remote sensing
Article
Monitoring of Land Cover and Vegetation Changes in Juhugeng
Coal Mining Area Based on Multi-Source Remote Sensing Data
Fangzhou Hong 1,2 , Guojin He 1,2,3, *, Guizhou Wang 1,3 , Zhaoming Zhang 1,2,3 and Yan Peng 1,3
Citation: Hong, F.; He, G.; Wang, G.;
Zhang, Z.; Peng, Y. Monitoring of
Land Cover and Vegetation Changes
in Juhugeng Coal Mining Area Based
on Multi-Source Remote Sensing
Data. Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439.
https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15133439
Academic Editors: Thomas Cudahy
and Amin Beiranvand Pour
Received: 13 April 2023
Revised: 4 July 2023
Accepted: 5 July 2023
Published: 7 July 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15133439
1 Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China
2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
3 Key Laboratory of Earth Observation of Hainan Province, Hainan Research Institute, Aerospace Information
Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya 572029, China
* Correspondence: hegj@aircas.ac.cn; Tel.: +86-010-82178190
Abstract: Coal is the most prevalent energy source in China and plays an important role in ensuring
energy security. The continuous monitoring of coal mining activities is helpful to clarify the incremen-
tal space of coal production and establish a rational framework for future coal production capacity.
In this study, a multi-source remote sensing approach utilizing SPOT 4, GF, and Landsat data is
employed to monitor land cover and vegetation changes in the Juhugeng mining area of the Muli
coalfield over a span of nearly 20 years. The analysis incorporates an object-oriented classification
method and a vegetation parameter to derive insights. The findings reveal that the mining operations
can be divided into two periods, since their initiation in 2003 until their cessation in 2021, with a
dividing point around 2013/2014. The initial phase witnessed rapid and even accelerated expansion
of the mine, while the subsequent phase was characterized by more stable development and the
implementation of some restorative measures for the mine environment. Although the vegetation
parameter, Fractional Vegetation Cover (FVC), indicates some reclamation efforts within the mining
area, the extent of the reclaimed land remains limited. This study demonstrates the effective applica-
tion of object-oriented classification in conjunction with the vegetation parameter FVC for monitoring
coal mining areas.
Keywords: Juhugeng mining area; multi-source remote sensing data; multiresolution segmentation;
land cover change; FVC
1. Introduction
Coal is the most prevalent energy source in China and holds a prominent position in
energy production and consumption. With the rapid development of the economy, coupled
with the advancements in electric power, metallurgy, building materials, and chemical
industries, China has become the largest coal consumer in the world [1,2]. While coal
production is cost-effective and facilitates the generation of valuable energy, its extrac-
tion and utilization have significant environmental implications. Thus, it is necessary to
comprehensively detect, inventory, monitor, and quantify active mining activities [3].
Ground information can be obtained from various observation methods, including
ground survey, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and satellite remote sensing technol-
ogy. Ground survey is a traditional method of surveying a mining site but is often time-
consuming and inefficient [4]. UAVs have been gaining ground primarily in sectors such as
agriculture, topography, and mining, having the advantages of cost-effectiveness, high accu-
racy, and time efficiency [5,6]. The use of UAVs in mining areas is developing rapidly [6–8].
However, UAV operations require flight permits from the civilian aviation authorities,
which may pose logistical challenges. Additionally, due to limited battery life, UAVs need
to perform multiple flight tasks to cover a large area [9].
Satellite remote sensing can offer high resolution spatial and temporal data for large-
scale ground observations in a more efficient and economical way [10]. Landsat series
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 2 of 22

satellites have provided massive moderate-resolution data since 1972, enabling various
applications such as land cover classification, change detection, and vegetation monitor-
ing [11–14]. Landsat imagery has proven to be effective in detecting and mapping opencast
mining activities [15–17]. Nowadays, the available commercial high-resolution remote
sensing satellite data, such as IKONOS [18,19], SPOT [20,21], and QuickBird [22,23], are
increasingly used in the research of mining areas. Gaofen (GF) satellites, a series of Chi-
nese Earth observation satellites equipped with diverse sensors, are more-often applied
specifically in Chinese mining studies [24–27]. The use of high-resolution remote sensing
imagery helps overcome the limitations of coarse resolution data, enabling the detection of
small-scale features and the identification of detailed land cover classes [28,29].
Numerous studies have confirmed the importance of remote sensing technology in
mining-related fields, including mineral exploration [30], detecting and monitoring coal
fires [31], evaluating ground subsidence [32–34], mapping mined areas [35,36], quantifying
the extent of mining activities [36,37], and monitoring the environmental impacts of surface
coal mining [38–40].
Land disruption and degradation is one of the most obvious and major impacts of
coal mining [3]. To address this, the extraction of land cover and change information plays
a pivotal role in mining-related research, providing insights into the extent of degradation
caused by mining activities [41]. Traditional machine learning methods have been widely
used in this field, both for pixel-based and object-based classification [42,43]. Object-based
maps generate less salt and pepper noise than pixel-level methods [44]. In recent years, with
the development of deep learning, various networks have been used for the identification
of mining areas, and various learning methods such as attention mechanism have been
added to the models for identifying mining areas [25,26,45]. However, training of the
models requires a large number of samples, which is a challenge for mining targets with
limited available datasets.
The vegetation cover surrounding mining sites is closely associated with mining
activities, and remote sensing-based vegetation parameters offer a valuable means of
assessing the progress of mining expansion and reclamation [46]. FVC is an important
parameter that is used to quantify surface vegetation cover, and satellite remote sensing
technology provides a way to estimate the FVC [47–49]. Measures of FVC are widely used
to monitor resource and ecosystem changes [50,51], perform carbon cycle studies [52],
evaluate crop growth status [53], and assess land surface vegetation conditions [54]. The
remote sensing-based monitoring of vegetation recovery following mining activities plays
an important role in evaluating the effectiveness of reclamation efforts [35,55,56]. The
acquired information is important for resource and environmental management. FVC
serves as an indicator for the reclamation and rehabilitation of open pit mines [57].
The extraction activities within the Muli coalfield have caused damages to the local
ecology, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of the area for the
purpose of ecological reconstruction efforts. However, previous remote sensing studies in
this area have primarily focused on evaluation of the ecological environment and large-
scale vegetation cover assessment during specific years [58–61], with limited detailed
information around the mine area.
This paper presents a case study focusing on the Juhugeng mining area, utilizing
SPOT4, GF1, and GF6 data. An object-oriented classification method was employed to
generate land cover maps and assess the spatial and temporal changes within the mining
area. Additionally, the study calculated the FVC from 2003 to 2021 to visually illustrate the
vegetation changes in the mining area. The shift in the FVC was analyzed, and the direct
impacts of the mining activities, such as open pit mining and tailings accumulation, on
vegetation were discussed.
 Remote Sens. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23

Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 3 of 22

direct impacts of the mining activities, such as open pit mining and tailings accumulation,
on vegetation were discussed.

2. Materials
2. Materials and
and Methods
Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.1. Area
Muli coalfield,
The Muli coalfield,located
locatedbetween
betweenlongitudes
longitudes 98◦ 500and
98°50′E E and 100◦ 50and
100°50′E, 0 E, and
latitudes
latitudes
37 ◦ 300 N and
37°30′N 38◦ 150 N,spans
and38°15′N, spansacross Tianjun
across County,
Tianjun Gangca
County, County,
Gangca andand
County, Qilian County
Qilian in
County in
the Qinghai
the Qinghai Province.
Province.Encompassing
Encompassingananarea areaofof112.6
112.6kmkm
2, this coalfield
2 , this comprises
coalfield comprises fourfour
opencast coal
opencast coal mine
mine sites:
sites: Jiancang,
Jiancang, Juhugeng,
Juhugeng, Duosuogongma,
Duosuogongma,and andHushan.
Hushan.Recognized
Recognized as
a significant coal resource, the Juhugeng pit coal mine, located in close proximity totoMuli
as a significant coal resource, the Juhugeng pit coal mine, located in close proximity
Muli Town
Town in thein the northern
northern part ofpart of Tianjun
Tianjun County,County,
standsstands as sole
as the the sole
areaarea
thatthat is rich
is rich in
in coking
coking coal in Qinghai
coal in Qinghai Province. Province.
The Juhugeng
The Juhugengmining
miningareaarea(Figure
(Figure1)1)is is
positioned
positioned within
within thethe
jurisdiction of the
jurisdiction of Haixi
the Haixi
Mongol and Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, falling within the Qilian
Mongol and Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, falling within the Qilian Mountains National Mountains Na-
tional Ecological Functional Zone. Located on a remote alpine plateau at an altitude ex-
Ecological Functional Zone. Located on a remote alpine plateau at an altitude exceeding
ceeding 4000 m, this mining site is characterized by a prevalence of glacier terrain and
4000 m, this mining site is characterized by a prevalence of glacier terrain and average
average annual temperatures below 0°. The open pit mine was initiated in 2003 and un-
annual temperatures below 0◦ . The open pit mine was initiated in 2003 and underwent
derwent substantial expansion until 2013. It was not until 2020 that this misconduct came
substantial expansion until 2013. It was not until 2020 that this misconduct came to light,
to light, leading to the cessation of coal development activities. The mining activities span
leading to the cessation of coal development activities. The mining activities span part of
part of the catchment of the Datong River, which is one of the sources of the Yellow River.
the catchment of the Datong River, which is one of the sources of the Yellow River. The area
The area impacted by the open pit mining operation includes alpine meadows which are
impacted by the open pit mining operation includes alpine meadows which are a fragile
a fragile ecological system [60].
ecological system [60].

Figure
Figure 1. Locationof
1. Location ofthe
thestudy
studyarea
areaand
andstandard
standard false
false color
color GF1
GF1 image
image of the
of the coalcoal
minemine (2021).
(2021). The The
upper
upper right subfigure is the region of Qinghai Province, with the red line delineating the boundary of
right subfigure is the region of Qinghai Province, with the red line delineating the boundary
Tianjun County,
of Tianjun and
County, thethe
and redred
dot indicating
dot indicatingthe
thelocation
locationofofMuli
Muli Town.
Town.

2.2.
2.2. Data
Data
Since
Since mineral development began
mineral development beganin
in2003,
2003,any
anylong-term
long-termmonitoring
monitoringinevitably
inevitablyhad
had to
rely onon
to rely earlier satellites
earlier such
satellites suchasasSPOT4
SPOT4totoachieve
achieve consistent results[62].
consistent results [62].AAHRVIR
HRVIRsen-sensor
on
sorboard the the
on board SPOT 4 satellite
SPOT provided
4 satellite 2020
provided mm resolution
resolutionvisual
visualand
andinfrared
infrared band
band images,
im-
and
ages,10and
m resolution panchromatic
10 m resolution band imagery
panchromatic beforebefore
band imagery GF-1 launched. The GF-1
GF-1 launched. The and
GF-1GF-6
satellites have the same spatial resolution, with 2 m panchromatic and 8 m multispectral
cameras. Table 1 presents the SPOT4 and GF data collected for monitoring land cover at
the mine site. China Remote Sensing Satellite Ground Station (RSGS), established and put
into operation in 1986 [11,63], provides data, including those from SPOT and GF, which are
used in this paper. Most of the remote sensing images selected in this study have a time lag
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 4 of 22

of 3–4 years to ensure the changes in land cover. In terms of the different spatial resolution
of SPOT data and GF data, the 2012 SPOT data and 2013 GF data were both used for better
articulation of the results, despite the fact that there was only a 1-year time difference.

Table 1. SPOT 4, GF-1, and GF-6 data collection.

Id Satellite Date
1 SPOT 4 15 June 2004
2 SPOT 4 4 May 2009
3 SPOT 4 10 November 2012
4 GF-1 12 December 2013
5 GF-1 16 November 2016
6 GF-6 15 August 2019
7 GF-1 3 June 2021

Landsat 5, 7, and 8 satellites have sufficient time-series data to cover the mining period,
with a 16-day temporal resolution and 30 m spatial resolution. The datasets of Landsat
5, Landsat 7, and Landsat 8 was used depending on the particular year. The data were
limited to between May and October, the general growing season of the local vegetation.

2.3. Methods
2.3.1. Technical Route
This study focused on long-term monitoring using multi-source remote sensing data
which were collected with the aim of extracting information on land cover and vegetation
changes in the Juhugeng mining area.
Based on SPOT and GF data, the approach to obtain land cover information was
based on an object-oriented classification method, which mainly consisted of segmentation
parameter configuration and feature selection. Land cover maps and transition matrix
were generated for change analysis. Then, we combined information of FVC to analyze the
development activities in the mining area and the impacts on the surrounding vegetation.

2.3.2. Object-Based Land Cover Information Extraction

We used a fractal net evolution approach (FNEA), generally used in geographical
analysis, as the segmentation method for the high-resolution satellite imagery. The segmen-
tation, based on the setting of the heterogeneity criterion weighted by the scale, shape, and
compactness parameters, was aimed to minimize the average heterogeneity of segmented
objects. The global heterogeneity is defined as follows:

f = ωhcolor + (1 − ω)hshape (1)

where ω is the proportion and hcolor and hshape represent spectral heterogeneity and shape
heterogeneity, respectively.
The formula for spectral heterogeneity is:
n
hcolor = ∑ ωi σi (2)
i =1

where ωi is the band weight, and σi represents band variance.

The formula for shape heterogeneity is:

hshape = ωcompact hcompact + (1 − ω compact hsmooth (3)

The formula for compactness heterogeneity is:

l
hcompact = √ (4)
n
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 5 of 22

The formula for smooth heterogeneity is:

l
hsmooth = (5)
b
where ωcompact is the weight of compactness, l represents the perimeter of the object, n
represents the area, and b represents the shortest side length of the smallest external
rectangle of the object.
Object-based classification methods provide a large number of spectral, spatial, and tex-
tual information features. Various features have their own characteristics in the mining area.
Extracting the features and optimizing the combination is necessary to improve classifica-
tion effectiveness and accuracy. Table 2 is the array of features selected for the classification.

Table 2. Selected features.

Object Features Feature Formula

− n
mean CL = 1
∑ CLi
n
i =1
nL −
Layer Values brightness b= 1
∑ Ci
nL
i =1
nL −
stddev 1
b= n L ∑ Ci
i =1
l eig1 (S)
length/width γ= w =
Geometry eig2 (S)
shape index s= √e
4 A
N −1 Pi,j
homogeneity ∑
i,j=0 1 +( i − j )2
N −1
contrast ∑ Pi,j (i − j)
2

Texture i,j=0
N −1  
entropy ∑ Pi,j −lnPi,j
i,j=0
N −1  
stddev 2
σi,j = ∑ Pi,j i, j − µi,j
i,j=0

A decision tree is a crucial algorithm in predictive models for machine learning. The
Classification and Regression Tree (CART), first introduced by Leo Breiman et al. in 1984,
is a type of decision tree. CART looks for the best homogeneity for child nodes under the
criterion of the Gini index. As its name suggests, CART can solve both classification and
regression predictive modeling issues, which means that it can handle both categorical and
numerical variables. Advantages of CART include its nonparametric character, insensitivity
to variables, and robustness to outliers [64]. Nowadays, the CART classifier is a useful
classification tool in remote sensing studies [43,65].
Ground truth maps were generated by visual interpretation of remote sensing imagery
based on previous reliable geological surveys [60,61], information from related authori-
ties and websites, and expert knowledge. A total of 686 random validation points were
generated based on the area proportion of each class for assessing accuracy.

2.3.3. Landsat Data-Based Fractional Vegetation Cover Estimation

The study used FVC for vegetation cover evaluation, which is generally defined as the
ratio of the vertical projection area of above-ground vegetation organs on the ground to the
total vegetation area [66]. Based on the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI),
FVC is mathematically expressed as follows [67]:

NDV I − NDV I soil

FVC = (6)
NDV I veg − NDV I soil
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 6 of 22

FVC max · NDV I min − FVC min · NDV I max

NDV I soil = (7)
FVC max − FVC min

(1 − FVC min )· NDV I max − (1 − FVC max )· NDV I min

NDV I veg = (8)
FVC max − FVC min
where NDVIsoil represents the NDVI value of bare soil and NDVIveg is the NDVI value of
fully vegetated land. NDVI values were set at 5% and 95% confidence intervals for NDVIsoil
and NDVIveg , respectively, to eliminate the noise interference, according to the histogram
of NDVI data.

3. Results and Analysis

3.1. Suitable Parameters for Image Segmentation
A good segmentation result plays an essential part in the object-based classification
hierarchy. Pre-processed GF-1 and GF-6 data were used for the 2013, 2016, 2019, and
2021 classifications. During this period, the mining area was extensively developed with
several types of ground objects. The 2 m resolution imagery provides lots of details of the
segmentation features.
Figures 2–4 show the segmentation test results (standard false color) of several sites
that are characteristic of the mining area. The ESP plugin helped to optimize the scale
parameter. The following can be concluded from the line graph and segmentation test
(Figure 2): (1) the coal storage area and some open pit sites are delineated at scale parameters
of 950 and 600; (2) a large-scale restoration region can be distinguished at scale parameters
of 820, but fragmented regions need further segmentation; (3) the scale parameter of 450 is
almost capable of drawing an area where industrial and mining buildings are constructed;
and (4) a separate building or small ecological restoration area is defined in the scale
parameter interval of 290 to 360. The features of unexcavated coalface, unspoiled surface,
and large water surface are quite different from the mining area, so the scale parameter is
large. However, for contaminated water, the appropriate scale parameter has to be reduced
from 1000 to 400. The segmentation of a relatively well-covered area of green vegetation
requires a scale parameter that is even smaller than 280. In the 2019 GF-6 image, a new
Remote Sens. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of type
23
of land cover emerged. The ground was covered with some obstructive materials, and this
change often occurred on the side of a slope, delineated by the 210–280 scale parameter.

Figure 2.
Figure Testresult
2. Test resultforforaasite
sitewhere
whereland
landcover
covertype
typeincludes
includescoal
coalstorage,
storage, buildings,
buildings, reclamation,
reclamation,
and
andopen
openpits.
pits.(a)(a)
Statistical analysis
Statistical of variance;
analysis segmentation
of variance; results
segmentation usingusing
results scale scale
parameters of: (b) of:
parameters
600; (c) 450;
(b) 600; (d) (d)
(c) 450; 360;360;
andand(e) (e)
290.290.
TheThe
yellow square
yellow highlights
square thethe
highlights region where
region wherethethe
segmentation
segmentation
results
results exhibit
exhibit more
more pronounced changes due
pronounced changes due to
to scale
scale parameter
parameter variations.
variations. (c–e)
(c–e) represent
representmagnified
magni-
fied views of the yellow square in (b).
views of the yellow square in (b).
 Figure 2. Test result for a site where land cover type includes coal storage, buildings, reclamation,
and open pits. (a) Statistical analysis of variance; segmentation results using scale parameters of: (b)
600; (c) 450; (d) 360; and (e) 290. The yellow square highlights the region where the segmentation
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 7 of 22
results exhibit more pronounced changes due to scale parameter variations. (c–e) represent magni-
fied views of the yellow square in (b).

Testresult
Figure3.3.Test
Figure resultfor
foraasite
sitethat
thathas
haswater
waterand
andtailings.
tailings.(a)
(a)Statistical
Statisticalanalysis
analysisofofvariance;
variance;segmen-
segmen-
tationresults
tation resultsusing
usingscale
scaleparameters
parametersof:of:(b)
(b)780;
780;(c)
(c)530;
530;(d)
(d)400;
400;and
and(e)(e)280.
280.Land
Landcover
covertype
typecontains
contains
Remote Sens. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 23
coal
coalstorage,
storage,buildings,
buildings,restoration,
restoration,and
andopen
openpits.
pits.The
Theyellow
yellowsquares
squareshighlight
highlightthetheregions
regionswhere
where
the
thesegmentation
segmentationresults
resultsexhibit
exhibitmore
morepronounced
pronouncedchanges
changesdue duetotoscale
scaleparameter
parametervariations.
variations.

Testresult
Figure4.4.Test
Figure resultfor
fora asite
sitewith
withlots
lotsofofartificial
artificialcoverings.
coverings.(a)(a)Statistical
Statisticalanalysis
analysisofofvariance;
variance;
segmentationresults
segmentation resultsusing
usingscale
scaleparameters
parametersof: of:(b)
(b)375;
375;(c)
(c)280;
280;and
and(d)
(d)210.
210.The
Theyellow
yellowsquares
squares
highlight
highlightthe
theregions
regionswhere
wherethe thesegmentation
segmentationresults
resultsexhibit
exhibitmore
morepronounced
pronouncedchanges
changesdue
duetotoscale
scale
parameter
parametervariations.
variations.

Accordingtotothe
According thedefinition
definitionofofheterogeneity,
heterogeneity,both
boththe
theshape
shapeparameter
parameterand andcompact-
compact-
nessparameter
ness parameterare are
setset
bybythethe method
method of control
of control variables.
variables. The shape
The shape parameter
parameter was
was con-
controlled
trolled by setting
by setting it toit0.9
to in
0.9order
in order to determine
to determine thethe optimal
optimal compactness
compactness parameteratata a
parameter
certainpre-experimental
certain pre-experimental scale.
scale. Figure
Figure5 5shows
showsthat as the
that compactness
as the compactnessparameter increases,
parameter in-
creases, there is a tendency to segment more compact objects. However, in the case ofor
there is a tendency to segment more compact objects. However, in the case of meadows
water areas
meadows whereareas
or water therewhere
are highly
there similar features,
are highly similarsuch a high
features, compactness
such parameter
a high compactness
is not necessary.
parameter Additionally,
is not necessary. the diverse
Additionally, theshape
diversecharacteristics of mining
shape characteristics areas suggest
of mining areas
that excessive
suggest involvement
that excessive of the compactness
involvement parameter
of the compactness is not required.
parameter Thus, Thus,
is not required. we set
weωcompact : 𝜔 = 1 : 1.= Figure
set 𝜔 : ωsmooth 1: 1. Figure
6 shows, in each
6 shows, row, row,
in each the same segmentation
the same scalescale
segmentation with
different shape parameters. It turns out that the number of objects tends
with different shape parameters. It turns out that the number of objects tends to increase to increase when
when the shape parameter is decreased. It is clear that band variants dominate the heter-
ogeneity. However, the shape factor can help delineate a region of artificial structure with
unique shape characteristics, so the shape factor was set to 0.3.
 trolled by setting it to 0.9 in order to determine the optimal compactness parameter at a
certain pre-experimental scale. Figure 5 shows that as the compactness parameter in-
creases, there is a tendency to segment more compact objects. However, in the case of
meadows or water areas where there are highly similar features, such a high compactness
parameter is not necessary. Additionally, the diverse shape characteristics of mining areas
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 8 of 22
suggest that excessive involvement of the compactness parameter is not required. Thus,
we set 𝜔 :𝜔 = 1: 1. Figure 6 shows, in each row, the same segmentation scale
with different shape parameters. It turns out that the number of objects tends to increase
the
whenshape parameter
the shape is decreased.
parameter It is clear
is decreased. It isthat band
clear thatvariants dominate
band variants the heterogeneity.
dominate the heter-
However, the shape factor can help delineate a region of artificial structure
ogeneity. However, the shape factor can help delineate a region of artificial structure with unique
with
shape characteristics, so the shape factor was set to 0.3.
unique shape characteristics, so the shape factor was set to 0.3.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 5.
Figure
Remote Sens. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5. Segmentation
Segmentationwith
withvarying
varyingcompactness
compactness parameters:
parameters: (a)(a) compactness:
compactness: 0.1;0.1;
(b) (b) compact-
compactness:
9 of 23
ness: 0.3; (c) compactness: 0.5; (d) compactness: 0.7; and (e) compactness: 0.9.
0.3; (c) compactness: 0.5; (d) compactness: 0.7; and (e) compactness: 0.9.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 6. Segmentation with varying shape parameters: (a) shape: 0.1; (b) shape: 0.3; (c) shape: 0.5;
Figure 6. Segmentation with varying shape parameters: (a) shape: 0.1; (b) shape: 0.3; (c) shape: 0.5;
(d) shape: 0.7; and (e) shape: 0.9.
(d) shape: 0.7; and (e) shape: 0.9.

Due
Due to
tosignificant
significantvariability
variabilityinin
the optimal
the optimalscale parameter
scale for for
parameter landland
cover within
cover this
within
segmentation, we employed a hierarchical structure for multi-resolution segmentation.
this segmentation, we employed a hierarchical structure for multi-resolution segmentation.
This
This approach
approach allows
allows us
us to
to maximize
maximize the the utilization
utilization of
of the
the optimal
optimal scale
scale parameters
parameters and
and
mitigate the issue of excessive fragmentation. The criteria are presented in
mitigate the issue of excessive fragmentation. The criteria are presented in Table Table 3.
3.

Table 3. Criteria
Table 3. for setting
Criteria for setting segmentation
segmentation parameters
parameters (GF-1
(GF-1 and
and GF-6
GF-6 data).
data).

Parameter
Parameter
Setting Value
Setting Value
Target Ground Object
Target Ground Object
780~950 pristine area, water
780~950 pristine area, water
coal storage, water (with
coal storage, water (with small
smallarea,
area, probably
probably
Scale 400~530
400~530
Scale polluted), open
polluted), openpits, tailing
pits, tailingdeposits
deposits
180~360
restoration area,
restoration roads,
area, roads,buildings,
buildings,
180~360 area under a cover
area under a cover
Shape 0.3 -
Shape
Compactness
0.30.5 - -
Compactness 0.5 -

3.2. Accuracy Assessment

To evaluate the accuracy of the classification results, we employed four classical met-
rics that are commonly used in remote sensing image classification: producer’s accuracy,
user’s accuracy, overall accuracy, and kappa coefficient. The assessment was conducted
using validation points, and the corresponding results are presented in Tables 4 and 5.
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 9 of 22

3.2. Accuracy Assessment

To evaluate the accuracy of the classification results, we employed four classical metrics
that are commonly used in remote sensing image classification: producer’s accuracy, user’s
accuracy, overall accuracy, and kappa coefficient. The assessment was conducted using
validation points, and the corresponding results are presented in Tables 4 and 5.

Table 4. Producer’s and user’s accuracy of mapped cover class.

(a) Producer’s and user’s accuracy of mapped cover class in 2004, 2009, 2012, and 2013
2004 2009 2012 2013
Producer’s User’s Producer’s User’s Producer’s User’s Producer’s User’s
Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy
Buildings 99.9 99.9 66.7 99.9 95.0 82.6 89.5 94.4
Coal storage - - 99.9 99.9 92.3 92.3 90.9 66.7
Open pits 80.8 87.5 77.8 93.3 81.8 91.5 78.2 93.7
Pristine area 99.0 99.0 99.1 96.9 96.5 95.4 98.4 95.0
Roads 71.4 99.9 77.8 99.9 38.5 55.6 87.5 66.7
Tailings 92.3 60.0 83.6 83.6 89.7 83.4 87.0 81.1
Water 66.7 99.9 84.6 78.6 73.3 73.3 80.0 88.9
(b) Producer’s and user’s accuracy of mapped cover class in 2016, 2019, and 2021
2016 2019 2021
Producer’s User’s Producer’s User’s Producer’s User’s
Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy
Buildings 84.8 84.8 82.8 82.8 94.1 94.1
Coal storage 99.9 92.0 92.0 92.0 99.9 92.0
Cover - - 85.7 81.8 87.5 99.9
Open pit 72.8 81.7 74.0 89.8 75.0 91.0
Pristine area 96.0 88.6 95.7 96.2 94.3 86.7
Restoration 55.6 83.3 72.3 85.0 58.1 94.3
Roads 91.7 84.6 99.9 72.7 58.8 62.5
Tailings 80.3 78.7 88.1 74.6 92.5 74.7
Water 69.0 90.9 82.8 77.4 87.5 94.6

Table 5. Overall accuracy (OA) and kappa of mapped cover class.

2004 2009 2012 2013 2016 2019 2021

OA 0.98 0.95 0.90 0.89 0.84 0.86 0.85
Kappa 0.84 0.86 0.86 0.85 0.79 0.82 0.81

The overall accuracy is above 84% and around 90% or higher in 2004, 2009, 2012,
and 2013. Among all of the land cover types, buildings, coal storage, cover, and pristine
area were mapped with a high level of accuracy. The division of open pits, tailings, and
roads was somewhat lower in accuracy. A low accuracy may result from several factors:
(1) the characteristics of these three land cover types are more difficult to distinguish,
compared to others; (2) excessive or insufficient segmentation—over-segmentation can
lead to fragmented objects and under-segmentation will group different covers together;
and (3) lack of reliable ground truth data. The boundary between open pits and tailings is
usually not obvious; although these two classes can be separated in land cover monitoring,
treating them as one class is worthy of pondering.
We conducted an analysis of the accuracy evaluation for each land cover type. Build-
ings and cover exhibited a notable performance in both producer’s accuracy and user’s
accuracy, owing to their distinctive characteristics in terms of artificial materials. The
identification accuracy of coal stockpiles was generally good, with a slightly better perfor-
mance in producer’s accuracy. In contrast, the recognition of water bodies did not meet our
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 10 of 22

expectations, particularly in terms of producer’s accuracy. We attributed this to the inherent

difficulty in distinguishing between coal and water bodies in the images, especially when
water accumulated in mining pits during later stages of mining development. The open pit
type showed higher user’s accuracy, while tailings demonstrated higher producer’s accu-
racy, which was advantageous for subsequent analysis. The evaluation accuracy of roads
exhibited significant fluctuations across different years, and was directly influenced by the
spatial resolution of the sensor. Additionally, the ambiguous distinction between roads
that are specific to mining areas and industrial sites within the mining area contributed to
this variation.
Further separating restored areas and pristine areas resulted in accuracies ranging
from 83% to over 90% for user’s accuracy, but less than 75% for producer’s accuracy. This
is due to the fact that replanted vegetation and land reclamation will try to recover the local
native vegetation, and there is a high possibility of confusion from a single image.

3.3. Land Cover Change

Figure 7 displays the land cover map for the years 2004, 2009, 2012, 2013, 2016, 2019,
and 2021. In the map, the term ‘pristine area’ refers to an uninterrupted or ecologically
restored region, while ‘restoration’ denotes areas that have undergone reclamation efforts.
The category ‘cover’ represents artificial coverings, such as slope protection networks,
which are employed as protective measures. The map demonstrates that the utilization of
object-based classification has successfully reduced the presence of salt and pepper noise in
the classification of the mined region. This reduction significantly enhances the accuracy
and practicality of the classification results.
The Juhugeng coalfield commenced mining operations in 2003 and continued for over
a decade. It was not until August 2020 that the government completely halted production
activities. Situated near the town of Muli, the Juhugeng coal mine underwent rapid
development on the flat terrain in the area, with the S207 motorway serving as a crucial
transportation route. As underground coal reserves were accessed and infrastructure
improved, the mining area gradually expanded and stabilized until 2013.
A comparison between 2004 and 2009 reveals the construction of an artificial river to
divert water. Throughout the development process, there were minimal changes observed
in the layout of the coal accumulation areas, buildings, and roads. It was only in 2016 that
noticeable signs of land reclamation and ecological restoration became visible, with more
prominent indications of reclamation at the mine’s edge being observed for 2019.
By 2016, the water catchment pits had reached a considerable scale, no longer resem-
bling scattered puddles. This suggests the location of open pits and indicates that these
pits may have been either out of use or abandoned.
Figure 8 illustrates the statistical information regarding the mining area. The mining
area experienced rapid growth until 2013, reaching a size of approximately 36.5 km2 . The
average annual rates of change exhibited positive trends during the initial three time
periods (2004–2009, 2009–2012, and 2012–2013). The expansion rate notably accelerated,
with the growth area from 2012 to 2013 surpassing the total growth over the five-year
period from 2004 to 2009. Subsequently, the total area of the mine remained within the
range of from 35 km2 to 40 km2 .
 and 2021. In the map, the term ‘pristine area’ refers to an uninterrupted or ecologically
restored region, while ‘restoration’ denotes areas that have undergone reclamation efforts.
The category ‘cover’ represents artificial coverings, such as slope protection networks,
which are employed as protective measures. The map demonstrates that the utilization of
object-based classification has successfully reduced the presence of salt and pepper noise
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439
in the classification of the mined region. This reduction significantly enhances the11accu-
of 22

racy and practicality of the classification results.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Changes in Juhugeng
Changes in Juhugeng mine
mine in
in 2004,
2004, 2009,
2009, 2012,
2012, 2013,
2013, 2016,
2016, 2019,
2019, and
and 2021.
2021.

Regarding specific land cover types, open pits and gangue landfills played a significant
role in the expansion of the mining area. However, between 2013 and 2016, the rate of
change for all of the land cover types decreased, indicating a relatively slower pace of
growth. The area covered by open pits exhibited negative growth, suggesting a shift from
surface coal mining to deeper excavation. From 2016 to 2019, the restoration area expanded
rapidly, contrasting with the trend that was observed for tailings. This pattern persisted
until 2021. The proportion of land occupied by industrial buildings and coal accumulation
areas remained relatively stable, with minimal changes.

Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439
Figure 8 illustrates the statistical information regarding the mining area. The mining
area experienced rapid growth until 2013, reaching a size of approximately 36.5 km2. The
average annual rates of change exhibited positive trends during the initial three time pe-
riods (2004–2009, 2009–2012, and 2012–2013). The expansion rate notably accelerated, with
the growth area from 2012 to 2013 surpassing the total growth over the five-year period
from 2004 to 2009. Subsequently, the total area of the mine remained within the range 12 ofof22
from 35 km to 40 km .
2 2

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Area statistics: (a) area of mine; (b) average annual change rates of main land cover
Figure 8. Area statistics: (a) area of mine; (b) average annual change rates of main land cover types.
types.
Although the ecological improvement work recognized from the satellite images
Regarding
became larger inspecific land cover
2021 (reaching 20%types,
of theopen
totalpits and
area), gangue landfills
compared with 2016,played a signifi-
the total area of
cant role in the expansion of the mining area. However, between 2013 and
the mine was steady, indicating that the environmental impacts caused by illegal mining 2016, the rate
ofwould
change for all of the land
not be easily eliminated.cover types decreased, indicating a relatively slower pace of
growth. The area covered by open pits exhibited negative growth, suggesting
The numerical analysis is presented in the form of a matrix of change (Table 6). The a shift from
surface
diagonalcoal mining
cells to deeper
represent excavation.
areas with no change,Fromwhile
2016 the
to 2019,
othersthe restoration
indicate area have
that there ex-
panded rapidly, contrasting with the
been some alterations between the two years. trend that was observed for tailings. This pattern
persisted until 2021. The proportion of land occupied by industrial buildings and coal
accumulation areas transition
Table 6. Land cover remainedmatrix
relatively stable,
(unit:km 2 ). with minimal changes.

Although the ecological improvement work recognized from the satellite images be-
came larger in(a) 2004–2009
2021 land cover
(reaching 20%transition matrix
of the total area), compared with 2016, the total area of
Buildings
the mine
Coal was steady, indicating that the environmental impacts caused by illegal mining
Open Pits Pristine Area Tailings Water Total
Storage
would not be easily eliminated.
Buildings 0.015 0 0 0.000 0.005 0 0.020
Open pits 0.007 0.020 1.410 0.070 0.341 0 1.848
Pristine area 0.078 0.097 2.956 131.169 3.932 4.066 142.298
Tailings 0 0 0.546 0.076 0.236 0.060 0.918
Water 0.003 0 0 2.190 0.048 1.342 3.583
Total 0.103 0.117 4.912 133.505 4.563 5.468 148.667
(b) 2009–2012 land cover transition matrix
Coal Pristine
Buildings Open Pits Tailings Water Total
Storage Area
Buildings 0.045 0 0.029 0.003 0.037 0.010 0.124
Coal storage 0 0.091 0.020 0.006 0 0 0.117
Open pits 0.003 0 4.427 0.203 0.298 0.008 4.938
Tailings 0.087 0.234 1.163 2.662 0.392 0.076 4.615
Pristine area 0.608 0.113 5.317 10.521 111.473 4.560 132.591
Water 0.004 0 0.240 0.295 3.205 1.705 5.448
Total 0.747 0.438 11.196 13.690 115.405 6.358 147.833
(c) 2012–2013 land cover transition matrix
Coal Pristine
Buildings Open Pits Tailings Water Total
Storage Area
Buildings 0.450 0 0.016 0.173 0.123 0.000 0.763
Coal storage 0.000 0.295 0.000 0.149 0.006 0 0.451
Open pits 0.018 0.033 10.509 0.320 0.385 0.038 11.302
Tailings 0.558 0.087 1.580 10.830 0.712 0.049 13.817
Pristine area 0.326 0.001 3.121 5.450 105.576 0.885 115.360
Water 0.009 0 0.111 0.312 4.691 1.211 6.335
Total 1.363 0.416 15.338 17.233 111.493 2.184 148.026
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 13 of 22

Table 6. Cont.

(d) 2013–2016 land cover transition matrix

Coal Pristine
Buildings Open Pits Restoration Tailings Water Total
Storage Area
Buildings 0.814 0.002 0.020 0 0.313 0.223 0.001 1.373
Coal storage 0.001 0.366 0.024 0.002 0.019 0.002 0 0.415
Open pits 0.020 0.054 12.243 0 1.558 0.790 0.770 15.435
Tailings 0.436 0.341 0.553 0.778 13.409 1.671 0.194 17.382
Pristine area 0.322 0.003 1.092 0.022 3.049 106.117 1.344 111.950
Water 0.005 0 0.035 0.014 0.087 0.841 1.233 2.215
Total 1.598 0.766 13.967 0.816 18.435 109.645 3.542 148.770
(e) 2016–2019 land cover transition matrix
Coal Open Pristine
Buildings Cover Restoration Tailings Water Total
Storage Pits Area
Buildings 0.823 0.004 0.027 0.008 0.123 0.306 0.138 0.005 1.434
Coal storage 0.000 0.674 0.031 0.005 0.008 0.042 0.000 0 0.762
Open pits 0.005 0.003 0.042 11.283 0.329 0.609 0.930 0.611 13.813
Restoration 0.000 0.004 0 0 0.770 0.002 0.008 0.014 0.798
Tailings 0.065 0.148 0.263 1.610 2.350 12.269 1.320 0.136 18.162
Pristine area 0.156 0.005 0.038 0.381 0.061 2.068 105.313 0.870 108.893
Water 0.034 0.000 0.017 0.212 0.002 0.096 1.225 1.917 3.504
Total 1.084 0.839 0.419 13.500 3.643 15.393 108.934 3.552 147.366
(f) 2019–2021 land cover transition matrix
Coal Open Pristine
Buildings Cover Restoration Tailings Water Total
Storage Pits Area
Buildings 0.554 0.006 0 0.004 0.036 0.269 0.175 0.011 1.056
Coal storage 0.005 0.762 0 0.012 0.050 0.005 0.002 0 0.835
Cover 0.004 0.010 0.004 0.024 0.062 0.236 0.073 0.000 0.414
Open pits 0.006 0.001 0.264 9.594 2.048 0.545 0.347 0.577 13.381
Restoration 0.004 0.020 0 0.137 3.294 0.096 0.041 0.008 3.600
Tailings 0.079 0.142 0.082 0.628 0.861 12.183 1.057 0.239 15.272
Pristine area 0.100 0.031 0.006 0.180 0.267 0.955 104.231 2.957 108.727
Water 0.004 0 0.001 0.105 0.067 0.062 0.578 2.637 3.455
Total 0.757 0.972 0.358 10.685 6.683 14.352 106.504 6.431 146.741

The matrix tables, specifically Table 6a,b, provide clear insights into the changes among
the different land covers. The diagonal cells in these tables, which correspond to almost all
of the land cover types, indicate minimal changes, suggesting significant transformations
in the mining area. The coal storage area exhibited relatively smooth variations, except
for the period of 2013–2016, when new coal stockpiles emerged in the northeast and
southwest regions in 2016. Open pits and tailings showed the most significant variations,
with significant occupation of the pristine area. The substantial differences in size between
the buildings and other ground features may contribute to the frequent changes that were
observed. The initial land remediation efforts primarily focused on tailings piles and waste
residue accumulation areas, followed by open pits.
The development of the mining industry had a noticeable impact on the land use
and land cover in the mining areas. The progression of the mine area can be categorized
into three distinct periods: (1) construction period, during which the mine area was in a
state of expansion, growing slowly before 2009 and rapidly expanding and stabilizing in
2010–2014, while production activities were also in order; (2) production period, during
which the mined area did not change much, from 2014 to 2020, and the mining of coal
gradually moved from the surface to the depth of the underground, and during which
certain land protection measures were taken at some locations due to the influence of
government policies; (3) reclamation period, the central government issued a directive in
2020 to prohibit mining, after which the mine stopped working and land reclamation and
ecological restoration were the main actions.
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 14 of 22

3.4. Vegetation Cover Changes

The FVC was estimated by utilizing the spatial distribution of the NDVI derived
from the red and near-infrared channels of Landsat satellite observations. The study
area is characterized by low temperatures, an alpine climate, widespread permafrost, and
prolonged snow cover on the ground throughout the year, and NDVI estimates receive a
large degree of influence from the local climate. Since Landsat satellites were continuously
updated from 2003 to 2021, different satellite data products may also affect the data statistics,
leading to some errors.
To mitigate these concerns, we employed the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform to
Remote Sens. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23
average the FVC values from all of the available cloud-free and unstriped Landsat data
during the months of May and October for each year (as shown in Figure 9). This approach
helped to minimize the impact of striping artifacts, with the exception of some areas in
2012
2012 where
where only
onlystriped
stripedLandsat
Landsat7 7images
imageswere
wereaccessible. Furthermore,
accessible. potential
Furthermore, inaccu-
potential inaccu-
racies arising from other factors that may affect the vegetation index, such as atmospheric
racies arising from other factors that may affect the vegetation index, such as atmospheric
conditions,
conditions, were
wereminimized
minimizedthrough
throughthe
theaveraging
averagingprocess.
process.

Figure 9.
Figure Spatialdistribution
9. Spatial distributionofofaveraged
averagedFVC
FVCfrom
from2003
2003toto 2021.
2021.

In general, the mountains and water exhibited similar FVC values across different
years, as depicted by the dark blue color. This similarity serves as a reference for observing
other features. The yellow color observed in the eastern plateau suggests good vegetation
 Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 15 of 22

In general, the mountains and water exhibited similar FVC values across different
years, as depicted by the dark blue color. This similarity serves as a reference for observing
other features. The yellow color observed in the eastern plateau suggests good vegetation
quality in this flat area. However, a growing blue area in the middle of the region disrupts
the greenery. A notable contrast can be observed between the FVC maps of 2003 and
Remote Sens. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
2014. The blue area represents artificial disturbances on the map, aligning with the16gradual of 23
expansion of open-pit mining and its consequent impact on the ecological vegetation. Step
by step, the mining activities encroach upon and degrade the natural vegetation. Moreover,
the overallwhich
restoration, vegetation condition in
have contributed 2021
to the appearsand
recovery to enhancement
be better thanofthat in 2014.
vegetation This
in the
improvement can be attributed to the efforts of mine land reclamation and environmental
area.
restoration,
To assess which havevariations
the annual contributed to the recovery
in vegetation and enhancement
condition, the FVC valuesofare vegetation
classifiedin
the area.
into four categories: very low (0–20%), low (20–40%), medium (40–60%), and relatively
To assess the
high (60–100%). annual
Table variations
7 presents in vegetation
the percentage ofcondition, the FVCby
the area covered values
each are
FVC classified
class,
into Figure
while four categories: verythe
10 illustrates lowareas
(0–20%), low (20–40%),
corresponding medium
to each (40–60%),
FVC class and relatively
in relation to the
high (60–100%).
mining Table 7ofpresents
area. The impact the change
land cover percentage of the
on the area covered
vegetation by each
condition FVC class,
is limited to
while Figure 10 illustrates the areas corresponding to each FVC class
approximately 40 km , as indicated by the right axis. Examining the period from 2003
2 in relation totothe
mining area. The impact
2009, significant changes in the FVC can be observed, but afterward, the FVC situationto
of land cover change on the vegetation condition is limited
approximately 40 km 2 , as indicated by the right axis. Examining the period from 2003 to
remains relatively stable. This impression is primarily due to the FVC change in 2005.
2009, this
During significant
time, thechanges
medium in FVC
the FVC can be
(40–60%) observed,
area increased but
byafterward,
76.6 km2, andthethe
FVC situation
relatively
remains relatively stable. This impression is primarily
high FVC (60–100%) area increased by 32.4 km2. However, both the medium due to the FVC changeandinhigh
2005.
During this time, the medium FVC (40–60%) area increased by 76.6 km 2 , and the relatively
FVC areas subsequently decreased by 89.3 km2 and 32.3 km2, respectively, between 2005
high FVC (60–100%) area increased by 32.4 km2 . However, both the medium and high
and 2006. This dramatic fluctuation surpasses the surface-level influence of land cover
FVC areas subsequently decreased by 89.3 km2 and 32.3 km2 , respectively, between 2005
change. From 2011 to 2017, the top of the yellow bar gradually increased from 206.3 km2
and 2006. This dramatic fluctuation surpasses the surface-level influence of land cover
to 259.87 km2, and then decreased to 189.1 km2 in 2021. The rate of change in the FVC area
change. From 2011 to 2017, the top of the yellow bar gradually increased from 206.3 km2 to
aligns with 2that of the mining area, indicating a consistent pattern of change between
259.87 km , and then decreased to 189.1 km2 in 2021. The rate of change in the FVC area
them.
aligns with that of the mining area, indicating a consistent pattern of change between them.
Table 7. FVC classified area statistical percentage (%).
Table 7. FVC classified area statistical percentage (%).
Class 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Class
0–20% 2003
27.48 29.622004 20.932005 29.492006 25.862007 2008
27.72 2009
28.59 2010
23.55 2011
22.21 2012
27.21
0–20%
20–40% 27.48
39.51 39.0429.62 22.1720.93 42.0829.49 25.86
30.59 27.72
40.35 28.59
44.19 23.55
27.56 22.21
26.10 27.21
26.67
20–40%
40–60% 39.51
32.98 31.2939.04 49.2422.17 28.3242.08 30.59
43.39 40.35
31.91 44.19
27.20 27.56
47.71 26.10
50.90 26.67
45.96
40–60% 32.98 31.29 49.24 28.32 43.39 31.91 27.20 47.71 50.90 45.96
60–100%
60–100% 0.030.03 0.05 0.05 7.66 7.66 0.100.10 0.150.15 0.020.02 0.020.02 1.181.18 0.78
0.78 0.16
0.16
Class 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Class 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
0–20% 26.02 28.00 27.40 26.96 28.66 26.36 24.95 25.96 20.56
0–20% 26.02 28.00 27.40 26.96 28.66 26.36 24.95 25.96 20.56
20–40% 26.83 27.06 29.65 30.48 32.20 32.19 25.48 33.00 23.72
20–40% 26.83 27.06 29.65 30.48 32.20 32.19 25.48 33.00 23.72
40–60%
40–60% 42.26
42.26 40.3040.30 42.4342.43 42.3942.39 39.03
39.03 40.89
40.89 45.35
45.35 40.78
40.78 49.21
49.21
60–100%
60–100% 4.894.89 4.64 4.64 0.52 0.52 0.180.18 0.110.11 0.550.55 4.224.22 0.270.27 6.51
6.51

Figure
Figure 10.10.
TheThe area
area of of four
four FVC
FVC levels
levels and
and total
total mining
mining area.
area.

To better observe the contribution of each landscape type to the FVC values, the av-
erage FVC values were calculated for each land cover type, as depicted in Figure 11. The
light blue vertical dotted lines indicate the years when land cover classification results
were obtained. It is evident that the results nearly encompass the entire development pro-
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 16 of 22

To better observe the contribution of each landscape type to the FVC values, the
average FVC values were calculated for each land cover type, as depicted in Figure 11. The
light blue vertical dotted lines indicate the years when land cover classification results were
obtained. It is evident that the results nearly encompass the entire development process of
the mine, while the FVC line complements the cognition of the mine development. The dot
Remote Sens. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 23
plots, representing hills, plateaus, and water, along with the mean FVC values, exhibit a
high degree of consistency. This alignment is also reflected in the maximum FVC values.
These similar trends indicate that human factors have minimal influence on the FVC in
these
FVC in regions. In stark In
these regions. contrast, the FVC the
stark contrast, pattern
FVCin the mining
pattern in thearea stands
mining out.
area In theout.
stands early
In
years, theyears,
the early FVC of the
the mining
FVC area
of the displays
mining areaadisplays
consistent trend, providing
a consistent evidence of
trend, providing human
evidence
activity
of human contributing to the decline
activity contributing in FVC.
to the decline in FVC.

Figure 11. Yearly mean FVC for

for main
main land
land cover
cover types
types in
in the
the study
study area.
area.

The
The analysis
analysis of
ofthe
theaverage
averageseasonal
seasonalFVCFVCreveals
revealsdistinct
distinct trends
trendsin in
vegetation
vegetationcoverage
cover-
within the mining area. From 2010 to 2014, there was a decline in vegetation
age within the mining area. From 2010 to 2014, there was a decline in vegetation coverage, coverage,
followed
followed by by an
an upward
upward trend
trend from
from 2014
2014 to
to 2020,
2020, and
and aa rapid
rapid increase
increase from
from 2020
2020 toto 2021.
2021.
Figure 12, respectively, shows the linear rate of change in the average seasonal
Figure 12, respectively, shows the linear rate of change in the average seasonal FVC in the FVC in
the first two periods and the relative growth rate in the last year. The purple
first two periods and the relative growth rate in the last year. The purple areas in Figure 12a areas in
Figure 12a indicate a faster decline in vegetation coverage or a higher degree
indicate a faster decline in vegetation coverage or a higher degree of damage compared to of damage
compared
the average,towhile
the average,
the yellowwhile
areasthe yellow the
represent areas represent
opposite. Thisthe opposite.
pattern alignsThis pattern
closely with
aligns closely with the expansion of the mining area depicted in Figure 7 during the same
the expansion of the mining area depicted in Figure 7 during the same period. Figure 12b
period. Figure 12b showcases the relative increase rate. Yellow areas indicate better land
showcases the relative increase rate. Yellow areas indicate better land restoration efforts,
restoration efforts, while purple areas indicate areas where restoration efforts are lacking.
while purple areas indicate areas where restoration efforts are lacking. The reclamation area,
The reclamation area, as shown in Figure 12b, is particularly evident and primarily located
as shown in Figure 12b, is particularly evident and primarily located on the slopes where
on the slopes where gangue and waste slag have accumulated. In Figure 12c, the vegetation
gangue and waste slag have accumulated. In Figure 12c, the vegetation coverage of many
coverage of many sites increased rapidly from approximately 10% to 40–60%, and the focus
sites increased rapidly from approximately 10% to 40–60%, and the focus of reclamation
of reclamation work gradually shifted to the open pits, indicating a spatial sequence of
work gradually shifted to the open pits, indicating a spatial sequence of land consolida-
land consolidation efforts.
tion efforts.
 RemoteSens.
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17 of 23

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 12. FVC trend in three periods: (a) FVC percentage decrease from 2010 to 2014; (b) FVC per-
Figure 12. FVC trend in three periods: (a) FVC percentage decrease from 2010 to 2014; (b) FVC
centage increase from 2014 to 2020; (c) FVC relative increase rate between 2020 and 2021.
percentage increase from 2014 to 2020; (c) FVC relative increase rate between 2020 and 2021.

Thesurface
The surfacecoalcoalmining
miningactivities
activitiesin inthe
the Qilian
Qilian Mountain
Mountainareas areashavehaveled led to
to significant
significant
damages to native meadows, wetlands, and permafrost.
damages to native meadows, wetlands, and permafrost. The natural plateau climate The natural plateau climate in the
in the region is primarily influenced by precipitation and temperature, which aredriv-
region is primarily influenced by precipitation and temperature, which are the main the
ers of
main vegetation
drivers of vegetationactivity [68]. [68].
activity TerraClimate
TerraClimate datadata (https://www.nature.com/arti-
(https://www.nature.com/
cles/sdata2017191 (accessed
articles/sdata2017191 on 9 on
(accessed January 2018)2018))
9 January indicate a slightaincrease
indicate in annual
slight increase in average
annual
precipitation,
average minimum
precipitation, temperature
minimum and maximum
temperature temperature,
and maximum wind speed,
temperature, windand speed,
down-
ward
and solar radiation
downward flux in the
solar radiation study
flux in the area, although
study the trend
area, although theis trend
not statistically signifi-
is not statistically
cant [69]. However,
significant [69]. However, human activities,
human particularly
activities, mining,
particularly have been
mining, havethe beenprimary deter-
the primary
mining factors causing severe ecological degradation. The
determining factors causing severe ecological degradation. The FVC analysis reflects FVC analysis reflects the corre-
the
corresponding performance based on different periods of mining activities. From 2014,
sponding performance based on different periods of mining activities. From 2003 to 2003
the2014,
to mining
the was
miningin a was
growth in aperiod,
growthresulting in the excavation
period, resulting or covering
in the excavation orof the fragile
covering of
native
the ground
fragile native surface,
ground leading
surface,to aleading
significantto a decline
significantin the FVC. in
decline During
the FVC.the stabilization
During the
period fromperiod
stabilization 2014 tofrom 2020, land
2014 to reclamation efforts in some
2020, land reclamation effortsareas
in somecaused
areas some
causedimprove-
some
ment in vegetation
improvement cover, mitigating
in vegetation the negative
cover, mitigating impactimpact
the negative to some extent.
to some The year
extent. 2020
The year
marked
2020 a significant
marked increase
a significant in FVC,
increase in which
FVC, whichcan becan directly attributed
be directly to national
attributed policies
to national
focusedfocused
policies on environmental
on environmentalprotection and land
protection and reclamation.
land reclamation.
Notably,
Notably,the theissuance
issuanceofofa adirective
directive ininAugust
August 2014
2014mandated
mandated thethecomplete
complete cessation
cessationof
mine production
of mine production andand the implementation
the implementation of measures
of measures such such
as residue treatment
as residue and land
treatment and
remediation.
land remediation.In 2017, the central
In 2017, government
the central government of China launched
of China launched a large-scale
a large-scale ecological
ecolog-
protection initiative
ical protection in the
initiative Qilian
in the QilianMountain
Mountain region,
region, addressing
addressingthe theissues
issuesofofecological
ecological
environment
environmentpollution.
pollution. The The performance
performanceof ofthe
the FVCFVC during
during these
these keykey time
time points
points further
further
highlights the dominant role of anthropogenic factors, particularly
highlights the dominant role of anthropogenic factors, particularly policy interventions, policy interventions, in
shaping reclaimed
in shaping reclaimed ecosystems
ecosystems [70].[70].
Moreover,
Moreover, therethere isis aa high
high level
level ofof consistency
consistency betweenbetween the the FVC
FVC trends
trends within
within the the
mining
mining area and the
area and theevents
eventsoccurring
occurringatat thethe mine,
mine, affirming
affirming the the usability
usability of FVCof FVC as a
as a mon-
monitoring
itoring tool tool for mining
for mining activities.
activities.

4. Discussion
Since open pit mining requires the removal of the vegetation cover, this approach,
which involves monitoring land cover and estimating the FVC concurrently, can offer a
clear depiction of the progression of mining areas and the changes in vegetation cover.
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 18 of 22

4. Discussion
Since open pit mining requires the removal of the vegetation cover, this approach,
which involves monitoring land cover and estimating the FVC concurrently, can offer a
clear depiction of the progression of mining areas and the changes in vegetation cover.
Consequently, it enables the effective monitoring of mine expansion and land reclama-
tion, supplying timely and invaluable information to governmental entities and pertinent
management agencies.
In contrast to previous studies conducted in this particular region, which relied on
remote sensing techniques, the employment of high spatial resolution data in this inves-
tigation has facilitated a more comprehensive comprehension of ground conditions and
generated more refined classification outcomes. Given the limited growing season, per-
sistent surface snow cover, and inclement weather patterns prevalent in the study area,
acquiring a consistent time series of cloud-free, high-quality imagery at regular intervals
from a single high-resolution satellite sensor presented a challenge. Hence, three distinct
types of satellite data were employed in this study: SPOT 4, GF-1, and GF-6. The incorpora-
tion of multi-source, high-resolution remote sensing data not only extends the temporal
coverage but also reduces the time interval, resulting in satisfactory datasets that exhibit
both high temporal and spatial resolutions. Although there exist variations in spatial
resolution between the SPOT 4 data and GF 1/6 data, the SPOT 4 data were specifically
used for monitoring the early stages of mine development, characterized by relatively
uniform surface cover, thus mitigating the impact on the classification accuracy.
However, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations of this study. The analysis
of the land cover changes solely relied on the results obtained from image classification,
without the inclusion of field investigations, which is a notable constraint. Practical lim-
itations prevented the conducting of fieldwork in this study. Nevertheless, credibility
was maintained by referencing previous geological surveys, utilizing historical images
from Google Earth, and leveraging expert knowledge to identify validation points derived
from remote sensing. Furthermore, the impact of different classification methods on the
classification results falls beyond the scope of this work.
In the study area, Landsat data spanning from 2003 to 2021 were utilized, providing
an extensive temporal coverage for the continuous interannual monitoring of vegetation
and facilitating the analysis of surface changes. Various Landsat satellite products were
employed to assess vegetation cover, and a simple mean processing approach was applied
to mitigate parameter errors arising from different satellite data. However, no additional
processing was undertaken to address potential streaks in the data. Furthermore, the
integration of other remote sensing data sources, such as synthetic aperture radar (SAR),
could be considered for supplementary information to enhance this type of study. Moreover,
the inclusion of nighttime data, thermal infrared data, or surface temperature data, which
offer different aspects of mine-related information, could further enhance the investigation
of mining area.
In the correlation analysis between the land cover and FVC, our main objective was to
examine the spatial and temporal changes in vegetation resulting from mining activities,
specifically distinguishing between pristine areas and replanted areas. However, it is im-
portant to note that this distinction alone cannot provide definitive evidence regarding the
underlying causes of vegetation changes. To obtain a more comprehensive understanding
and draw meaningful inferences, further field investigations are necessary, which can be
combined with the results obtained from our analysis.
Our findings suggest that the impacts of surface mining have led to land degradation,
but it is noteworthy that the vegetation has shown promising signs of reclamation efficiency
within a relatively short period of time. However, given the temporal evolution of the
vegetation, the linear trend observed within this limited timeframe might overestimate
the overall success of the reclamation efforts. The time frame examined in this study
only captures a short period of reclamation work, emphasizing the need for long-term
monitoring of the vegetation dynamics in the reclaimed areas. Future research should
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 3439 19 of 22

focus on assessing the long-term effects and sustainability of reclamation, as this holds
direct and significant implications for mining environment protection, land restoration,
and ecosystem reconstruction.

5. Conclusions
This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the Juhugeng mining area, provid-
ing a detailed examination of the mining activities and vegetation cover changes over a
significant period, from 2003 to 2021. By generating land cover maps and FVC coverage
maps for different years, we investigated the spatial and temporal dynamics of the mining
area, the impact on local vegetation due to mining, and the progress of land reclamation
efforts. The findings reveal a rapid expansion of the mining area and degradation of the
vegetation cover since the commencement of mining in 2003. Particularly noteworthy is
the period between 2009 and 2013, during which the mining development area more than
tripled, and this expansion continued until 2014. However, since 2014, the mining area
has stabilized while mining activities persist. Compliance with policy requirements led to
some land reclamation efforts, resulting in a substantial increase in vegetation cover within
a relatively short period of time.
This study serves as a compelling case study, providing valuable insights for future
environmental remediation endeavors in the Juhugeng area. By demonstrating the feasibil-
ity of employing multi-source remote sensing satellite imagery to monitor land cover and
vegetation changes, it provides a valuable reference for scholars and researchers who are
interested in mine management and reclamation assessment using remote sensing tech-
nology. The findings and methodology presented in this study contribute to the broader
understanding of the monitoring and evaluation of environmental impacts in mining areas,
paving the way for more effective and sustainable mine management practices in the future.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.H. and G.H.; methodology, F.H.; validation, F.H.; formal
analysis, F.H.; investigation, F.H.; resources, G.W. and Y.P.; data curation, F.H.; writing—original draft
preparation, F.H.; writing—review and editing, F.H., G.H. and Z.Z.; visualization, F.H.; supervision,
G.H.; project administration, G.H. and G.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research
Program (STEP), grant number 2019 QZKK030701; the Strategic Priority Research Program of the
Chinese Academy of Sciences, grant number XDA19090300; and the National Natural Science
Foundation of China, grant number 61731022.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the anonymous reviewers and the editors for their valuable
comments to improve our manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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