Earthquakes

Hazards
 OBJECTIVES:

01 02

Recall the background Identify various

on earthquake and potential earthquake
tectonic setting of the hazards
Philippines
 The Philippines is prone to many hazards.

Earthquake Earthquake Tsunami Volcanic Eruption

Typhoon Storm Surge Flood Landslide

 Earthquakes

is a weak to violent shaking of

the ground produced by the
sudden displacement of rocks
or rock materials below the
earth’s surface.
 Types of Earthquakes
Tectonic Volcanic
01 02
Earthquake Earthquake
Earthquakes that Earthquakes that
are produced by are produced by
sudden movement movement of
of rocks along magma beneath
faults and plate volcanoes or by an
boundaries. eruption.
 Anatomy of an Earthquake

Epicenter
- the point on the earth’s
surface vertically above
the focus of an
Fault earthquake

- refers to a fracture,
fissure or a zone of
weakness where
Hypocenter/Focus
movement or - is the position where
displacement has the strain energy stored
occurred or may occur in the rock is first
again released, marking the
point where the fault
begins to rupture.
 Anatomy of an Earthquakes

Intensity
- the severity of earthquake
shaking assessed using a
descriptive scale

Epicenter

Seismic
Waves

Hypocenter
Magnitude - quantitative measure of the size
of the earthquake at its source
 Describing the strength of an Earthquakes

Magnitude Earthquake
- Total amount of energy released. casualties
- Based on instrumentally derived
information. (Moment Magnitude Scale –
MMS)
- It is calculated from earthquakes recorded
by an instrument called seismograph.
- It is represented by Arabic Numbers (e.g.
4.8, 9.0).
 Describing the strength of an Earthquakes
Intensity
Earthquake
- the strength of an earthquake as perceived and
felt by people in a certain locality, casualties
- it is a numerical rating based on the relative
effects to people, objects, environment, and
structures in the surrounding.
- intensity is generally higher near the epicenter
- It is represented by Roman Numerals (e.g. II,
IV, IX)
- In the Philippines, the intensity of an
earthquake is determined using the
PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
Phivolcs Earthquake Intensity Scale
Plate Tectonics
Plate Movement

Three of the forces that have been

proposed as the main drivers of
tectonic plate movement are:
1. mantle convection currents
2. ridge push (buoyant upwelling
mantle at mid-ocean ridges)
3. slab pull
 Mid-ocean Ridge

Mid-Atlantic
East Ridge
Pacific
Rise
 East African Rift
a.k.a. Great Rift Valley

The mid-ocean ridge is an extensive

underwater mountain range resulting from the
constantly altering tectonic plates, heat, and
magma emitted from the earth’s core.
A rift valley is separating of land masses
Mid-Atlantic Ridge causing the ground to sink forming a valley.
Pacific Ring of Fire
Tectonic Setting of the Philippine Archipelago
 Earthquake Sources

Philippine Trench
North Luzon Trough
Manila Trench
Palawan-Mindoro Collision Zone
Negros Trench
Zamboanga-Western Mindanao
Collision Zone
Philippine Fault Zone and its many
branches
Many Active Faults (e.g. Valley Fault
System, Lubang, Tablas, Casiguran
and Mindanao Faults)
Earthquakes Activity in the Philippines
 5 Most Destructive Earthquakes in the Philippines

M7.8 1990 Luzon Earthquake M6.9 2012 Negros Oriental Earthquake

Death - 2,412 Deaths – 52
Collapsed Buildings - 48 Damaged roads Major Landslides
Landslides – “hundreds of thousands” Extensive damage to roads and highways
Beaches elevated 1.3m above sea level
 5 Most Destructive Earthquakes in the Philippines

M7.2 1990 Bohol Earthquake M7 2022 Abra Province

Death – 222 Deaths – 11
Missing - 976 Injured – 615 + 139 (October aftershock)
Damaged Houses – 14,512 IDP – 48,477
Knocked down 10 centuries old churches Damaged Houses – 24,547
IDP - 348,000 Damaged Health Facilities - 177
What are the hazards associated with earthquakes?
 Imagination is
more important
than knowledge.
- Albert Einstein
 Earthquakes Hazards
- include any physical
phenomenon associated with
an earthquake
- could happen during or after an
earthquake and that may affect
human activities
- generally classified into two: the
primary hazards and secondary
hazards
 Earthquake Associated Hazards

Ground Shaking Ground Shaking Liquefaction

23 19 12

Tsunami Earthquake-induced Landslide Fire

 Ground Shaking
- disruptive up, down and sideways vibration of the
ground during an earthquake
- happens if an earthquake generates a large enough
shaking intensity (Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale)
- can be a hazard or a trigger for other hazards such as
landslides or tsunamis
- (1) magnitude of the earthquake; (2) distance from the
epicenter; and (3) local geological conditions are
several factors that can affect the intensity of ground
shaking during an earthquake
 Ground Rupture
- also known as SURFACE RUPTURE
- occurs when movement on a fault breaks through
- may occur suddenly during an earthquake or slowly in
the form of fault creep
- almost always follows pre-existing faults
- trace on the ground surface can be a single rupture or
can consist of parallel, branching, or interlacing
fractures
- the width of which may vary from a few centimeters
to hundreds of meters
 Liquefaction
- occurs when unconsolidated, non-cohesive, water
saturated soil is affected by strong ground motion
- occurs during an earthquake with a magnitude of 4.5
and higher
- soil particles (sand and silt) shift and separate during
shaking this reduces the ability of the ground to
support the building and may cause buildings to sink
and foundations to separate
- areas that have groundwater close to the surface and
have soil which is sandy is more prone to liquefaction
Earthquake-Induced Landslide
- are a downward movement of geological materials
such as soil and rock because of inertial loading
which causes loss of strength in the slope
- contributing factors: over steepened slopes created
by erosion in rivers, glaciers or ocean waves; rock and
soil slopes weakened through saturations by heavy
rains; excess weight from accumulation of rain and
snow; weak slopes due to the stockpiling of rock or
ore from waste piles or from humanmade structures
 Tsunami
- Japanese word for harbor wave
- is a series of ocean waves that sends surges of water,
sometimes reaching heights of over 100 feet (30.5 m),
onto land, travel at as much as 900km/hr
- typically caused by large, undersea earthquakes at
tectonic plate boundaries
- two types of tsunamis;
a.) locally-generated tsunamis-caused by
earthquakes from nearby trenches
b.) far-field tsunamis-generated by earthquakes from
sources that are farther from the area of impact
 Seiche

- standing waves that are created in a closed or partially-closed body of water

such as lakes, reservoir, swimming pools and bays due to atmospheric and
seismic disturbance
- also has a to-and-fro motion (pendulum-like rocking of water ) that is produced
by a forcing motion on an enclosed body of water
- is a superposition of waves that travels the whole length of the water and then
reflected back to the opposite position
- waves are lower, less than 3 meters high
- Can cause structural damage and flooding in low-lying areas
 Flooding

- when tsunami hits the land, the water that remains

can flood the coastal areas
- when an earthquake breaks a dam, the water that
flows out can cause severe flooding on low-lying
areas
 Fire
- can be a result of a candle or lantern that are tipped
off during the earthquake or can also be because of
gas lines that leaked and sparks from broken electric
and utility wires
- movement can result in released flammable gases or
liquids and other combustible material coming into
contact with ignition sources, such as open flames or
electrical arcing
- can be a serious problem, especially if the water lines
that feed the fire hydrants are broken, too.
Earthquake Prediction
Can earthquake be predicted?
What’s the difference between a prediction and a forecast?
An earthquake forecast tells you the probability of a range of An earthquake prediction
must define 3 elements:
future earthquakes in a given region, 1) the date and time,
- how big the quakes may be-their magnitude 2) the location, and
3) the magnitude.
- how frequently they will occur over a specified time period
- the range of the intensity of ground-shaking from future
earthquakes
- through use of data from earthquake catalogues and
geological studies, combined with earthquake behavior
patterns and other knowledge such as geodetic models –
that use GPS networks to tell us how Earth’s surface is
under strain and moving as tectonic plates shift.
- multiple models are combined to form a single forecast
 Four Parameters Studied in an Earthquake
1. Earthquake Size
- earthquake magnitude, energy release, and
shaking intensity are all related measurements
of an earthquake size
2. Earthquake Attenuation
- is the decrease in the strength of a seismic wave as it
travels farther from its source
3. Earthquake Duration
- is the length of time in which ground motion at a site
exhibit shaking (higher M=longer duration)
4. Earthquake Site Response
- is the reaction of a specific point on the earth to ground
shaking
 Earthquake Preparation and Mitigation

Seismic Risk Assessment

- is defined as the evaluation of
potential economic losses, loss of
function, loss of confidence,
fatalities and injuries from
earthquake hazards
4 Steps Involved In Conducting Seismic Risk Assessment:

1. Evaluation of earthquake
hazards and prepare hazard
zoning maps
2. Inventory of the elements-at-
risk
3. Vulnerability assessment
4. Determination of levels of
acceptable risks
1. Evaluation of earthquake hazards
and prepare hazard zoning maps

- study earthquake-prone area based on past earthquakes and associated

seismic hazards, existing geologic and geophysical information and field
observations (MMIS)
- maps should show zones of hazards like ground shaking, surface faulting,
landslides, liquefaction and flooding and their relative severity
- maps should also show data with considerations on application of building
codes and the need for local landslide and flood protection
 ** Assessing Ground Shaking Potential
- ideal way to express ground shaking is in terms of response of
specific types of buildings {wood frame, single-story masonry, low-rise
(3-5 stories), moderate-rise (6-15 stories) or high-rise (more than 15
stories)
 ** Assessing Surface Rupture Potential
- there are 3 important factors to determine suitable mitigation
measure:
1. probability & extent of movement during a given time period
2. type of movement (normal, reverse, slip faulting)
3. distance from the fault in which damage is likely to occur

- active faulting and faulting maps should be prepared and kept

updated as new geologic and seismic information becomes
available
- land-use zoning & building restrictions should be prescribed for
areas in jeopardy
 ** Assessing Liquefaction Potential
- this is specific for earthquake-induced ground failures
- 4 steps to determine Liquefaction Potential:
1. map of recent sediments is prepared, distinguishing
areas that are like subject to liquefaction
2. map showing depth to groundwater is prepared
3. prepare a liquefaction susceptibility map (combination of 1 & 2)
4. prepare a liquefaction opportunity map(combination of
liquefaction susceptibility map & seismic data)
 2. Inventory of Elements at Risk

- is a determination of the spatial

distribution of the structures and
population exposed to the seismic
hazards

- lifelines and facilities for

emergency response and other
critical facilities are noted
3. Vulnerability Assessment

- this will measure the

susceptibility of a structure to
damage (by evaluating the
damage caused
by past earthquakes with known
intensity in the area of interest
and relating the results to
existing structures)
4. Assessing Risk and it’s Acceptability

- for any particular situation, planners and hazard experts working

together may be able to device alternative procedures that will identify
approximate risk and provide technical guidance to the political
decisions as to what levels are acceptable reduce the risk
Range of Mechanisms includes:

1. Land-use Planning and Zoning

2. Engineering Approaches (building codes,
strengthening of existing structures, stabilizing
unstable ground, redevelopment)
3. Establishment of Warning Systems
4. Distribution of Losses
 Land-use Planning and Zoning
- a powerful mitigation tool that is
systematic, future-oriented, decision-
oriented and proactive as it seek to
mitigate risks and vulnerability from
geological and other hazards.

- Pre-disaster Period : reduce

vulnerability and increase resilience by
undertaking mitigation and preparedness

- Disaster Period : facilitate emergency

response and relief operations

- Post-disaster Period : reconstruct in a

more sustainable manner and link
response and reconstruction to pre-
disaster development goals
 Engineering Approaches
RA 6541- AN ACT TO ORDAIN AND
INSTITUTE A NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF
THE PHILIPPINES , otherwise known as the
National Building Code of the Philippines
- purpose of this Code to provide for all
buildings and structured, a framework of
minimum standards and requirements by
guiding, regulating, and controlling their
location, siting, design, quality of materials,
construction, use, occupancy, and
maintenance, including their environment,
utilities, fixtures, equipment, and mechanical
electrical, and other systems and installations
to safeguard life, health, property, and public
welfare, consistent with the principles of
environmental management and control
 strengthening of existing structures

slope stabilization

stabilization of soil

redevelopment
Early Warning Systems
 Distribution of Losses/Risk Transfer
Risk transfer is a risk management and control
strategy that involves the transfer of future risks
from one person to another.
- purpose is to pass the financial liability of risks,
like legal expenses, damages awarded and repair
costs, to the party who should be responsible
should an accident or injury occur on the
business's property thus limiting the exposure of
individual people or organizations to
catastrophic losses due to disaster events.
 What plants teach us
about earthquake prevention

This tree cannot flee from an earthquake: its structure

has to withstand it. Plants respond by…
- bending or deforming in the face of outside forces
- without breaking
- and recovering its structural integrity once the
external force or pressure disappears.
 Studies have shown that plants can
withstand the stress because of
their highly resilient cell blocks. Of
special importance is the way in
which they are joined together by
their cell walls which allows a
certain flexibility.

When strong forces (wind, an earthquake, an animal) impact against a plant, the plant is
capable of absorbing a large part of the energy because of the way plant cells slide over one
another. Deformation or bending of the cell wall, amongst other factors, works as it should
and allows it to dissipate a large part of the energy released by an earthquake.
 Tokyo Skytree tower is one of the world’s tallest buildings
and is believed to be totally earthquake-proof.

Japan is a country that has been able

to apply learning from plants to its
buildings. Japan's buildings are among
the world's most durable –
and their secret lies in their ability to
dance as the ground moves beneath
them.
Shinjuku Mitsui Building
 What plants teach us
about earthquake prevention

Studies have also shown that roots of plants and trees

naturally disperse seismic waves to reduce the effects
of an earthquake. At the same time pressure and
vibrations are released upwards through tree tops and
so experts recommend planting trees near buildings in
quake-prone areas to minimize damage
Nature provides many technological solutions we can learn from, the way it builds tiny
solar panels (leaves) or cleans up air pollution (photosynthesis). All we have to do is
to observe and listen.
TAMMY SALOME BERANGO-MOLATO, RN, LPT