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Fatigue failure theories and Design against fluctuating load (Contd.)

Stress Concentration under static loading

Most real machine parts have varying cross sections. For example, shafts often are
stepped to different diameters to accommodate bearings, gears, pulleys, etc. A shaft
may have grooves for snap-rings or O-rings, or have keyways and holes for the
attachment of other parts. Anyone of these changes in cross-sectional geometry will
cause localized stress concentration.

The amount of stress concentration in any particular geometry is denoted by a

geometric or theoretical stress-concentration factor, Kt for normal stresses, or by Kts
for shear stresses. The maximum stress at a local stress-raiser under static loading is
then defined as

 max  K t  nom (7a)

 max  K ts  nom (7b)

where  nom and  nom are the nominal stresses calculated for the particular applied
loading and net cross section, assuming a stress distribution across the section that
would obtain for a uniform geometry.

Determining Geometric or Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors

The theory of elasticity can be used to derive

stress-concentration functions for some simple
geometries. Fig. 3 shows an elliptical hole in a
semi-infinite plate subjected to axial tension.
The hole is assumed to be small compared to
the plate and far removed from the plate
boundaries. The nominal stress is calculated
based on the applied force and the total area,
σnom = P/A. The theoretical stress-concentration
factor at the edge of the hole was developed by
Inglis in 1913 and is

a
K t  1  2  (8)
c

where a is the half-width of the ellipse and c is

the half-height. Clearly, as the height of the
elliptical hole approaches zero, creating a
sharp-edged crack, the stress concentration
goes to infinity. When the hole is a circle, a = c
and Kt = 3. Fig. 3 also shows a plot of Kt as a
function of c/a, the reciprocal of the ratio in
Fig. 3: Stress Concentration at Edge Eq.(8). The function is asymptotic to Kt = 1 at
of an Elliptical Hole in a Plate large values of c / a.

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Fig. 4 shows the stress-concentration function for the case of a stepped flat bar in
bending. (It and other cases are also shown in Appendix C, Machine Design – An
Integrated Approach, Robert L. Norton). The reduction in width from D to d at the
step creates a stress-raiser, and the size of the fillet radius r is also a factor. These two
geometric parameters are expressed as the dimensionless ratios r/d and D/d. The first
of these is used as the independent variable in the equation and the second determines
the member of the family of curves that result. This stress-concentration function is
really a three-dimensional surface with the axes, r/d, D/d, and Kt. In Fig. 4, we are
looking at lines on that 3-D surface computed at different values of D/d and projected
forward to the r/d–Kt plane. The geometry of the part and its stress equation are
defined in the figure, as is the function that defines each stress-concentration curve. In
Fig. 4, it is an exponential function of the form.

MC M
 max  6 2
I hd
 max  K t  nom
and
b
r
K t  A 
d 

Fig.4: Geometric stress concentration factors and functions for a stepped flat bar in
bending

Stress Concentration Under Dynamic Loading

For dynamic loading, we need to modify the theoretical stress-concentration factor based on
the notch sensitivity of the material to obtain a fatigue stress-concentration factor, Kf, which
can be applied to the nominal dynamic stresses.

Ductile materials under dynamic loading behave and fail as if they were brittle. So, regardless
of the ductility or brittleness of the material, the stress-concentration factor should be applied
when dynamic loads (fatigue or impact) are present. However, there are still material-related
parameters to account for. While all materials are affected by stress concentrations under
dynamic loads, some materials are more sensitive than others. A parameter called notch*
sensitivity, q is defined for various materials and used to modify the geometric stress
concentration factors Kt and Kts for a given material under dynamic loading. In general, the
more ductile the material, the less notch sensitive it is. Brittle materials are more notch
sensitive. Since ductility and brittleness in metals are roughly related to strength and hardness,
low-strength, soft materials tend to be less notch sensitive than high-strength, hard ones.
Notch sensitivity is also dependent on the notch radius (which is a measure of notch
sharpness).

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*Notch is a generic term in this context and refers to any geometric contour that disrupts the
“force flow”** through the part as described below. A notch can be a hole, a groove, a fillet,
an abrupt change in cross section, or any disruption to the smooth contours of a part. The
notches of concern here are those that are deliberately introduced to obtain engineering
features such as O-ring grooves, fillets on shaft steps, fastener holes, etc.

**FORCE-FLOW ANALOGY
A useful way to visualize the difference in the stress states in contoured part such as these is
to use a “force-flow” analogy, which considers the forces (and thus the stresses) to flow
around contours in a way similar to the flow of an ideal incompressible fluid inside a pipe or
duct of changing contour. (See also Fig. A-1) A sudden narrowing of the pipe or duct causes
an increase in fluid velocity at the neckdown to maintain constant flow. The velocity profile is
then “concentrated” into a smaller region. Streamlined shapes are used in pipes and ducts
(and on objects that are pushed through a fluid medium, such as aircraft and boats) to reduce
turbulence and resistance to flow. “Streamlining” our part contours (at least internally) can
have similar beneficial effects in reducing stress concentrations. The force-flow contours at
the abrupt step transition in Fig. A-2a are more concentrated than in the design of Fig. A-2b.

Fig. A-1: Photoelastic and Finite Element Analysis Measurement of Stress Concentration in a Flat,
Stepped, Notched Bar in Bending

Fig. A-2: The Force-Flow Analogy for Contoured Parts

Neuber made the first thorough study of notch effects and published an equation for the
fatigue stress-concentration factor in 1937. Kuhn[1952] later revised Neuber’s equation and
experimentally developed data for the Neuber constant (a material property) needed in his
equation. Peterson[1974] subsequently refined the approach and developed the concept of
notch sensitivity q defined as

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K f 1
q (9a)
Kt 1

where Kt is the theoretical (static) stress-concentration factor for the particular geometry and
Kf is the fatigue (dynamic) stress-concentration factor. The notch sensitivity q varies between
0 and 1. This equation can be rewritten to solve for Kf.

K f  1  q K t  1 (9b)

The procedure is to first determine the theoretical stress concentration Kt for the particular
geometry and loading, then establish the appropriate notch sensitivity for the chosen material
and use them in Eq. (9b) to find the dynamic stress-concentration factor Kf. The nominal
dynamic stress for any situation is then increased by the factor Kf for tensile stress (Kfs for
shear stress) in the same manner as was done for the static case:

  K f  nom (10a)
  K fs  nom (10b)

The notch sensitivity q can also be defined from the Kuhn-Hardrath formula[1952] in terms of
Neuber’s constant a and the notch radius r, expressed in inch0.5, and inch respectively. (See
Fig. 5 and Eq. 12)

1
q (11)
a
1
r

Fig. 5: Neuber Constants for Steel and Aluminum.

For steel, with Sut in kpsi, the Neuber’s constant a can be approximated by a third-
order polynomial fit of data as (Reference: Shigley)

    2

a  0.245799  0.307794 10 2 S ut  0.150874 10 4 S ut  0.266978 10 7 S ut  3
(12)

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Fig. 6: Notch-Sensitivity Curves for Steels

Question

A steel shaft in bending has an ultimate strength of 690 MPa and a shoulder with a
fillet radius of 3 mm connecting a 32-mm diameter with a 38-mm diameter. Estimate
fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf using:
(a) Fig. 6 and Equation (9b)
(b) Equations (11) and (9b).