refracted to pass through the image point Q'.

If we know the focal length of a thin lens and the position of an object, there
are three methods of determining the position of the image: (1) graphical
construction, (2) experiment, and (3) use of the lens formula
1) Graphical Method

(3) use of the lens formula

(4.1)
Here s is the object distance, s' is the image distance, and f is the focal
length, all measured to or from the center of the lens.
lens formula Magnification

Thin lens formula to determine the image position is:

' sxf
s=
s−f